A  i\E\\  HISTORY  OF  THI-  UNITED  STATES 


The  Greater  Republic 


EMBRACING 


THE  GKOWTH  AND  ACHIEVEMENTS  OP  OUR  COUNTRY  FROM  THE 

EARLIEST  DAYS  OP  DISCOVERY  AND  SETTLEMENT 

TO  THE  PRESENT  EVENTFUL  YEAR 


SHOWING    HOW    PROM    THIRTEEN    COLONIES    WITH  A    SCATTERED    I'OFtLATION    ALONG    THE 

ATLANTIC    COAST    A    GREAT    REPUBLIC    HAS    BEEN    FORMED,    EMBRACING 

FORTY-FIVE  STATES  WITH   75,000,000  INHABITANTS  AND  VAST 

COLONIAL  FOSSESSIONS    IN    TWO    HEMISPHERES 


By  CHARLES  MORRIS,  LL.  D. 

it 

Author  of  "  Decisive  Events  in  American  History."  "  Half  Hours  with  the  Best  American  Authors. 
"  An  Historical  Review  of  Civilization,"  Etc.,  Etc. 


Embellished  With  Over  300  New  Engravings 

ILLUSTRATING  ALL  THAT  IS  INTERESTING  AND  INSPIRING   IN  OUR   HISTORt 


LOAN  STACK 


r^wrrd  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  ye«r  (899.  by  | 

!»'.  K.  SCULI^  g 

in  the  oflic*  of  the  Lrt.rarian  of  ConKrrss.  at  Washington. 


v  t  t  cc  c-r  c  t     ^  --   '    ••  i  --.:--=--  =  =--5"--=  ^ 


PUBLISHERS'  INTRODUCTION. 


THE  late  war  with  Spain  marks  a  momentous  epoch  in  the  progress  of  our 
country,  whose  history,  stretching  through  the  centuries  of  discovery,  explora 
tion,  settlement,  the  struggle  for  independence,  foreign  and  domestic  war,  lofty 
achievement  in  all  departments  of  knowledge  and  progress,  is  the  most  interest 
ing  in  human  annals.  It  is  a  record  full  of  instruction  and  incitement  to 
endeavor,  which  must  fill  every  American  with  pride  in  his  birthright,  and 
with  gratitude  to  Him  who  holds  the  earth  and  the  sea  in  the  hollow  of  His 
hand. 

The  following  pages  contain  a  complete,  accurate,  and  graphic  history  of  our 
country  from  the  first  visit  of  the  Northmen,  a  thousand  years  ago,  to  the  open 
ing  of  its  new  destiny,  through  the  late  struggle,  resulting  in  the  freeing  of 
Cuba,  the  wresting  of  the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Ladrones  from 
the  tyranny  of  the  most  cruel  of  modern  nations,  and  the  addition  of  Hawaii 
to  our  domain.  The  Greater  United  States,  at  one  bound,  assumes  its  place 
in  the  van  of  nations,  and  becomes  the  foremost  agent  in  civilizing  and 
christianizing  the  world. 

The  task,  long  committed  to  England,  Germany,  France,  Russia,  and  later 
to  Japan,  must  henceforth  be  shared  with  us,  whose  glowing  future  gives  promise 
of  the  crowning  achievement  of  the  ages.  With  a  fervent  trust  in  a  guiding 
Providence,  and  an  abiding  confidence  in  our  ability,  we  enter  upon  the  new 


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420 


6  PUBLISHERS'  INTRODUCTION. 

and  grander  career,  as  in  obedience  to  the  divine  behest  that  the  Latin  race  must 
decrease  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  increase,  and  that  the  latter,  in  a  human  sense, 
must  be  the  regenerator  of  all  who  are  groping  in  the  night  of  ignorance  and 
barbarism. 

It  is  a  wonderful  story  that  is  traced  in  the  pages  that  follow.  A  compre 
hension  of  the  present  and  of  the  promise  of  the  future  necessitates  an  under 
standing  of  the  past.  The  history  of  the  Greater  United  States,  therefore,  is 
complete,  from  the  first  glimpse,  in  the  early  morning  of  October  12,  1492,  of 
San  Salvador  by  Columbus,  through  the  settlement  of  the  colonies,  their  struggles 
for  existence,  the  colonial  wars,  the  supreme  contest  between  England  and 
France  for  mastery  in  the  New  World,  the  long  gloom  of  the  Revolution  that 
brought  independence,  the  founding  of  the  Republic,  in  1787,  the  growth  and 
expansion  of  the  nation,  the  mighty  War  for  the  Union  that  united  the  divided 
house  and  planted  it  upon  a  rock,  and  the  later  "  war  for  humanity,"  when  the 
perishing  islands,  stretching  their  hands  to  us  in  helpless  anguish,  were 
gathered  under  the  flag  of  freedom,  there  to  remain  through  all  time  to  come. 

There  have  been  many  leaders  in  this  great  work.  Not  the  story  of  the 
deeds  alone,  but  of  those  who  performed  them  is  told.  History,  biography,  and 
all  that  is  interesting  and  profitable  to  know  are  here  truthfully  set  forth,  for 
their  lesson  is  one  whose  value  is  beyond  measurement. 

In  addition  to  the  history  of  that  which  was  simply  the  United  States,  a 
complete  account  is  given  of  our  new  colonial  possessions,  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico, 
the  Philippines,  the  Ladrones,  and  of  Cuba,  the  child  of  our  adoption.  Their 
geography,  their  soil,  climate,  productions,  inhabitants,  and  capabilities  are  set 
forth  with  fullness  and  accuracy. 

In  conclusion,  the  publishers  confidently  claim  that  "  The  Greater  Repub 
lic  "  is  the  fullest,  most  interesting,  reliable,  and  instructive  work  of  the  kind 
3ver  offered  the  public. 


"I  AM  READY  FOR  ANY  SERVICE  THAT  I  CAN  GIVE  MY  COUNTRY" 

In  1798  our  Government  was  about  to  declare  war  against  France.     Congress  appointed  Wachinrtnn  commander-in-chief 

of  t.ie  American  Army.     The  Secretary  of  War  carried  *he  commission  in  person  to  Mt.  Vernon      The  olci 

hero,  sitting  on  his  horse  !n  .he  harves*  field,  accepted   n  ^h--  above  patriotic  words. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTEE  I. 
DISCOVERY    AND    EXPLORATION. 

PAGE 

The  Visits  of  the  Northmen  to  the  New  World — The  Indians  and  Mound  Builders — Christopher  Co 
lumbus — His  Discovery  of  America — Amerigo  Vespucci — John  Cabot — Spanish  Explorers — Bal 
boa — His  Discovery  of  the  Pacific — Magellan — Ponce  de  Leon — De  Narvaez — De  Soto — Men- 
endez — French  Explorers — Verrazzani — Cartier — Ribault — Laudonniere — Cham  plain — La  Salle 
— English  Explorers — Sir  Hugh  Willoughby— Martin  Frobisher — Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert— Sir 
Walter  Raleigh— The  Lost  Colony— Dutch  Explorer— Henry  Hudson 33 

CHAPTER  II. 

SETTLEMENT  OK  THE  THIRTEEN   ORIGINAL 

STATES. 

Virginia, — Founding  of  Jamestown — Captain  John  Smith — Introduction  of  African  Slavery — Indian 
Wars — Bacon's  Rebellion — Forms  of  Government — Prosperity — Education — New  England, — 
Plymouth — Massachusetts  Bay  Colony — Union  of  the  Colonies — Religious  Persecution — King 
Philip's  War — The  Witchcraft  Delusion — New  Hampshire, — The  Connecticut  Colony, — The 
New  Haven  Colony, — Union  of  the  Colonies — Indian  Wars — The  Charter  Oak — Rhode  Island, 
— Different  Forms  of  Government— New  York,— The  Dutch  and  English  Settlers— New  Jersey^ 
— Delaware, — Pennsylvania, — Maryland, — Mason  and  Dixon's  Line — The  Carolinas, — Georgia  47 

CHAPTER   III. 

THE    INTERCOLONIAL   \VARS    AND   THE    FRENCH 

AND    INDIAN    \VAR. 

King  William's  War— Queen  Anne's  War— King  George's  War— The  French  and  Indian  War- 
England  and  France  Rivals  in  the  Old  World  and  the  New— The  Early  French  Settlements— 
The  Disputed  Territory— France's  Fatal  Weakness— Washington's  Journey  Through  the 
Wilderness— The  First  Fight  of  the  War— The  War  Wholly  American  for  Two  Years— The 
Braddock  Massacre— The  Great  Change  Wrought  by  William  Pitt— Fall  of  Quebec— Moment 
ous  Consequences  of  the  Great  English  Victory— The  Growth  and  Progress  of  the  Colonies 
and  their  Home  Life  ...  .......  75 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    REVOLUTION— THE:    \VAR    IN    NE\V 

ENQLAND. 

Causes  of  the  Revolution— The  Stamp  Act— The  Boston  Tea  Party— England's  Unbearable  Meas 
ures—The  First  Continental  Congress— The  Boston  Massacre— Lexington  and  Concord— The 
Second  Continental  Congress— Battle  of  Bunker  Hill— Assumption  of  Command  by  Washington  • 

— British  Evacuation  of  Boston— Disastrous  Invasion  of  Canada 89 

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8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   V. 

THE     REVOLUTION     (CONTINUED).      THE    \VAR     IN 
THE    MIDDLE    STATES    AND    ON   THE   SEA. 

PAGB 

Declaration  of  Independence— The  American  Flag— Battle  of  Long  Island— Washington's  Retreat 
Through  the  Jerseys— Trenton  and  Princeton— In  Winter  Quarters— Lafayette— Brandywine  and 
Germantown— At  Valley  Forge— Burgoyne's  Campaign— Fort  Schuyler  and  Bennington— 
Bemis  Heights  and  Stillwater— The  Conway  Cabal— Aid  from  France— Battle  of  Monmouth— 
Molly  Pitcher — Failure  of  French  Aid— Massacre  at  Wyoming— Continental  Money— Stony 
Point— Treason  of  Arnold— Paul  Jones'  Great  Victory  .  .103 

CHAPTER  VI. 
THE    REVOLUTION    IN     THE    SOUTH   (CONCLUDED). 

Capture  of  Savannah— British  Conquest  of  Georgia— Fall  of  Charleston— Bitter  Warfare  in  South 
Carolina— Battle  of  Camden— Of  King's  Mountain— Of  the  Cowpens— Battle  of  Guilford  Court- 
House—Movements  of  Cornwallis— The  Final  Campaign— Peace  and  Independence  .  .  131 

CHAPTEE  VII. 
ORGANIZATION    OK    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

^ie  Method  of  Government  During  the  Revolution — Impending  Anarchy— The  State  Boundaries- 
State  Cessions  of  Land — Shays'  Rebellion — Adoption  of  the  Constitution— Its  Leading  Fea 
tures—The  Ordinance  of  1787— Formation  of  Parties— Election  of  the  First  President  and  Vice- 
President 143 

CHAPTEE  VIII. 

ADMINISTRATIONS    OK    \VASHINOTON,  JOHN 
ADAIV1S,    AND   JEKKERSON— 1789-18O9, 

Washington— His  Inauguration  as  First  President  of  the  United  States— Alexander  Hamilton— His 
Success  at  the  Head  of  the  Treasury  Department— The  Obduracy  of  Rhode  Island— Establish 
ment  of  the  United  States  Bank— Passage  of  a  Tariff  Bill— Establishment  of  a  Mint— The  Plan 
of  a  FederalJudiciary— Admission  of  Vermont,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee— Benjamin  Franklin — 
Troubles  with  the  Western  Indians— Their  Defeat  by  General  Wayne— Removal  of  the  National 
Capital  Provided  for— The  Whiskey  Insurrection— The  Course  of  "Citizen  Genet  "-Jay's 
Treaty— Re-election  of  Washington— Resignation  of  Jefferson  and  Hamilton— Washington's 
Farewell  Address— Establishment  of  the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point— The 
Presidential  Election  of  1796— John  Adams— Prosperity  of  the  Country— Population  of  the  Country 
in  1 790— Invention  of  the  Cotton  Gin— Troubles  with  France— War  on  the  Ocean— Washington 
Appointed  Com mander-in-Chief— Peace  Secured— The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws— The  Census  of 
1800— The  Presidential  Election  of  1800— The  Twelfth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution— Thomas 
Jefferson— Admission  of  Ohio— The  Indiana  Territory— The  Purchase  of  Louisiana— Its  Im 
mense  Area— Abolishment  of  the  Slave  Trade— War  with  Tripoli— The  Lewis  and  Clark  Ex 
pedition—Alexander  Hamilton  Killed  in  a  Duel  by  Aaron  Burr— The  First  Steamboat  on  the 
'  Hudson— The  First  Steamer  to  Cross  the  Atlantic— England's  Oppressive  Course  Toward  the 
United  States— Outrage  by  the  British  Ship  Leander— The  Affair  of  the  Leopard  and  Chesa 
peake—  Passage  of  the  Embargo  Act— The  Presidential  Election  of  1808 153 


CONTENTS.  9 

CHAPTER   IX. 

ADMINISTRATIONS    OK    MADISON,    18O9-1817. 
THE    \VAR    OK    1812. 

°AQl 

James  Madison— The  Embargo  and  the  Non-Intercourse  Acts— Revival  of  the  Latter  Against  Eng-* 
land— The  Little  Belt  and  the  President—  Population  of  the  United  States  in  1810— Battle  of 
Tippecanoe— Declaration  of  War  Against  England— Comparative  Strength  of  the  Two  Nations 
on  the  Ocean— Unpopularity  of  the  War  in  New  England— Preparations  Made  by  the  Govern 
ment—Cowardly  Surrender  of  Detroit— Presidential  Election  of  1812— Admission  of  Louisiana 
and  Indiana — New  National  Bank  Chartered — Second  Attempt  to  Invade  Canada — Battle  of 
Queenstown  Heights — Inefficiency  of  the  American  Forces  in  1812 — Brilliant  Work  of  the 
Navy — The  Constitution  and  the  Guerrtire — The  Wasp  and  the  Frolic — The  United  States  and 
the  Macedonian — The  Constitution  and  the  Java — Reorganization  and  Strengthening  of  the 
Army— Operations  in  the  West— Gallant  Defense  of  Fort  Stephenson— American  Invasion  of 
Ohio  and  Victory  of  the  Thames — Indian  Massacre  at  Fort  Mimnis — Capture  of  York  (Toronto) 
— Defeat  of  the  Enemy  at  Sackett's  Harbor — Failure  of  the  American  Invasion  of  Canada — The 
Hornet  and  Peacock — Capture  of  the  Chesapeake — "Don't  Give  Up  the  Ship" — Captain 
Decatur  Blockaded  at  New  London — Capture  of  the  Argus  by  the  Enemy — Cruise  of  the  Essex 
— The  Glorious  Victory  of  Commodore  Perry  on  Lake  Erie — Success  of  the  American  Arms 
in  Canada — Battle  of  the  Chippewa — Of  Lundy's  Lane — Decisive  Defeat  of  the  Enemy's 
Attack  on  Plattsburg — Punishment  of  the  Creek  Indians  for  the  Massacre  at  Fort  Mimms — 
Vigorous  Action  by  the  National  Government — Burning  of  Washington  by  the  British — 
The  Hartford  Convention  .  181 

CHAPTER   X. 

ADMINISTRATIONS    OK   JAMES    MONROE    AND 
JOHN    QUINCY    ADAMS,    1817-1829. 

James  Monroe — The  "Era  of  Good  Feeling" — The  Seminole  War — Vigorous  Measures  of 
General  Jackson — Admission  of  Mississippi,  Illinois,  Alabama,  Maine,  and  Missouri — The 
Missouri  Compromise — The  Monroe  Doctrine — Visit  of  Lafayette — Introduction  of  the  Use  of 
Gas— Completion  of  the  Erie  Canal— The  First  "  Hard  Times  "—Extinction  of  the  West  Indian 
Pirates— Presidential  Election  of  1824— John  Quincy  Adams— Prosperity  of  the  Country— In 
troduction  of  the  Railway  Locomotive — Trouble  witii  he  Cherokees  in  Georgia — Death  of 
Adams  and  Jefferson— Congressional  Action  on  the  Tariff— Presidential  Election  of  1828  .  .  205 

CHAPTER  XL 

ADMINISTRATIONS      OK     JACKSON,    VAN      BUREN, 
W.    H.    HARRISON,    AND    TYLER,    1829-1845. 

Andrew  Jackson— " To  the  Victors  Belong  the  Spoils"— The  President's  Fight  with  the  United 
States  Bank— Presidential  Election  of  1828— Distribution  of  the  Surplus  in  the  United  States 
Treasury  Among  the  Various  States— The  Black  Hawk  War— The  Nullification  Excitement— 
The  Seminole  War— Introduction  of  the  Steam  Locomotive— Anthracite  Coal,  McCormick's 
Reaper,  and  Friction  Matches— Great  Fire  in  New  York— Population  of  the  United  States  in 
1830— Admission  of  Arkansas  and  Michigan— Abolitionism— France  and  Portugal  Compelled 
to  Pay  their  Debts  to  the  United  States— The  Specie  Circular,  John  Caldwell  Calhoun,  Henry 
Clay,  -and  Daniel  Webster— Presidential  Election  of  1836— Martin  Van  Buren— The  Panic  of 
1837— Rebellion  in  Canada— Population  of  the  United  States  in  1840— Presidential  Election  of  1840 
—William  Henry  Harrison— His  Death— John  Tyler— His  Unpopular  Course— The  Webster- 
Ashburton  Treaty— Civil  War  in  Rhode  Island— The  Anti-rent  War  in  New  York— A  Shock- 


10  CONTENTS. 

PACK 

ing  Accident — Admission  of  Florida — Revolt  of  Texas  Against  Mexican  Rule — The  Alamo — 
San  Jaciuto — The  Question  of  the  Annexation  of  Texas — The  State  Admitted — The  Copper 
Mines  of  Michigan — Presidential  Election  of  1844 — The  Electro-magnetic  Telegraph — Professor 
Morse — His  Labors  in  Bringing  the  Invention  to  Perfection 215 

CHAPTER  XII. 

KAMOUS    PRESIDENTIAL    CAMPAIGNS   PREVIOUS 

TO    1840. 

The  Origin  of  the  "  Caucus" — The  Election  of  1792— The  First  Stormy  Election— The  Constitution 
Amended — Improvement  of  the  Method  of  Nominating  Presidential  Candidates — The  First 
Presidential  Convention— Convention  in  Baltimore  in  1832— Exciting  Scenes— The  Presidential 
Campaign  of  1820— "Old  Hickory" — Andrew  Jackson's  Popularity— Jackson  Nominated— 
"OldHickory"  Defeated— The  "Log-Cabin  "  and  "  Hard-Cider"  Campaign  of  1840— "  Tippe- 
canoe  and  Tyler  Too  " — Peculiar  Feature  of  the  Harrison  Campaign 239 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

ADMINISTRATION    OK    POLK,    1845-1849. 

James  K.  Polk—  TheWar with  Mexico— The  First  Conflict— Battle  ofResaca  de  la  Palma— Vigorous 
Action  of  the  United  States  Government — General  Scott's  Plan  of  Campaign — Capture  of 
Monterey — An  Armistice — Capture  of  Saltillo — Of  Victoria — Of  Tampico — General  Kearny's 
Capture  of  Santa  Fe — Conquest  of  California — Wonderful  March  of  Colonel  Doniphan — Battle 
of  Buena  Vista — General  Scott's  March  Toward  the  City  of  Mexico — Capture  of  Vera  Cruz — 
American  Victory  at  Cerro  Gordo — Five  American  Victories  in  One  Day — Santa  Anna — Con 
quest  of  Mexico  Completed — Terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace — The  New  Territory  Gained — The 
Slavery  Dispute— The  Wilmot  Proviso— "Fifty-Four  Forty  or  Fight" — Adjustment  of  the 
Oregon  Boundary — Admission  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin — The  Smithsonian  Institute — Discovery 
of  Gold  in  California— The  Mormons— The  Presidential  Election  of  1848 251 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

ADMINISTRATIONS    OK    TAYLOR,    EILLIVLORE, 
FIERCE,    AND    BUCHANAN,    1849-1857. 

achary  Taylor— The  "Irrepressible  Conflict  "  in  Congress— The  Omnibus  Bill— Death  of  President 
Taylor— Millard  Fillm ore— Death  of  the  Old  Leaders  and  Debut  of  the  New— The  Census  of 
1850— Surveys  for  a  Railway  to  the  Pacific— Presidential  Election  of  1852— Franklin  Pierce — 
Death  of  Vice- President  King — A  Commerical  Treaty  Made  with  Japan — Filibustering  Ex 
peditions—The  Ostend  Manifesto— The  "Know  Nothing"  Party— The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill 
and  Repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  ...  269 

CHAPTER  XV. 

ADMINISTRATION    OK    LINCOLN,    1861-1865 
THE    \VAR    KOR    THE    UNION,    1861. 

Abraham  Lincoln— Major  Anderson's  Trying  Position— Jefferson  Davis— Inauguration  of  Presi 
dent  Lincoln— Bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter— War  Preparations  North  and  South — Attack  on 
Union  Troops  in  Baltimore— Situation  of  the  Border  States— Unfriendliness  of  England  and 
France— Friendship  of  Russia— The  States  that  Composed  the  Southern  Confederacy — Union 
Disaster  at  Big  Bethel— Success  of  the  Union  Campaign  in  Western  Virginia— General  George 


CONTENTS.  11 


PAGB 


B.  McClellan— First  Battle  of  Bull  Run— General  McClellan  Called  to  the  Command  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac— Union  Disaster  at  Ball's  Bluff— Military  Operations  in  Missouri— Battle 
of  Wilson's  Creek — Defeat  of  Colonel  Mulligan  at  Lexington,  Mo. — Supersedure  of  Fremont — 
Operations  on  the  Coast — The  Trent  Affair — Summary  of  the  Year's  Operations  .  .  .  285 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

ADMINISTRATION    OK    LINCOLN    (CONTINUED), 

1861-1865. 

WAR    FOR    THE    UNION    (CONTINUED;,    1862, 

Capture  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson — Change  in  the  Confederate  Line  of  Defense — Capture  of 
Island  No.  10 — Battle  of  Pittsburg  Landing  or  Shiloh — Capture  of  Corinth — Narrow  Escape  of 
Louisville — Battle  of  Perryville — Battle  of  Murfreesboro'  or  Stone  River — Battle  of  Pea  Ridge 
— Naval  Battle  Between  the  Monitor  and  Merrimac — Fate  of  the  Two  Vessels — Capture  of  New 
Orleans — The  Advance  Against  Richmond — McClellan's  Peninsula  Campaign — The  First  Con 
federate  Invasion  of  the  North — Battle  of  Antietam  or  Sharpsburg — Disastrous  Union  Repulse 
at  tredericksburg — Summary  of  the  War's  Operations — The  Confederate  Privateers — The 
Emancipation  Proclamation — Greenbacks  and  Bond  Issues  .......  301 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

ADMINISTRATION    OK    LINCOLN    (CONTINUED), 

1861-1865. 

\VAR    FOR    THE    UNION    (CONTINUED),    1863. 

The  Military  Situation  in  the  West — Siege  and  Capture  of  Vicksburg — The  Mississippi  Opened — 
Battle  of  Chickaniauga — "  The  Rock  of  Chickamauga  " — The  Battle  Above  the  Clouds — Siege  of 
Knoxville — General  Hooker  Appointed  to  the  Command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac — His 
Plan  of  Campaign  Against  Richmond — Stonewall  Jackson's  Stampede  of  the  Eleventh  Corps — 
Critical  Situation  of  the  Union  Army — Death  of  Jackson — Battle  of  Chancellorsville — Defeat  of 
Hooker — The  Second  Confederate  Invasion — Battle  of  Gettysburg — The  Decisive  Struggle  of  the 
War — Lee's  Retreat — Subsequent  Movements  of  Lee  and  Meade — Confederate  Privateering — 
Destruction  of  the  Nashville — Failure  of  the  Attacks  on  Charleston — The  Military  Raids — 
Stuart's  Narrow  Escape— Stoneman's  Raid— Morgan's  Raid  in  Indiana  and  Ohio  .  .  .333 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 

ADMINISTRATION    OK    LINCOLN    (CONCLUDED), 

1861-1865. 

WAR    FOR    THE    UNION    (CONCLUDED),   1864-1865. 

The  Work  Remaining  to  be  Done— General  Grant  Placed  in  Command  of  all  the  Union  Armies— 
The  Grand  Campaign— Bank's  Disastrous'  Red  River  Expedition— How  the  Union  Fleet  was 
Saved— Capture  of  Mobile  by  Admiral  Farragut— The  Confederate  Cruisers— Destruction  of  the 
Alabama  by  the  Kearsa.rae— Fate  of  the  Other  Confederate  Cruisers— Destruction  of  the  Albe- 
marle  by  Lieutenant  William  B.  Cushing— Re-election  of  President  Lincoln— Distress  in  the 
South  and  Prosperity  in  the  North— The  Union  Prisoners  in  the  South— Admission  of  Nevada— 
The  Confederate  Raids  from  Canada— Sherman's  Advance  to  Atlanta— Fall  of  Atlanta— Hood's 
Vain  Attempt  to  Relieve  Georgia— Superb  Success  of  General  Thomas— "  Marching  Through 
Georgia"— Sherman's  Christmas  Gift  to  President  Lincoln— Opening  of  Grant's  Final  Cam 
paign—Battles  in  the  Wilderness— Wounding  of  General  Longstreet  and  Death  of  Generals 


12  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Stuart  and  Sedgwick — Grant's  Flanking  Movements  Against  Lee — A  Disastrous  Repulse  at  Cold 
Harbor — Defeat  of  Sigel  and  Hunter  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley — "  Bottling-up  "  of  Butler — 
Explosions  of  the  Petersburg  Mine — Early' s  Raids — His  Final  Defeat  by  Sheridan — Grant's 
Campaign — Surrender  of  Lee — Assassination  of  President  Lincoln — Death  of  Booth  and  Pun 
ishment  of  the  Conspirators — Surrender  of  Jo  Johnston  and  Collapse  of  the  Southern  Con 
federacy — Capture  of  Jefferson  Davis — His  Release  and  Death — Statistics  of  the  Civil  War — 
A  Characteristic  Ancedote  ...  367 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

ADMINISTRATIONS    OK   JOHNSON    AND    QRANT, 

1865-1877. 

Andrew  Johnson — Reconstruction — Quarrel  Between  the  President  and  Congress — The  Fenians — 
Execution  of  Maximilian — Admission  of  Nebraska — Laying  of  the  Atlantic  Cable — Purchase 
of  Alaska — Impeachment  and  Acquittal  of  the  President — Carpet-bag  Rule  in  the  South — Presi 
dential  Election  of  1868 — U.  S.  Grant — Settlement  of  the  Alabama  Claims — Completion  of  the 
Overland  Railway — The  Chicago  Fire — Settlement  of  the  Northwestern  Boundary — Presidential 
Election  of  1872 — The  Modoc  Troubles — Civil  War  in  Louisiana — Admission  of  Colorado — 
Panic  of  1873 — Notable  Deaths — Custer's  Massacre — The  Centennial — The  Presidential  Election 
of  1876  the  Most  Perilous  in  the  History  of  the  Country 407 


CHAPTER  XX. 

ADMINISTRATIONS     OK    HAYES,    QAREIELD,    AND 

ARTHUR,    1877-1885. 

R.  B.  Hayes— The  Telephone— Railway  Strikes— Elevated  Railroads— War  with  the  Nez  Perce 
Indians — Reinonetization  of  Silver — Resumption  of  Specie  Payments — A  Strange  Fishery  Award 
—The  Yellow  Fever  Scourge — Presidential  Election  of  1878 — James  A.  Garfield — Civil  Service 
Reform — Assassination  of  President  Garfield — Chester  A.  Arthur — The  Star  Route  Frauds — 
The  Brooklyn  Bridge — The  Chinese  Question — The  Mormons — Alaska  Exploration — The  York- 
town  Centennial— Attempts  to  Reach  the  North  Pole  by  Americans— History  of  the  Greely  Ex 
pedition  427 


CHAPTER  XXL 

ADMINISTRATION     OK    CLEVELAND     (KIRST)    AND 
OK    HARRISON,    1885-1893. 

Grover  Cleveland — Completion  of  the  Washington  Monument — The  Bartholdi  Statue — Death  of 
General  Grant — Death  of  Vice-President  Hendricks — The  First  Vice-President  to  Die  in  Office 
— George  Clinton — Elbridge  Gerry-^William  R.  King — Henry  Wilson — Death  of  General 
McClellan — Of  General  Hancock — His  Career — The  Dispute  Between  Capital  and  Labor — 
Arbitration — The  Anarchistic  Outbreak  in  Chicago — The  Charleston  Earthquake — Conquest  of 
the  Apaches — Presidential  Election  of  1888 — Benjamin  Harrison — The  Johnstown  Disaster — 
Threatened  War  with  Chili— The  Indian  Uprising  of  1890-91— Admission  of  New  States- 
Presidential  Election  of  1892  .  459 


CONTENTS.  13 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

ADMINISTRATION    OP^    CLEVELAND    (SECOND), 

1893-1897. 

Repeal  of  the  Purchase  Clause  of  the  Sherman  Bill— The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago 
—The  Hawaiian  Imbroglio— The  Great  Railroad  Strike  of  1894— Coxey's  Commonweal  Army 
—Admission  of  Utah— Harnessing  of  Niagara— Dispute  with  England  Over  Venezuela's  Bound 
ary—Presidential  Election  of  1896.  ...  .487 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

ADMINISTRATION    OK    CLEVELAND    (SECOND, 
CONCLUDED),    1893-1897. 

Settling  the  Northwest — The  Face  of  the  Country  Transformed — Clearing  Away  the  Forests  and 
its  Effects— Tree-planting  on  the  Prairies— Pioneer  Life  in  the  Seventies— The  Granary  of  the 
World — The  Northwestern  Farmer — Transportation  and  Other  Industries — Business  Cities  and 
Centres — United  Public  Action  and  its  Influence — The  Indian  Question — Other  Elements  of 
Population — Society  and  General  Culture  ....  ...  .511 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 

ADMINISTRATION    OK    IVlcKINLEY,    1897-19O1. 

• 

William  McKinley — Organization  of  ''Greater  New  York" — Removal  of  General  Grant's  Remains 
to  Morningside  Park — The  Klondike  Gold  Excitement — Spain's  Misrule  in  Cuba — Preliminary 
Events  of  the  Spanish-American  War  . 527 

CHAPTER   XXV. 

ADMINISTRATION      OK      McKINLEY      ^CONTINUED), 

1897-19O1. 

THE    SPANISH-AMERICAN    \VAR. 

Opening  Incidents— Bombardment  of  Matanzas— Dewey's  Wonderful  Victory  at  Manila— Disaster 
to  the  Winslow  at  Cardenas  Bay — The  First  American  Loss  of  Life — Bombardment  of  San 
Juan,  Porto  Rico— The  Elusive  Spanish  Fleet— Bottled-up  in  Santiago  Harbor— Lieutenant 
Hobson's  Daring  Exploit— Second  Bombardment  of  Santiago  and  Arrival  of  the  Army — Gallant 
WTork  of  the  Rough  Riders  and  the  Regulars— Battles  of  San  Juan  and  El  Caney— Destruc 
tion  of  Cervera's  Fleet — General  Shafter  Reinforced  in  Front  of  Santiago — Surrender  of  the 
City— General  Miies  in  Porto  Rico— An  Easy  Conquest— Conquest  of  the  Philippines— Peace 
Negotiations  and  Signing  of  the  Protocol— Its  Terms— Members  of  the  National  Peace  Com 
mission—Return  of  the  Troops  from  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico— The  Peace  Commission  in  Paris- 
Conclusion  of  its  Work— Terms  of  the  Treaty— Ratified  by  the  Senate 547 


14 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


ADMINISTRATION 


OK     McKINLEY 
1897-19O1 


(CONTINUED), 


OUR     NEW     POSSESSIONS, 


The  Islands  of  Hawaii— Their  Inhabitants  and  Products— City  of  Honolulu— History  of  Cuba— The 
Ten  Years'  War— The  Insurrection  of  1 895-98— Geography  and  Productions  of  Cuba— Its  Cli 
mate—History  of  Porto  Rico— Its  People  and  Productions— San  Juan  and  Ponce— Location, 
Discovery,  and  History  of  the  Philippines— Insurrections  of  the  Filipinos— City  of  Manila- 
Commerce— Philippine  Productions— Climate  and  Volcanoes— Dewey  at  Manila— The  Ladrone 
Islands — Conclusion 


587 


List  of  Illustrations. 


Amerigo  Vespucci, 

Meeting  Between  the  Northmen  and  Natives, 

Sebastian  Cabot, 

Columbus  and  the  Egg, 

An   Indian  Council  of  War, 

"  The  Broiling  of  Fish  Over  the  Fire," 
Indian  Village  Enclosed  with  Palisades, 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh 

Seal  of  the  Virginia   Company 

Armor  Worn  by  the  Pilgrims  in  1620.     .     . 

Landing  of  Myles  Standish, 

Roger  Williams  in  Banishment.  .... 
Primitive  Mode  of  Grinding  Corn,  .  .  . 
Friends'  Meeting- House,  Burlington,  N.  J.,  . 
Moravian  Easter  Service,  Bethlehem.  Pa.. 

Colonial  Plow — 1706, 

Ancient  Horseshoes, 

A  Colonial  Flax- wheel 

Silk -winding, 

A  Comfortier,  or  Chafing  Dish 

Early  Days  in  New  England, 

Places  of  Worship  in  New  York  in  1742.  . 
Attack  on  Rioters,  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1 786. 
Young  Washington  Riding  a  Colt,  .  .  . 

Braddock's  Defeat, 

Martello  Tower  on  the  Heights  of  Abraham, 
A  Dutch  Household  as  Seen  in  the  Early 

Days  in  New  York, 

Memorial  Hall,  Harvard  College, 

O      / 

Bible  Brought  Over  in  the  Mayflower,  .  . 
American  Stage-coach  of  1795,  .... 


PAGE 

33 
34 
35 
37 
41 
43 
44 
45 
47 
52 
54 
57 
60 
64 
68 
71 
72 
72 
73 
73 
74 
75 
77 
79 
81 


83 

85 
86 

87 


PAGE 

The  Old  South  Church,  Boston,     ....     91 

Patrick  Henry, 93 

The  Monument  on  Bunker  Hill,     ....     94 
Nomination  of  Washington  as  Commander- 
in  Chief  of  the  Continental  Army,  ...     96 

Faneuil  Hall,  Boston, 97 

St.  Paul's  Church,  New  York 101 

Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia,    .     .     .     .104 

The  Liberty  Bell. 105 

The  Statue  of  Liberty, 107 

An  Old  New  York  Mansion, 109 

Washington  Crossing  the  Delaware,     .     .     .113 

'•  Give  Them  Watts,  Boys," 115 

Washington  at  Valley  Forge, 117 

An  Old  Colonial  House  at  Germantown,      .  120 

Virginia  Currency,  1670, 123 

Paul  Jones, 125 

The  Bon  Homme  Richard  and  Serapis,  .     .126 
British  Captain  Surrendering  Sword.  .     .     .127 

Escape  of  Benedict  Arnold 129 

Tarleton's  Lieutenant  and  the  Farmer,     .     .134 

Cornwallis, 137 

A  Plantation  Gateway, 143 

Senate  Chamber 147 

House  of  Representatives, 149 

An  Old  Indian  Farm-house 152 

Mary  Ball,  the  Mother  of  Washington,  .     .  153 

George  Washington. 154 

Inauguration  of  Washington, 155 

Alexander  Hamilton, 157 

Ben  Franklin  in  His  Father's  Shop,     .     .     .  15£> 

(15) 


16 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Franklin's  Grave, 160 

Chief  Justice  John  Jay, 163 

Washington's  Bedroom  in  which  He  Died,  .  165 
Mother  of  Washington  Receiving  Lafayette,  166 

John  Adams, 168 

The  Cotton  Gin,  Invented  in  1793,     ...  169 

Thomas  Jefferson, 171 

Development  of  Steam  Navigation,      .     .     .177 

Robert  Fulton, 178 

James  Madison, 182 

The  Arts  of  Peace  and  the  Art  of  War,       .  187 

Mrs.  James  Madison, 191 

Burning  of  Washington 197 

Weathersford  and  General  Jackson,  .  .  .  201 
First  Train  of  Cars  in  America,  ....  205 

James  Monroe, 205 

An  Indian's  Declaration  of  War,    .     .     .     .207 

John  Quincy  Adams, 211 

"  Johnny  Bull,"  or  No.  1, 213 

Andrew  Jackson, 216 

Samuel  Houston, 218 

Oseola's  Indignation, 221 

Western  Railroad  in  Earlier  Days,     .     .     .222 

John  C.  Calhoun, 223 

Henry  Clay, - 224 

Daniel  Webster, 225 

Martin  Van  Buren 227 

William  Henry  Harrison, 239 

John  Tyler 231 

Where  the  First  Morse  Instrument  was  Con 
structed 235 

Speedwell  Iron  Works,  Morristown,  N.  J.,  .  236 
Old  Gates  at  St.  Augustine,  Florida,  .  .  .  239 
A  Typical  Virginia  Court-House,  .  .  .  .241 
The  White  House  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  .  243 
Old  Spanish  House,  New  Orleans,  .  .  .  247 
The  Marigny  House,  New  Orleans,  ...  248 

James  K.  Polk, .251 

Robert  E.  Lee  in  the  Mexican  War,  .     .     ,  253 

General  Winfield  Scott, 257 

Battle  of  Cerro  Gordo, 259 

The  Smithsonian  Institute, 263 

Gold  Washing— The  Sluice, 264 

Gold  Washing— The  Cradle, 265 

Great  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah, 267 

Zachary  Taylor, 269 

Millard  Fillmore,  .  271 


Franklin  Pierce, 

Lucretia  Mott, 

Henry  WTard  Beecher, 

James  Buchanan, 

Lucretia  Mott  Protecting  Dangerfield,      .     . 

Harper's  Ferry, 

Abraham  Lincoln, 

From  Log-Cabin  to  the  White  House,     .     . 

Jefferson  Davis, 

Fort  Moult rie,  Charleston.  S.  C.,    .     .     .     . 

A  Skirmisher, 

General  George  B.  McClellan, 

Statue  of  McClellan,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,    .     . 

Fortifying  Richmond, 

Breech-loading  Mortar,  or  Howitzer,  .     .     . 

A  Railroad  Battery, 

Sec.  Stanton's  Opinion  about  the  Merrimac, 

John  Ericsson, 

Libby  Prison  in  1865, 

Libby  Prison  in  1884, 

Moist  Weather  at  the  Front, 

Antietam  Bridge, 

Model  of  Gatling  Gun, 

U.  S.  Military  Telegraph  Wagon,  .     .     .     . 

Admiral  Porter, 

David  G.  Farragut, 

Grant  After  the  Battle  of  Belmont,     .     .     . 

General  George  H.  Thomas, 

General  Thomas  J.  ("  Stonewall ")  Jackson, 
House  in  which  Stonewall  Jackson  Died, 

General  Robert  E.  Lee, 

General  George  G.  Meade, 

Cushing's  Last  Shot, 

Entrance  to  Gettysburg  Cemetry,    .     .     .     . 

The  Swamp  Angel  Battery, 

Bailey's  Dams  on  the  Red  River,  .  .  .  . 
Monument  of  Farragut  at  Washington,  .  . 
Bird's-eye  View  of  Andersonville  Prison, 

Death  of  General  Polk 

General  William  T.  Sherman, 

General  Lee  Leading  the  Texans'  Charge,     . 

General  Philip  II.  Sheridan 

Lincoln  Entering  Richmond 

The  Desperate  Extremity  of  the  Confederates, 

Horace  Greeley, 

Lincoln's  Grave,  Springfield,  111.,  .  .  .  . 
Andrew  Johnson, 


PAGE 

273 
275 

276 
278 
279 
281 
285 
286 
287 
289 
291 
293 
295 
297 
302 
305 
309 
312 
315 
316 
319 
325 
329 
331 
334 
335 
337 
341 
345 
346 
349 
351 
354 
357 
363 
371 
373 
383 
385 
389 
393 
395 
398 
403 
405 
406 
407 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


17 


PAGE 

Log-cabin  Church  at  Juneau,  Alaska, .  .  .411 
Southern  Legislature  Under  Carpet-bag  Rule,  413 

Ulysses  Simpson  Grant, 415 

Mrs.  Julia  Dent  Grant, 415 

The  Burning  of  Chicago,  1871,  .  .  .  .417 
Section  of  Chicago  Stock-yards,  .  .  .  .418 
Monument  to  General  Lee,  Richmond,  Va.,  422 

General  George  Crook, 423 

Memorial  Hall  of  1876, 425 

Samuel  J.  Tilden, 426 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes,       .......  427 

Grant  at  Windsor  Castle, 431 

Grant  in  Japan, 433 

The  Boy  James  Garfield  and  his  Mother,      .  434 

James  A.  Garfield,       , 435 

The  Aged  Mother  of  President  Garfield,  .  436 
Assassination  of  President  Garfield,  .  .  .  437 
Memorial  Tablet  to  President  Garfield,  .  .  438 

Chester  Alan  Arthur, 439 

The  Brooklyn  Bridge, 440 

Scene  in  Chinatown,  San  Francisco,  .  .  .  441 
A  Funeral  in  the  Arctic  Regions,  .  .  .  449 

Grover  Cleveland, 459 

Tomb  of  General  U.  S.  Grant,  New  York,    .  464 

City  Hall,  Philadelphia, 467 

Old  Haymarket  Plaza,  Chicago,  .  .  .  .471 
General  Crook's  Apache  Guide,  ....  475 

An  Indian  Warrior, 477 

Benjamin  Harrison, 479 

Indian  Mother  and  Infant, 481 

Indian  Agency, .        484 

Henry  Moore  Teller,    ....          ...  487 

Model  of  U.  S.  Man-of-War, 488 

Machinery  Hall,  World's  Fair,  Chicago,  1893,  490 
Horticultural  Building,  World's  Fair,  1893,  .  491 
Agricultural  Building,  World's  Fair,  1893,  .  491 
Woman's  Building,  World's  Fair,  1893,  .  .  492 

Thomas  A.  Edison, 493 

The  Viking  Ship,  World's  Fair,  Chicago,  1 893,  495 
Art  Palace,  World's  Fair,  Chicago,  1893,  .  496 
Government  Building,  World's  Fair,  1893,  .  496 

James  G.  Blaine, 499 

A  Scene  of  the  Chicago  Strike  of  1894,  .  501 
A  Gold  Prospecting  Party,  British  Guiana,  .  505 

The  Venezuelan  Commission, 507 

William  Jennings  Bryan, 508 

Albert  Shaw,      .     .     . 511 


PAGE 


A  Dispute  Over  a  Brand 513 

Sluice-gate, 517 

Between  the  Mills, 518 

Barrel-hoist  and  Tunnel,  Washburn  Mill,      .  518 

Mossbrae, 520 

Section  of  Chicago  Stock-yards.  .  .  .  .521 
The  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  1885,  ....  523 

Lake-shore  Drive,  Chicago, 525 

Wm.  McKinley, 527 

The  Obelisk,  Central  Park,  New  York,    .     .  529 

John  Sherman, 531 

Thomas  B.  Reed, 533 

Tomb  of  U.  S.  Grant,  New  York,  ....  534 
Review  of  the  Navy  and  Merchant  Marine 
on  the  Hudson,  April  27,  1897,      .     .     .  535 

Map  of  Alaska, 536 

Ready  for  the  Trail, 537 

General  Calixto  Garcia, 539 

General  Maximo  Gomez, 541 

Jose  Marti, 543 

General  Antonio  Maceo, 544 

The  U.  S.  Battleship  Maine  and  her  Officers,  545 

Admiral  George  Dewey 551 

Camp  Scene  at  Chickamauga, 555 

^Richmond  P.  Hobson, 557 

Major-General  Fit zh ugh  Lee, 559 

Rear- Admiral  William  T.  Sampson,     .     .     .  560 

Gov.  Theodore  Roosevelt, 561 

Rear-Admiral  Winfield  S.  Schley,  ....  565 
Rear-Admiral  John  C.  Watson,  ....  567 
Major-General  William  R.  Shatter,  .  .  .  570 

Major-General  Nelson  A.  Miles 571 

Major-General  Joseph  Wheeler,  ....  573 
Major-General  Wesley  Merritt,  ....  577 

Major-General  Elwell  S.  Otis 584 

Admiral  Dewey 's  Flagship  the  Olympic^      .  585 

Native  Grass  House,  Hawaii, 587 

Royal  Palace,  Hawaii, 589 

Raising  of  the  American  Flag,  Honolulu,     .  589 

Hula  Dancing  Girls,  Hawaii, 590 

Church  in  Honolulu,  Hawaiian  Islands,  .  .  592 
Sugar  Cane  Plantation,  Hawaiian  Islands,  .  594 
Tomb  of  Christopher  Columbus,  Havana,  Cuba,  595 
Indian  Statue  in  the  Prado.  Havana,  Cuba,  .  597 
Daring  Attack  of  Cuban  Patriots,  ....  599 

General  Maximo  Gomez 602 

Sunrise  Executions,  Havana 603 


18 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

A  Volante,  Cuba, 608 

Entrance  to  the  Public  Grounds,  Havana,     .  609 

A  Market  Girl,  Porto  Rico, 610 

The  Custom  House,  Ponce,  Porto  Rico,    .     .612 

Native  Belles,  Porto  Rico, 614 

The  Market  Place,  Ponce,  Porto  Rico,     .     .  615 

Filipinos  of  the  Savage  Tribes 617 

Native  Hunters,  Philippine  Islands,     .     .     .  618 
Philippine  Warriors, 622 


Native  Residence  in  the  Suburbs  of  Manila, . 
A  Typical  Moro  Village,  Philippine  Islands, 
Bridge  Over  the  Pasig  River,    .... 
A  Popular  Street  Conveyance,  Manila,     . 
A  Wedding  Procession,  Philippine  Islands, 
Drying  Sugar,  Philippine  Islands,  .     .      ,     . 
The  Strange  Wagons  of  Philippine  Islands, 
Native  House  and  Palms,  Ladrone  Islands, 


PAGB 

624 
626 
628 
631 
633 
635 
.636 
644 


LIST  OF  FULL-PAGE  HALF-TONE  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

;-  i  am  ready  for  any  service  that  I  can  give  my  country  "...      Frontispiece. 
Search  for  the  Fountain  of  Youth         ......  opp.     39 

Pocahontas  Saving  the  Life  of  John  Smith       .....  ''49 

The  Marriage  of  Pocahontas    ....                           ..."  50 

Gallup's  Recapture  of  Oldham's  Boat  .  ...  "58 

William  Penn,  the  good  and  wise  ruler               .              .              .              .             .              .           "  65 

Notable  Audience  in  Maryland  to  hear  George  Fox       .              .             .              .             .           "  66 

Hiawatha,  Founder  of  the  Iroquois  League       ......  72 

Washington's  First  Victory       ........  80 

The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill        ........  89 

The  Capture  of  Major  Andre   ........           "  128 

Daring  Desertion  of  John  Campe          .             .             .             .             .             .                         "  136 

The  Surrender  at  Yorktown      .             .             .             .             .             .             .                         "  139 

United  States  Capitol,  Washington        .             .             .             .             .             .                        "  142 

The  Battle  of  Fallen  Timbers  .             .             .             .             .             .             .                        "  160 

Campaign  Speechmaking  in  Earlier  Days           ......"  238 

Fremont,  the  Great  Pathfinder,  addressing  the  Indians                                                                    "  250 

Battle  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma  ....                           ..."  256 

The  Blue  and  the  Gray             .              .                           ....."  284 

The  First  Battle  of  Bull  Run,  1861      ...                          ..."  294 

The  Attack  on  Fort  Donelson                 .             .             .             .                           .                         "  301 

General  Lee's  Invasion  of  the  North     ......."  324 

The  Battle  of  Malvern  Hill      ....                          .                                     "  333 

The  Fatal  Wounding  of  «  Stonewall "  Jackson  ...  "346 

Pickett's  Return  from  his  Famous  Charge        .                .             .              .             ..."  355 

Attack  on  Charleston,  August  23  to  September  29,  1893           .                           .  360 

The  Sinking  of  the  ''Alabama "              .                           ...  375 

Sherman's  Three  Scouts             .                                         .                                        .  384 

Surrender  of  General  Lee  at  Appomattox  Court-House.  April  9,  1865  .  397 

The  Civil  War  Peace  Conference           .                                                                    •  400 

The  Electoral  Commission,  1877             .                                                                                          "  42? 

The  Farthest  North  Reached  by  Lieutenant  Lockwood  on  the  Greely  Expedition            .           "  453 

(19) 


20  LISi    OF  FULL-PAGE   HALF-TONE  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 


The  Washington  Monument      .              .                                         •  °PP-  46° 
Arbitration       .....••••• 

The  Hero  of  the  Strike,  Coal  Creek,  Tenn.       .  "      486 

The  Viking  Ship  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago,  1 893  "      495 

Congressional  Library,  Washington,  D.  C.                       •                                         •  51(1 

Cathedral  Spires  in  the  Garden  of  the  Gods     .              .              .              •              •              •  515 

Greater  New  York        .                           .......  528 

President  McKinley  and  the  War  Cabinet                      .             .             .             •             .  "      547 

City  of  Havana,  Cuba "549 

The  U.  S.  Battleship  "  Maine " "550 

Map  of  Cuba  ...                          ...  "      553 

The  Battle  of  Manila,  May  1,  1898 "      554 

Americans  Storming  San  Juan  Hill       .....-•  560 

U.  S.  Battleship  "  Oregon " "565 

The  Surrender  of  Santiago,  July  17,  1898 "      570 

In  the  War-room  at  Washington                                                                   •             •             •  576 

The  United  States  Peace  Commissioners  of  the  Spanish  War    ....  580 

*   Popular  Commanders  in  the  Filipino  War                       .                                         .  586 

Prominent  Spaniards  in  1898    .                                         ...  595 

San  Juan,  Porto  Bico  ....                           .                           •  "610 

The  Escolta,  City  of  Manila     .                                                                   •  "619 
The  Beautiful  Luneta,  Manila's  Fashionable  Promenade  and  Drive 
The  Shipyard  and  Arsenal  at  Cavite,  Philippine  Islands 
Raising  the  Flag  on  Fort  San  Antonio  de  Abad,  Malate 

Scenes  from  the  Philippine  Islands        ....••• 

The  Mouth  of  the  Pasig  River                          "640 


Authors  Introduction. 


THE  annals  of  the  world  contain  no  more  impressive  example  of  the  birth 
and  growth  of  a  nation  than  may  be  seen  in  the  case  of  that  which  has  been 
aptly  termed  the  Greater  Kepublic,  whose  story  from  its  feeble  childhood  to  its 
grand  maturity  it  is  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  set  forth.  Three  hundred  years 
is  a  brief  interval  in  the  long  epoch  of  human  history,  yet  within  that  short 
period  the  United  States  has  developed  from  a  handful  of  hardy  men  and  women, 
thinly  scattered  along  our  Atlantic  coast,  into  a  vast  and  mighty  country 
peopled  by  not  less  than  seventy-five  millions  of  human  beings,  the  freest,  richest, 
most  industrious,  and  most  enterprising  of  any  people  upon  the  face  of  the 
earth.  It  began  as  a  dwarf;  it  has  grown  into  a  giant.  It  was  despised  by  the 
proud  nations  of  Europe  ;  it  has  become  feared  and  respected  by  the  proudest 
of  these  nations.  For  a  long  time  they  have  claimed  the  right  to  settle  among 
themselves  the  affairs  of  the  world ;  they  have  now  to  deal  with  the  United 
States  in  this  self-imposed  duty.  And  it  is  significant  of  the  high  moral  atti 
tude  occupied  by  this  country,  that  one  of  the  first  enterprises  in  which  it  is 
asked  to  join  these  ancient  nations  has  for  its  end  to  do  away  with  the  horrors 
of  war,  and  substitute  for  the  drawn  sword  in  the  settlement  of  national  disputes 
a  great  Supreme  Court  of  arbitration. 

This  is  but  one  of  the  lessons  to  be  drawn  from  the  history  of  the  great 
republic  of  the  West.  It  has  long  been  claimed  that  this  history  lacks  interest, 
that  it  is  devoid  of  the  romance  which  we  find  in  that  of  the  Eastern  world,  has 
nothing  in  it  of  the  striking  and  dramatic,  and  is  too  young  and  new  to  be 
worth  men's  attention  when  compared  with  that  of  the  ancient  nations,  which  has 
come  down  from  the  mists  of  prehistoric  time.  Yet  we  think  that  those  who  read 
the  following  pages  will  not  be  ready  to  admit  this  claim.  They  will  find  in  the 
history  of  the  United  States  an  abundance  of  the  elements  of  romance.  It  has, 
besides,  the  merit  of  being  a  complete  and  fully  rounded  history.  We  can 
trace  it  from  its  birth,  and  put  upon  record  the  entire  story  of  the  evolution  of  a 
nation,  a  fact  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  affirm  of  any  of  the  older  nations 
of  the  world. 

If  we  go  back  to  the  origin  of  our  country,  it  is  to  find  it  made  up  of  a 
singular  mixture  of  the  best  people  of  Europe.  The  word  best  is  used  here  in 

(21) 


22  AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION. 

a  special  sense.  The  settlers  in  this  country  were  not  the  rich  and  titled.  They 
came  not  from  that  proud  nobility  which  claims  to  possess  bluer  blood  than  the 
common  herd,  but  from  the  plain  people  of  Europe,  from  the  workers,  not  the 
idlers,  and  this  rare  distinction  they  have  kept  up  until  the  present  day.  But 
of  this  class  of  the  world's  workers,  they  were  the  bes>  and  noblest.  They 
were  men  who  thought  for  themselves,  and  refused  to  be  bound  in  the  trammels 
of  a  State  religion  ;  men  who  were  ready  to  dare  the  perils  of  the  sea  and  the 
hardships  of  a  barren  shore  for  the  blessings  of  liberty  and  free-thought ;  men 
of  sturdy  thrift,  unflinching  energy,  daring  enterprise,  the  true  stuff  out  of 
which  alone  a  nation  like  ours  could  be  built. 

Such  was  the  character  of  the  Pilgrims  and  the  Puritans,  the  hardy  empire- 
builders  of  New  England,  of  the  Quakers  of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania, 
the  Catholics  of  Maryland,  the  Huguenots  of  the  South,  the  Moravians  and 
other  German  Protestants,  the  sturdy  Scotch-Irish,  and  the  others  who  sought 
this  country  as  a  haven  of  refuge  for  free-thought.  We  cannot  say  the  same 
for  the  Hollanders  of  New  Amsterdam,  the  Swedes  of  Delaware,  and  the 
English  of  Virginia,  so  far  as  their  purpose  is  concerned,  yet  they  too  proved 
hardy  and  industrious  settlers,  and  the  Cavaliers  whom  the  troubles  in  England 
drove  to  Virginia  showed  their  good  blood  by  the  prominent  part  which  their 
descendants  played  in  the  winning  of  our  independence  and  the  making  of  our 
government.  While  the  various  peoples  named  took  part  in  the  settlement  of 
the  colonies,  the  bulk  of  the  settlers  were  of  English  birth,  and  Anglo-Saxon 
thrift  and  energy  became  the  foundation  stones  upon  which  our  nation  has  been 
built.  Of  the  others,  nearly  the  whole  of  them  were  of  Teutonic  origin,  while 
the  Huguenots,  whom  oppression  drove  from  France,  were  of  the  very  bone  and 
sinew  of  that  despot-ridden  land.  It  may  fairly  be  said,  then,  that  the  founders 
of  our  nation  came  from  the  cream  of  the  populations  of  Europe,  born  of  sturdy 
Teutonic  stock,  and  comprising  thrift,  energy,  endurance,  love  of  liberty,  and 
freedom  of  thought  to  a  degree  never  equaled  in  the  makers  of  any  other  nation 
upon  the  earth.  They  were  of  solid  oak  in  mind  and  frame,  and  the  edifice 
they  built  had  for  its  foundation  the  natural  rights  of  man,  and  for  its  super 
structure  that  spirit  of  liberty  which  has  ever  since  throbbed  warmly  in  the 
American  heart, 

It  was  well  for  the  colonies  that  this  underlying  unity  of  aim  existed,  for 
aside  from  this  they  were  strikingly  distinct  in  character  and  aspirations. 
Sparsely  settled,  strung  at  intervals  along  the  far-extended  Atlantic  coast, 
silhouetted  against  a  stern  background  of  wilderness  and  mountain  range,  their 
sole  bond  of  brotherhood  was  their  common  aspiration  for  liberty,  while  in  all 
other  respects  they  were  unlike  in  aims  and  purposes.  The  spirit  of  political 
liberty  was  strongest  in  the  New  England  colonies,  and  these  held  their  own 


AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION.  23 

against  every  effort  to  rob  them  of  their  rights  with  an  unflinching  boldness 
which  is  worthy  of  the  highest  praise,  and  which  set  a  noble  example  for  the 
remaining  colonists.  Next  to  them  in  bold  opposition  to  tyranny  were  the 
people  of  the  Carolinas,  who  sturdily  resisted  an  effort  to  make  them  the 
enslaved  subjects  of  a  land-holding  nobility.  In  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland 
political  rights  were  granted  by  high-minded  proprietors,  and  in  these  colonies 
no  struggle  for  self-government  was  necessary.  -Only  in  Virginia  and  New 
York  was  autocratic  rule  established,  and  in  both  of  these  it  gradually  yielded 
to  the  steady  demand  for  self-government. 

On  the  other  hand,  New  England,  while  politically  the  freest,  was  religi 
ously  the  most  autocratic.  The  Puritans,  who  had  crossed  the  ocean  in  search 
of  freedom  of  thought,  refused  to  grant  a  similar  freedom  to  those  who  came 
later,  and  sought  to  found  a  system  as  intolerant  as  that  from  which  they  had 
fled.  A  natural  revulsion  from  their  oppressive  measures  gave  rise  in  Rhode 
Island  to  the  first  government  on  the  face  of  the  earth  in  which  absolute  religious 
liberty  was  established.  Among  the  more  southern  colonies,  a  similar  freedom, 
so  far  as  liberty  of  Christian  worship  is  concerned,  was  granted  by  William 
Penn  and  Lord  Baltimore.  But  this  freedom  was  maintained  only  in  Rhode 
Island  and  Pennsylvania,  religious  intolerance  being  the  rule,  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  in  all  the  other  colonies  ;  the  Puritanism  of  New  England  being 
replaced  elsewhere  by  a  Church  of  England  autocracy. 

The  diversity  in  political  condition,  religion,  and  character  of  the  settlers 
tended  to  keep  the  colonies  separate,  while  a  like  diversity  of  commercial 
interests  created  jealousies  which  built  up  new  barriers  between  them.  The 
unity  that  might  have  been  looked  for  between  these  feeble  and  remote  com 
munities,  spread  like  links  of  a  broken  chain  far  along  an  ocean  coast,  had  these 
and  other  diverse  conditions  to  contend  with,  and  they  promised  to  develop  into 
a  series  of  weak  and  separate  nations  rather  than  into  a  strong  and  single  com 
monwealth. 

The  influences  that  overcame  this  tendency  to  disunion  were  many  and 
important.  We  can  only  glance  at  them  here.  They  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  warlike  hostility  and  industrial  oppression.  The  first  step  towards  union 
was  taken  in  1643,  when  four  of  the  New  England  colonies  formed  a  confedera 
tion  for  defense  against  the  Dutch  and  Indians.  "The  United  Colonies  of  New 
England  "  constituted  in  its  way  a  federal  republic,  the  prototype  of  that  of  the 
United  States.  The  second  step  of  importance  in  this  connection  was  taken  in 
1754,  when  a  convention  was  held  at  Albany  to  devise  measures  of  defense 
against  the  French.  Benjamin  Franklin  proposed  a  plan  of  colonial  union, 
which  was  accepted  by  the  convention.  But  the  jealousy  of  the  colonies 
prevented  its  adoption.  They  had  grown  into  communities  of  some  strength 


24  AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION. 

and  with  a  degree  of  pride  in  their  separate  freedom,  and  were  not  ready  to 
yield  to  a  central  authority.  The  British  Government  also  opposed  it,  not 
wishing  to  see  the  colonies  gain  the  strength  which  would  have  come  to  them 
from  political  union.  As  a  result,  the  plan  fell  to  the  ground. 

The  next  important  influence  tending  towards  union  was  the  oppressive 
policy  of  Great  Britain.  The  industries  and  commerce  of  the  colonies  had  long 
been  seriously  restricted  by  the  measures  of  the  mother-country,  and  after  the 
war  with  France  an  attempt  was  made  to  tax  the  colonists,  though  they  were 
sternly  refused  representation  in  Parliament,  the  tax-laying  body.  Community 
in  oppression  produced  unity  in  feeling;  the  colonies  joined  hands,  and  in  1765 
a  congress  of  their  representatives  was  held  in  New  York,  which  appealed  to  the 
King  for  their  just  political  rights.  Nine  years  afterwards,  in  1774,  a  second 
congress  was  held,  brought  together  by  much  more  imminent  common  dangers.  In 
the  following  year  a  third  congress  was  convened.  This  continued  in  session 
for  years,  its  two  most  important  acts  being  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
from  Great  Britain  and  the  Confederation  of  the  States,  the  first  form  of  union 
which  the  colonies  adopted.  This  Confederation  was  in  no  true  sense  a  Union. 
The  jealousies  and  fears  of  the  colonies  made  themselves  apparent,  and  the 
central  government  was  given  so  little  power  that  it  threatened  to  fall  to  pieces 
of  its  own  weight.  It  could  pass  laws,  but  could  not  make  the  people  obey 
them.  It  could  incur  debts,  but  could  not  raise  money  by  taxation  to  pay  them. 
The  States  kept  nearly  all  the  power  to  themselves,'  and  each  acted  almost  as  if 
it  were  an  independent  nation,  while  the  Congress  of  the  Confederation  Avas  left 
without  money  and  almost  without  authority. 

This  state  of  affairs  soon  grew  intolerable.  "We  are,"  said  Washington, 
"one  nation  to-day,  and  thirteen  to-morrow."  Such  a  union  it  was  impossible 
to  maintain.  It  was  evident  that  the  compact  must  give  way  ;  that  there  must 
be  one  strong  government  or  thirteen  weak  ones.  This  last  alternative  fright 
ened  the  States.  None  of  them  was  strong  enough  to  hold  its  oVn  against 
foreign  governments.  They  must  form  a  strong  union  or  leave  themselves  at 
the  mercy  of  ambitious  foes.  It  was  this  state  of  affairs  that  led  to  the  Consti 
tutional  Convention  of  1787,  by  whose  wisdom  the  National  Union  which  has 
proved  so  solid  a  bond  was  organized.  The  Constitution  made  by  this  body 
gave  rise  to  the  Republic  of  the  United  States.  A  subsequent  act,  which  in 
1898  added  a  number  of  distant  island  possessions  to  our  Union,  and  vastly 
widened  its  interests  and  its  importance  in  the  world's  councils,  made  of  it  a 
"Greater  Republic,"  a  mighty  dominion  whose  possessions  extended  half  round 
the  globe. 

While  the  changes  here  briefly  outlined  were  taking  place,  the  country  was 
growing  with  phenomenal  rapidity.     From  all  parts  of  northern  and  western 


AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION.  25 

Europe,  and  above  all  from  Great  Britain,  new  settlers  were  crowding  to  our 
shores,  while  the  descendants  of  the  original  settlers  were  increasing  in  numbers. 
How  many  people  there  were  here  is  in  doubt,  but  it  is  thought  that  in  1700 
there  were  more  than  200,000,  in  1750  about  1,100,000,  and  in  1776  about 
2,500,000.  The  first  census,  taken  in  1790,  just  after  the  Federal  Union  was 
formed,  gave  a  population  of  nearly  4,000,000. 

A  people  growing  at  this  rate  could  not  be  long  confined  to  the  narrow 
ocean  border  of  the  early  settlements.  A  rich  and  fertile  country  lay  back, 
extending  how  far  no  one  knew,  and  soon  there  was  a  movement  to  the  West, 
which  carried  the  people  over  the  mountains  and  into  the  broad  plains  beyond. 
A  war  was  fought  with  France  for  the  possession  of  the  Ohio  country.  Boone 
and  other  bold  pioneers  led  hardy  settlers  into  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and 
George  Eogers  Clark  descended  the  Ohio  and  drove  the  British  troops  from  the 
northwest  territory,  gaining  that  vast  region  for  the  new  Union. 

After  the  War  for  Independence  the  movement  westward  went  on  with 
rapidity.  The  first  settlement  in  Ohio  was  made  at  Marietta  in  1788;  Cincin 
nati  was  founded  in  1790;  in  1803  St.  Louis  was  a  little  village  of  log-cabins; 
and  in  1831  the  site  of  Chicago  was  occupied  by  a  dozen  settlers  gathered  round 
Fort  Dearborn.  But  while  the  cities  were  thus  slow  in  starting,  the  country 
between  them  was  rapidly  filling  up,  the  Indians  giving  way  step  by  step  as  the 
vanguard  of  the  great  march  pressed  upon  them;  here  down  the  Ohio  in  bullet 
proof  boats,  there  across  the  mountains  on  foot  or  in  wagons.  A  great  national 
road  stretched  westward  from  Cumberland,  Maryland,  which  in  time  reached 
the  Mississippi,  and  over  whose  broad  and  solid  surface  a  steady  stream  of 
emigrant  wagons  poured  into  the  great  West.  At  the  same  time  steamboats 
were  beginning  to  run  on  the  Eastern  waters,  and  soon  these  were  carrying  the 
increasing  multitude  down  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi  into  the  vast  Western 
realm.  Later  came  the  railroad  to  complete  this  phase  of  our  history,  and 
provide  a  means  of  transportation  by  whose  aid  millions  could  travel  with  ease 
where  a  bare  handful  had  made  their  way  with  peril  and  hardship  of  old. 

Up  to  1803  our  national  domain  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Missis 
sippi,  but  in  that  year  the  vast  territory  of  Louisiana  was  purchased  from  France 
and  the  United  States  was  extended  to  the  summit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  its 
territory  being  more  than  doubled  in  area.  Here  was  a  mighty  domain  for 
future  settlement,  across  which  two  daring  travelers,  Lewis  and  Clark,  journeyed 
through  tribes  of  Indians  never  before  heard  of,  not  ending  their  long  route 
until  they  had  passed  down  the  broad  Columbia  to  the  waters  of  the  Pacific. 

From  time  to  time  new  domains  were  added  to  the  great  republic.  In  1819 
Florida  was  purchased  from  Spain.  In  1845  Texas  was  added  to  the  Union. 
In  1846  the  Oregon  country  was  made  part  of  the  United  States.  In  1848,  as 


26  AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION. 

a  result  of  the  Mexican  War,  an  immense  tract  extending  from  Texas  to  the 
Pacific  was  acquired,  and  the  land  of  gold  became  part  of  the  republic.  In 
1853  another  tract  was  purchased  from  Mexico,  and  the  domain  of  the  United 
States,  as  it  existed  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  was  completed.  It 
constituted  a  great  section  of  the  North  American  continent,  extending  across 
it  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  north  and  south  from  the  Great  Lakes 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  a  fertile,  well-watered,  and  prolific  land,  capable  of 
becoming  the  nursery  of  one  of  the  greatest  nations  on  the  earth.  Beginning, 
at  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  with  an  area  of  827,844  square  miles,  it  now 
embraced  3,026,484  square  miles  of  territory,  having  increased  within  a  century 
to  nearly  four  times  its  original  size. 

In  1867  a  new  step  was  taken,  in  the  addition  to  this  country  of  a  region 
of  land  separated  from  its  immediate  domain.  This  was  the  territory  of  Alaska, 
of  more  than  577,000  square  miles  in  extent,  and  whose  natural  wealth  has 
made  it  a  far  more  valuable  acquisition  than  was  originally  dreamed  of.  In 
1898  the  Greater  Republic,  as  it  at  present  exists,  was  completed  by  the  acquisition 
of  the  island  of  Porto  Rico  in  the  West  Indies,  and  the  Hawaiian  and  Philip 
pine  Island  groups  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  These,  while  adding  not  greatly  to 
our  territory,  may  prove  to  possess  a  value  in  their  products  fully  justifying 
their  acquisition.  At  present,  however,  their  value  is  political  rather  than 
industrial,  as  bringing  the  United  States  into  new  and  important  relations  with 
the  other  great  nations  of  the  earth. 

The  growth  of  population  in  this  country  is  shown  strikingly  in  the 
remarkable  development  of  its  cities.  In  1790  the  three  largest  cities  were  not 
larger  than  many  of  our  minor  cities  to-day.  Philadelphia  had  forty-two 
thousand  population,  New  York  thirty-three  thousand,  and  Boston  eighteen 
thousand.  Charleston  and  Baltimore  were  still  smaller,  and  Savannah  was 
quite  small.  There  were  only  five  cities  with  over  ten  thousand  population. 
Of  inland  towns,  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  with  something  over  six  thousand 
population,  was  the  largest,  In  1890,  one  hundred  years  afterwards,  New  York 
and  Philadelphia  had  over  one  million  each,  and  Chicago,  a  city  not  sixty  years 
old,  shared  with  them  this  honor.  As  for  cities  surpassing  those  of  a  century 
before,  they  were  hundreds  in  number.  A  similar  great  growth  has  taken  place 
in  the  States.  From  the  original  thirteen,  hugging  closely  the  Atlantic  coast, 
we  now  possess  forty-five,  crossing  the  continent  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  have 
besides  a  vast  territorial  area. 

The  thirteen  original  States,  sparsely  peopled,  poor  and  struggling  for 
existence,  have  expanded  into  a  great  galaxy  of  States,  rich,  powerful,  and 
prosperous,  with  grand  cities,  flourishing  rural  communities,  measureless 
resources,  and  an  enterprise  which  no  difficulty  can  baffle  and  no  hardship  can 


AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION.  27 

check.  Our  territory  could  support  hundreds  of  millions  of  population,  and 
still  be  much  less  crowded  than  some  of  the  countries  of  Europe.  Its  products 
include  those  of  every  zone ;  hundreds  of  thousands  of  square  miles  of  its  soil 
are  of  virgin  richness  ;  its  mineral  wealth  is  so  great  that  its  precious  metals  have 
affected  the  monetary  standards  of  the  world,  and  its  vast  mineral  and  agricultural 
wealth  is  as  yet  only  partly  developed.  Vast  as  has  been  the  production  of  gold 
in  California,  its  annual  output  is  of  less  value  than  that  of  wheat,  in 
wheat,  corn,  and  cotton,  indeed,  the  product  of  this  country  is  simply  stupendous; 
while,  in  addition  to  its  gold  and  silver,  it  is  a  mighty  storehouse  of  coal,  iron, 
copper,  lead,  petroleum,  and  many  other  products  of  nature  that  are  of  high 
value  to  mankind. 

In  its  progress  towards  its  present  condition,  our  country  has  been  markedly 
successful  in  two  great  fields  of  human  effort,  in  war  and  in  peace.  A  brief 
preliminary  statement  of  its  success  in  the  first  of  these,  and  of  the  causes  of  its 
several  wars,  may  be  desirable  here,  as  introductory  to  their  more  extended 
consideration  in  the  body  of  the  work.  The  early  colonists  had  three  enemies 
to  contend  with:  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  land,  the  Spanish  settlers  in  the 
South,  and  the  French  in  the  North  and  West.  Its  dealings  with  the  aborigines 
has  been  one  continuous  series  of  conflicts,  the  red  man  being  driven  back  step 
by  step  until  to-day  he  holds  but  a  small  traction  of  his  once  great  territory. 
Yet  the  Indians  are  probably  as  numerous  to-day  as  they  were  originally,  and 
are  certainly  better  off  in  their  present  peaceful  and  partly  civilized  condition 
than  they  were  in  their  former  savage  and  warlike  state. 

The  Spaniards  were  never  numerous  in  this  country,  and  were  forced  to 
retire  after  a  few  conflicts  of  no  special  importance.  Such  was  not  the  case  with 
the  French,  who  were  numerous  and  aggressive,  and  with  whom  the  colonists 
were  at  war  on  four  successive  occasions,  the  last  being  that  fierce  conflict  in 
which  it  was  decided  whether  the  Anglo-Saxon  or  the  French  race  should  be 
dominant  in  this  country.  The  famous  battle  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham  settled 
the  question,  and  with  the  fall  of  Quebec  the  power  of  France  in  America  fell 


never  to  rise  again. 


A  direct  and  almost  an  immediate  consequence  of  this  struggle  for  dominion 

was  the  stru<Me  for  liberty  between  the  colonists  and  the  mother-country.     The 

«/  .        . 

oppressive  measures  of  Great  Britain  led  to  a  war  of  seven  years  duration,  in 
which  more  clearly  and  decisively  than  ever  before  the  colonists  showed  their 
warlike  spirit  and  political  genius,  and  whose  outcome  was  the  independence 
of  this  country.  At  its  conclusion  the  United  States  stepped  into  line  with  the 
nations  of  the  world,  a  free  community,  with  a  mission  to  fulfill  and  a  destiny 
to  accomplish— a  mission  and  a  destiny  which  are  still  in  process  of  development, 
and  whose  final  outcome  no  man  can  foresee. 


28  AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION. 

The  next  series  of  events  in  the  history  of  our  wars  arose  from  the  mighty 
struggle  in  Europe  between  France  and  Great  Britain  and  the  piratical  activity 
of  the  Barbary  States.  The  latter  were  forced  to  respect  the  power  of  the 
United  States  by  several  naval  demonstrations  and  conflicts ;  and  a  naval  war 
with  France,  in  which  our  ships  were  strikingly  successful,  induced  that  country 
to  show  us  greater  respect.  But  the  wrongs  which  we  suffered  from  Great 
Britain  were  not  to  be  so  easily  settled,  and  led  to  a  war  of  three  years'  continu 
ance,  in  which  the  honors  were  fairly  divided  on  land,  but  in  which  our  sailors 
surprised  the  world  by  their  prowess  in  naval  conflict.  The  proud  boast  that 
"Britannia  rules  the  waves"  lost  its  pertinence  after  our  two  striking  victories 
on  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Champlain,  and  our  remarkable  success  in  a  dozen 
conflicts  at  sea.  Alike  in  this  war  and  in  the  Revolution  the  United  States 
showed  that  skill  and  courage  in  naval  warfare  which  has  recently  been  repeated 
in  the  Spanish  War. 

The  wars  of  which  we  have  spoken  had  a  warrant  for  their  being.  They 
were  largely  unavoidable  results  of  existing  conditions.  This  cannot  justly  be 
said  of  the  next  struggle  upon  which  the  United  States  entered,  the  Mexican  War, 
since  this  was  a  politician's  war  pure  and  simple,  one  which  could  easily  have  been 
avoided,  and  which  was  entered  into  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  acquiring  terri 
tory.  In  this  it  succeeded,  the  country  gaining  a  great  and  highly  valuable 
tract,  whose  wealth  in  the  precious  metals  is  unsurpassed  by  any  equal  section 
of  the  earth,  and  which  is  still  richer  in  agricultural  than  in  mineral  wealth. 

The  next  conflict  that  arose  was  the  most  vital  and  important  of  all  our 
wars,  with  the  exception  of  that  by  which  we  gained  our  independence.  The 
Constitution  of  1787  did  not  succeed  in  forming  a  perfect  Union  between  the 
States.  An  element  of  dissension  was  left,  a  "  rift  within  the  lute,"  then  seem 
ingly  small  and  unimportant,  but  destined  to  grow  to  dangerous  proportions. 
This  was  the  slavery  question,  disposed  of  in  the  Constitution  by  a  compromise, 
which,  like  every  compromise  with  evil,  failed  in  its  purpose.  The  question  con 
tinued  to  exist.  It  grew  threatening,  portentious,  and  finally  overshadowed  the 
whole  political  domain.  Every  effort  to  settle  it  peacefully  only  added  to  the 
strain ;  the  union  between  the  States  weakened  as  this  mighty  hammer  of  discord 
struck  down  their  combining  links;  finally  the  bonds  yielded,  the  slavery  ques 
tion  thrust  itself  like  a  great  wedge  between,  and  a  mighty  struggle  began  to 
decide  whether  the  Union  should  stand  or  fall.  With  the  events  of  this  struggle 
we  are  not  here  concerned.  They  are  told  at  length  in  their  special  place.  All 
that  we  shall  here  say  is  this  :  While  the  war  was  fought  for  the  preservation  of 
the  Union,  it  was  clearly  perceived  that  this  union  could  never  be  stable  while 
the  disorganizing  element  remained,  and  the  war  led  inevitably  to  the  abolition 
of  slavery,  the  apple  of  discord  which  had  been  thrown  between  the  States. 


AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION.  29 

The  greatness  of  the  result  was  adequate  to  the  greatness  of  the  conflict.  With 
the  end  of  the  Civil  War,  for  the  first  time  in  their  history,  an  actual  and  stahle 
Union  was  established  between  the  States. 

We  have  one  more  war  to  record,  the  brief  but  important  struggle  of  1898, 
entered  into  by  the  United  States  under  the  double  impulse  of  indignation' 
against  the  barbarous  destruction  of  the  Maine  and  of  sympathy  for  the  starving 
and  oppressed  people  of  Cuba.  It  yielded  results  undreamed  of  in  its  origin. 
Not  only  was  Cuba  wrested  from  the  feeble  and  inhuman  hands  of  Spain,  but 
new  possessions  in  the  oceans  of  the  east  and  west  were  added  to  the  United 
States,  and  for  the  first  time  this  country  took  its  predestined  place  among  the 
nations  engaged  in  shaping  the  destiny  of  the  world,  rose  to  imperial  dignity  in 
the  estimation  of  the  rulers  of  Europe,  and  fairly  won  that  title  of  the  GREATER 
REPUBLIC  which  this  work  is  written  to  commemorate. 

Such  has  been  the  record  of  this  country  in  war.  Its  record  in  peace  has 
been  marked  by  as  steady  a  career  of  victory,  and  with  results  stupendous  almost 
beyond  the  conception  of  man,  when  we  consider  that  the  most  of  them  have 
been  achieved  within  little  more  than  a  century.  During  the  colonial  period 
the  energies  of  the  American  people  were  confined  largely  to  agriculture,  Great 
Britain  sternly  prohibiting  any  progress  in  manufacture  and  any  important 
development  of  commerce.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  restless  and  active 
spirit  of  the  colonists  chafed  under  these  restrictions,  and  that  the  attempt  to 
clip  the  expanding  wings  of  the  American  eagle  had  as  much  to  do  with  bring 
ing  on  the  war  of  the  Revolution  as  had  Great  Britain's  futile  efforts  at  taxation. 
The  genius  of  a  great  people  cannot  thus  be  cribbed  and  confined,  and  American 
enterprise  was  bound  to  find  a  way  or  carve  itself  a  way  through  the  barriers 
raised  by  British  avarice  and  tyranny. 

It  was  after  the  Revolution  that  the  progress  of  this  country  first  fairly 
began.  The  fetters  which  bound  its  hands  thrown  off,  it  entered  upon  a  career 
of  prosperity  which  broadened  with  the  years,  and  extended  until  not  only  the 
whole  continent  but  the  whole  world  felt  its  influence  and  was  embraced  by  its 
results.  Manufacture,  no  longer  held  in  check,  sprang  up  and  spread  with 
marvelous  rapidity.  Commerce,  now  gaining  access  to  all  seas  and  all  lands, 
expanded  with  equal  speed.  Enterprise  everywhere  made  itself  manifest,  and 
invention  began  its  long  and  wonderful  career. 

In  fact,  freedom  was  barely  won  before  our  inventors  were  actively  at  work. 
Before  the  Constitution  was  formed  John  Fitch  was  experimenting  with  his 
steamboat  on  the  Delaware,  and  Oliver  Evans  was  seeking  to  move  wagons  by 
steam  in  the  streets  of  Philadelphia.  Not  many  years  elapsed  before  both  were 
successful,  and  Eli  Whitney  with  his  cotton-gin  had  set  free  the  leading  industry 
of  the  South  and  enabled  it  to  begin  that  remarkable  career  which  proved  so 


30  AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION. 

momentous  in  American  history,  since  to  it  we  owe  the  Civil  War  with  all  its 
great  results. 

With  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  development  of  the  indus 
tries  and  of  the  inventive  faculty  of  the  Americans  went  on  with  enhanced 
rapidity.  The  century  was  but  a  few  years  old  when  Fulton,  with  his  improved 
steamboat,  solved  the  question  of  inland  water  transportation.  By  the  end  of  the 
first  quarter  of  the  century  this  was  solved  in  another  way  by  the  completion  of 
the  Erie  Canal,  the  longest  and  hitherto  the  most  valuable  of  artificial  water-ways. 
The  railroad  locomotive,  though  invented  in  England,  was  prefigured  when 
Oliver  Evans'  steam  road-wagon  ran  sturdily  through  the  streets  of  Philadelphia. 
To  the  same  inventor  we  owe  another  triumph  of  American  genius,  the  grain 
elevator,  which  the  development  of  agriculture  has  rendered  of  incomparable 
value.  The  railroad,  though  not  native  here,  has  had  here  its  greatest  develop 
ment,  and  with  its  more  than  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  miles  of  length 
has  no  rival  in  any  country  upon  the  earth.  To  it  may  be  added  the  Morse 
system  of  telegraphy,  the  telephone  and  phonograph,  the  electric  light  and 
electric  motor,  and  all  that  wonderful  series  of  inventions  in  electrical  science 
which  has  been  due  to  American  genius. 

We  cannot  begin  to  name  the  multitude  of  inventions  in  the  mechanical 
industries  which  have  raised  manufacture  from  an  art  to  a  science  and  filled 
the  world  with  the  multitude  of  its  products.  It  will  suffice  to  name  among 
them  the  steam  hammer,  the  sewing  machine,  the  cylinder  printing-press,  the 
type-setting  machine,  the  rubber  vulcanizer,  and  the  innumerable  improvements 
in  steam  engines  and  labor-saving  apparatus  of  all  kinds.  These  manufacturing 
expedients  have  been  equaled  in  number  and  importance  by  those  applied  to 
agriculture,  including  machines  for  plowing,  reaping,  sowing  the  seed,  threshing 
the  grain,  cutting  the  grass,  and  a  hundred  other  valuable  processes,  which  have 
fairly  revolutionized  the  art  of  tilling  the  earth,  and  enabled  our  farmers  to  feed 
not  only  our  own  population  but  to  send  millions  of  bushels  of  grain  annually 
abroad. 

In  truth,  we  have  entered  here  upon  an  interminable  field,  so  full  of 
triumphs  of  invention  and  ingenuity,  and  so  stupendous  in  its  results,  as  to 
form  one  of  the  chief  marvels  of  this  wonderful  century,  and  to  place  our 
nation,  in  the  field  of  human  industry  and  mechanical  achievement,  foremost 
among  the  nations  of  the  world.  Its  triumphs  have  not  been  confined  to 
manufacture  and  agriculture;  it  has  been  as  active  in  commerce,  and  now  stands 
first  in  the  bulk  of  its  exports  and  imports.  In  every  other  direction  of  industry 
it  has  been  as  active,  as  in  fisheries,  in  forestry,  in  great  works  of  engineering,  in 
vast  mining  operations ;  and  from  the  seas,  the  earth,  the  mountain  sides,  our 
laborers  are  wresting  annually  from  nature  a  stupendous  return  in  wealth. 


AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION.  31 

Our  progress  in  the  industries  has  been  aided  and  inspired  by  an  equal 
progress  in  educational  facilities,  and  the  intellectual  development  of  our  people 
has  kept  pace  with  their  material  advance.  The  United  States  spends  more 
money  for  the  education  of  its  youth  than  any  other  country  in  the  world,  and 
among  her  institutions  the  school-house  and  the  college  stand  most  prominent 
While  the  lower  education  has  been  abundantly  attended  to,  the  higher  educa 
tion  has  been  by  no  means  neglected,  and  amply  endowed  colleges  and  univer 
sities  are  found  in  every  State  and  in  almost  every  city  of  the  land.  In  addition 
to  the  school-house,  libraries  are  multiplying  with  rapidity,  art  galleries  and 
museums  of  science  are  rising  everywhere,  temples  to  music  and  the  drama  are 
found  in  all  our  cities,  the  press  is  turning  out  books  and  newspapers  with 
almost  abnormal  energy,  and  in  everything  calculated  to  enhance  the  intelligence 
of  the  people  the  United  States  has  no  superior,  if  any  equal,  among  the  nations 
of  the  earth. 

It  may  seem  unnecessary  to  tell  the  people  of  the  United  States  the  story 
of  their  growth.  The  greatness  to  which  this  nation  has  attained  is  too  evident 
to  need  to  be  put  in  words.  It  has,  in  fact,  been  made  evident  in  two  great  and 
a  multitude  of  smaller  exhibitions  in  which  the  marvels  of  American  progress 
have  been  shown,  either  by  themselves  or  in  contrast  with  those  of  foreign  lands. 
The  first  of  these,  the  Centennial  Exposition  of  1876,  had  a  double  effect:  it 
opened  our  eyes  at  once  to  our  triumphs  and  our  deficiencies,  to  the  particulars 
in  which  we  excelled  and  those  in  which  we  were  inferior  to  foreign  peoples. 
In  the  next  great  exhibition,  that  at  Chicago  in  1893,  we  had  the  satisfaction  to 
perceive,  not  only  that  we  had  made  great  progress  in  our  points  of  superiority, 
but  had  worked  nobly  and  heartily  to  overcome  our  defects,  and  were  able  to 
show  ourselves  the  equal  of  Europe  in  almost  every  field  of  human  thought  and 
skill.  In  architecture  a  vision  of  beauty  was  shown  such  as  the  world  had  never 
before  seen,  and  in  the  general  domain  of  art  the  United  States  no  longer  had 
need  to  be  ashamed  of  what  it  had  to  show. 

And  now,  having  briefly  summed  up  the  steps  of  progress  of  the  United 
States,  I  may  close  with  some  consideration  of  the  problem  which  we  confront 
in  our  new  position  as  the  Greater  Republic,  the  lord  of  islands  spread  widely 
over  the  seas.  Down  to  the  year  1898  this  country  held  a  position  of  isolation, 
so  far  as  its  political  interests  were  concerned.  Although  the  sails  of  its 
merchant  ships  whitened  every  sea  and  its  commerce  extended  to  all  lands,  its 
boundaries  were  confined  to  the  North  American  continent,  its  political  activities 
largely  to  American  interests.  Jealous  of  any  intrusion  by  foreign  nations  upon 
this  hemisphere,  it  warned  them  off,  while  still  in  its  feeble  youth,  by  the  stern 
words  of  the  Monroe  doctrine,  and  has  since  shown  France  and  England,  by 
decisive  measures,  that  this  doctrine  is  more  than  an  empty  form  of  words. 


32  AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Such  was  our  position  at  the  beginning  of  1898.  At  the  opening  of  181)9 
we  had  entered  into  new  relations  with  the  world.  The  conclusion  of  the  war 
with  Spain  had  left  in  our  hands  the  island  of  Porto  Rico  in  the  West  Indies 
and  the  great  group  of  the  Philippines  in  the  waters  of  Asia,  while  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  had  became  ours  by  peaceful  annexation.  What  shall  we  do  with 
them  ?  is  the  question  that  follows.  We  have  taken  hold  of  them  in  a  way  in 
which  it  is  impossible,  without  defeat  and  disgrace,  to  let  go.  Whatever  the 
Ethics  of  the  question,  the  Philippine  problem  has  assumed  a  shape  which  admits 
Df  but  one  solution.  These  islands  will  inevitably  become  ours,  to  hold,  to 
develop,  to  control,  and  to  give  their  people  an  opportunity  to  attain  civilization, 
prosperity,  and  political  manumission  which  they  have  never  yet  possessed. 
That  they  will  be  a  material  benefit  to  us  is  doubtful.  That  they  will  give  us  a 
new  position  among  the  nations  of  the  earth  is  beyond  doubt.  We  have  entered 
formally  into  that  Eastern  question  which  in  the  years  to  come  promises  to  be 
the  leading  question  before  the  world,  and  which  can  no  longer  be  settled  by 
the  nations  of  Europe  as  an  affair  of  their  own,  with  which  the  United  States 
has  no  concern. 

This  new  position  taken  by  the  United  States  promises  to  be  succeeded  by 
new  alliances,  a  grand  union  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  peoples,  which  will  give  them 
a  dominant  position  among  the  powers  of  the  world.  In  truth,  it  may  not  cease 
with  the  union  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  ambition  and  vast  designs  of  Russia 
are  forcing  the  other  nations  to  combine  for  protection,  and  a  close  alliance  of 
all  the  Teutonic  peoples  is  possible,  combined  to  resist  the  Slavic  outgrowth, 
and  eventually  perhaps  to  place  the  destinies  of  the  world  in  the  hands  of  these 
two  great  races,  the  Teutonic  and  the  Slavic. 

All  this  may  be  looking  overfar  into  the  future.  All  that  can  be  said  now 
is  that  our  new  possessions  have  placed  upon  us  new  duties  and  new  responsi 
bilities,  and  may  effectually  break  that  policy  of  political  isolation  which  we 
have  so  long  maintained,  and  throw  us  into  the  caldron  of  world  politics  to  take 
our  part  in  shaping  the  future  of  the  uncivilized  races.  For  this  we  are  surely 
strong  enough,  enterprising  enough,  and  moral  enough ;  and  whatever  our 
record,  it  is  not  likely  to  be  one  of  defeat,  of  injustice  and  oppression,  or  of  for- 
getfulness  of  the  duty  of  nations  and  the  rights  of  man. 

CHARLES  MORRIS. 
JULY,  1899, 


CHAPTER  I. 
DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION 

The  Visits  of  the  Northmen  to  the  New  World— The  Indians  and  Mound  Builders— Christopher  Co 
lumbus—His  Discovery  of  America— Amerigo  Vespucci— John  Cabot— Spanish  Explorers — Balboa 
—His  Discovery  of  the  Pacific— Magellan— Ponce  de  Leon— De  Narvaez— De  Soto— Menendez— 
French  Explorers — Verrazzani — Carder — Ribault — Laudonniere  —  Champlain  —  La  Salle — English 
Explorers — Sir  Hugh  Willoughby— Martin  Frobisher— Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert — Sir  Walter  Raleigh— 
The  Lost  Colony — Dutch  Explorer — Henry  Hudson. 

THE    NORTHMEN. 

IT  has  been  established  beyond  question  that  the 
first  white  visitors  to  the  New  World  were  Northmen,  as 
the  inhabitants  of  Norway  and  Sweden  were  called.  They 
were  bold  and  hardy  sailors,  who  ventured  further  out 
upon  the  unknown  sea  than  any  other  people.  It  was 
about  the  year  .1000  that  Biorn,  who  was  driven  far 
from  his  course  by  a  tempest,  sighted  the  northern  part 
of  the  continent.  Other  adventurers  followed  him  and 
AMERIGO  VESPUCCI.  pianted  a  few  settlements,  which,  however,  lasted  but  a 
few  years.  Snorri,  son  of  one  of  these  settlers,  was  the  first  child  born  of 
European  parents  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Soon  all  traces  of  these  early 
discoverers  vanished,  and  the  New  World  lay  slumbering  in  loneliness  for 
nearly  five  hundred  years. 

THE    MOUND    BUILDERS. 

Nevertheless,  the  country  was  peopled  with  savages,  who  lived  by  hunting 
and  fishing  and  were  scattered  over  the  vast  area  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlan 
tic  and  from  the  Arctic  zone  to  the  southernmost  point  of  South  America.  No 
one  knows  where  these  people  came  from ;  but  it  is  probable  that  at  a  remote 
period  they  crossed  Bering  Strait,  from  Asia,  which  was  the  birthplace  of  man, 
and  gradually  spread  over  the  continents  to  the  south.  There  are  found  scat 
tered  over  many  parts  of  our  country  immense  mounds  of  earth,  which  were  the 
work  of  the  Mound  Builders.  These  people  were  long  believed  to  have  been  a 
race  that  preceded  the  Indians,  and  were  distinct  from  them,  but  the  best  author 
ities  now  agree  that  they  were  the  Indians  themselves,  who  constructed  these 
enormous  burial-plaoes  -and  were  engaged  in  the  work  as  late  as  the  fifteenth 

3  (33) 


*4  DISCOVERY  AND   EXPLORATION. 

century  It  is  strange  that  they  attained  a  fair  degree  of  civilization.  They 
builded  cities,  wove  cotton,  labored  in  the  fields,  worked  gold,  silver,  and  copper, 
and  formed  regular  governments,  only  to  give  Avay  in  time  to  the  barbarism  of 
their  descendants,  who,  though  a  contrary  impression  prevails,  are  inore  numerous 
to-day  than  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America, 

DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA    BY    COLUMBUS. 

The  real  discoverer  of  America  was  Christopher  Columbus,  an  Italian,  born 


MEETING  BETWEEN  THE  NORTHMEN  AND  NATIVES. 

in  Genoa,  about  1435.  He  was  trained  to  the  sea  from  early  boyhood,  and 
formed  the  belief,  which  nothing  could  shake,  that  the  earth  was  round,  and  that 
by  sailing  westward  a  navigator  would  reach  the  coast  of  eastern  Asia.  The 
mistake  of  Columbus  was  in  supposing  the  earth  much  smaller  than  it  is,  and  of 
never  suspecting  that  a  continent  lay  between  his  home  and  Asia. 

He  was  too  poor  to  fit  out  an  expedition  himself,  and  the  kings  and  rulers 
to  whom  he  applied  for  help  laughed  him  to  scorn.  He  persevered  for  years, 
and  finally  King  Ferdinand  and  Queen  Isabella  of  Spain  were  won  over  to  his 


AMERIGO    VESPUCCI.  35 

views.  They  and  some  wealthy  friends  of  Columbus  furnished  the  needed  funds, 
and  on  August  3,  1492,  he  sailed  from  Palos,  Spain,  in  command  of  three  small 
vessels,  the  Santa  Maria,  the  Pinta,  and  the  Nina. 

As  the  voyage  progressed,  the  sailors  became  terrified  and  several  times  wert 
on  the  point  of  mutiny ;  but  Columbus  by  threats  and  promises  held  them  to 
their  work,  and  on  Friday,  October  12,  1492,  land  was  sighted.  He  was  rowed 
ashore  and  took  possession  of  the  new  country  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella.  While  it  is  not  known  with  certainty  where  he  landed,  it  was  prob 
ably  Watling  Island,  one  of  the  Bahamas.  He  named  it  San  Salvador,  and,  be 
lieving  it  to  be  a  part  of  India,  called  the  natives  Indians,  by  which  name  they 
will  always  be  known.  He  afterward  visited  Cuba  and  Haiti,  and  returned  to 
Palos  on  the  15th  of  March,  1493. 

Columbus  was  received  with  the  highest  honors,  aud,  as  the  news  of  his  great 
discovery  spread,  it  caused  a  profound  sensation  throughout  Europe.  He  made 
three  other  voyages,  but  did  not  add  greatly  to  his  discoveries.  He  died,  neglected 
and  in  poverty,  May  20,  1506,  without  suspecting  the  grandeur  of  his  work, 
which  marked  an  era  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

OTHER    DISCOVERERS. 

Another  famous  Italian  navigator  and  friend  of  Co 
lumbus  was  Amerigo  Vespucci,  who,  fired  by  the  success 
of  the  great  navigator,  made  several  voyages  westward.   He 
claimed  to  have  seen  South  America  in  May,  1497,  which, 
if  true,  made  him  the  first  man  to  look  upon  the  American 
continent.    Late  investigations  tend  to  show  that  Vespucci     SEBASTIAN  CABOT. 
was  correct  in  his  claim.     At  any  rate,  his  was  the  honor  of  having  the  country 
named  for  him. 

John  Cabot,  also  an  Italian,  but  sailing  under  the  flag  of  England,  discov 
ered  the  continent  of  North  America,  in  the  spring  of  1497.  A  year  later, 
Sebastian,  son  of  John,  explored  the  coast  from  Nova  Scotia  as  far  south  as 
Cape  Hatteras.  It  was  the  work  of  the  elder  Cabot  that  gave  England  a  valid 
claiiri  to  the  northern  continent. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  it  will  be  seen  that  Spain,  now  decrepit  and  de 
cayed,  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  all  nations  four  hundred  years  ago. 
Other  leading  powers  were  England,  France,  and  Holland,  and  all  of  them  soon 
began  a  scramble  for  new  lands  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Spain,  hav 
ing  been  the  first,  had  a  great  advantage,  and  she  was  wise  enough  to  use  all  the 
means  at  her  command.  We  will  first  trace  the  explorations  made  by  that 
nation. 

In  1513,  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  a  lawless  rogue,  hid  himself  in  a  cask  OD 


36 


DISCOVERY  A XI)   EXPLORATION. 


board  of  a  vessel  in  order  to  escape  his  creditors,  and  was  not  discovered  by  the 
angry  captain  until  so  far  from  land  that  he  could  not  be  taken  back  again. 
As  it  turned  out,  this  was  a  fortunate  thing  for  the  captain  and  crew,  for  Balboa 
was  a  good  sailor,  and  when  the  ship  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Darien  he  led 
the  men  through  many  dangers  to  an  Indian  village,  where  they  were  saved  from 
starvation.  Balboa  had  been  in  the  country  before  and  acquired  a  knowledge 
of  it,  which  now  proved  helpful. 

The  story  of  Spain  in  America  is  one  long,  frightful  record  of  massacre, 
cruelty,  greed,  and  rapine.  Ferocious  by  nature,  her  explorers  had  not  sufficient 
sense  to  see  that  it  was  to  their  interest  to  treat  the  Indians  justly.  These  people, 
although  armed  only  with  bows  and  arrows,  atwhichthe  Spaniards  laughed,  still 
outnumbered  them  a  thousandfold  and  could  crush  them  by  the  simple  force  of 

numbers.  Besides,  they  were  always  provided  with 
food,  which  they  were  eager  to  give  to  their  pale-faced 
brothers,  who  were  often  unable  to  obtain  it,  but 
whose  vicious  nature  would  not  permit  them  to  be 
manly  and  just.  * 

Moreover,  the  Spaniards  were  crazy  after  gold, 
which  they  believed  existed  in  many  places  in  pro 
digious  quantities.  The  sight  of  the  yellow  orna 
ments  worn  by  the  natives  fired  their  cupidity,  and 
they  inquired  eagerly  in  the  sign  language  where  the 
precious  metal  could  be  found.  One  of  the  Indians 
replied  that  six  days'  travel  westward  would  bring 
them  to  the  shores  of  a  great  sea,  where  gold  was  as 
plentiful  as  the  pebbles  on  the  beach. 


CARAVELS  OF  CHRISTO 
PHER  COLUMBUS. 

(After  an  engraving  published  in  1584.) 


DISCOVERY    OF    THE    PACIFIC. 

This  information,  as  may  be  believed,  set  the 
Spaniards  wild,  and,  engaging  a  number  of  the  natives  as  guides,  they  plunged 
into  the  hot,  steaming  forests,  and  pressed  on  until  one  day  they  came  to  the  base 
of  a  mountain,  from  the  top  of  which  the  guides  said  the  great  sea  could  be  seen. 
Balboa  made  his  men  stay  where  they  were  while  he  climbed  to  the  crest  of  the 
mountain  alone.  This  was  on  the  26th  of  September,  1513,  and,  as  Balboa 
looked  off  to  the  westward,  his  eyes  rested  upon  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  mightiest 
body  of  water  on  the  globe. 

He  had  made  a  grand  discovery,  and  one  which  led  to  the  conquest  of 
Mexico  and  Peru  and  the  colonization  of  the  western  coast  of  our  country. 
Spain  sent  her  armed  expeditions  thither,  and  in  time  they  overran  the  sections 
named,  their  footprints  marked  everywhere  by  fire  and  blood.  Many  remains 


FIRST  CIRCUMNAVIGATION  OF  THE   GLOBE. 


37 


exist  to-day  in  the  Southwest  of  the  early  visits  of  those  rapacious  adventurers, 
during  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  JSanta  Fe,  New  Mexico,  is  a 
building  made  of  adobe  or  sun-dried  clay  which  was  built  in  1582. 

THE    FIRST    CIRCUMNAVIGATION    OF   THE   GLOBE. 

In  1519  Ferdinand  Magellan  coasted  South  America  to  the  strait  named 
in  his  honor,  and,  passing  through  it,  entered  upon  the  vast  body  of  water  dis 
covered  six  years  before  by  Balboa.  Magellan  gave  it  the  name  of  Pacific 


COLUMBUS  AND  THE  EGG-. 

At  a  dinner  the  Spanish  courtiers,  jealous  of  Columbus,  said  anyone  could  discover  the  Indies.  When,  at  Columbus'  request, 
they  failed  to  make  an  egg  stand  on  its  end,  he  showed  them  how  to  do  it  by  flattening  the  end  of  it.  "Anyone  could  do  that," 
remarked  a  courtier.  "  So  anyone  can  discover  the  Indies,  after  I  have  shown  the  way." 

Ocean,  and,  sailing  westward,  discovered  the  Philippine  Islands,  which  have 
lately  acquired  such  importance  in  our  history.  There  Magellan  died.  Several 
of  his  ships  were  lost,  but  one  of  them  succeeded  in  reaching  Spain  after  an 
absence  of  two  years.  This  was  the  first  circumnavigation  of  the  globe  and 
demonstrated  the  grandeur  of  the  discovery  made  by  Columbus. 

One  of  the  companions  of  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage  was  Ponce  de 
Leon.     He  was  well  on  in  years,  and  became  deeply  interested  in  a  story  told 


38  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION. 

by  the  Indians  of  a  wonderful  land  to  the  north  of  Cuba,  where  there  was  a 
marvelous  spring,  which  would  bring  back  youth  to  any  who  drank  from  its 
waters.  De  Leon  set  out  to  hunt  for  the  land  and  discovered  it  in  Florida  on 
Easter  {Sunday,  in  1513.  He  drank  to  repletion  again  and  again  from  the  springs 
he  found,  but  without  restoring  his  youth,  and  he  was  killed  by  Indians  in  1521, 
while  trying  to  form  a  settlement  on  the  coast. 

De  Narvaez  visited  Florida,  in  1528,  in  charge  of  a  large  expedition,  with 
the  intention  of  inarching  into  the  interior,  but  the  Spaniards  were  so  brutal  to 
the  Indians  that  they  fought  them  step  by  step,  until  only  four  wretched  beings 
were  left  alive.  They  lived  a  long  time  with  the  natives,  but  gradually  worked 
their  way  across  the  continent  to  California,  where  they  found  some  of  their 
countrymen,  who  took  care  of  them. 

DISCOVERY    OF   THE   MISSISSIPPI. 

One  of  the  best-equipped  expeditions  ever  sent  out  was  that  of  Hernando  de 
Soto,  which  landed  at  Tampa  Bay  in  May,  1539.  Although  the  intention  was 
to  penetrate  far  into  the  interior,  the  Spaniards  had  no  sooner  set  foot  on  land 
than  they  began  their  outrages  against  the  Indians,  who,  as  in  the  case  of  De 
Narvaez,  turned  upon  them  and  slew  large  numbers.  The  explorers,  however, 
pushed  on  and  passed  over  a  large  section  of  country,  though  the  precise  course 
taken  is  not  known.  In  the  summer  of  1541  they  crossed  the  present  State  of 
Mississippi  and  thus  discovered  the  Father  of  Waters.  Three  years  were  spent 
in  wandering  through  the  South,  during  which  one-third  of  the  number  were 
killed  or  died  and  all  the  property  destroyed.  Losing  heart  at  last,  De  Soto 
turned  about,  in  May,  1542,  and  started  for  the  sea  with  the  intention  of  re 
turning  home.  He  was  worn  and  weakened  from  fever,  and  he  expired  on  the 
21st  of  the  month.  Fearful  that  the  news  of  his  death  would  incite  the  Indians 
to  attack  them,  his  survivors  wrapped  the  body  in  blankets,  weighted  it  with 
stones,  and  at  midnight  rowed  stealthily  out  into  the  river  and  let  it  sink  from 
sight  There  was  something  fitting  in  the  fact  that  the  Mississippi  should  prove 
the  last  resting-place  of  its  discoverer. 

Pedro  Menendez  was  one  of  the  most  execrable  miscreants  that  ever  lived. 
He  arrived  off  the  coast  of  Florida  with  a  large  expedition  and  at  the  mouth 
of  the  St.  John's  saw  a  number  of  ships  flying  the  flag  of  France.  He  furiously 
attacked  them  and  drove  them  to  sea.  Then  he  returned  to  a  fine  harbor  which 
he  had  discovered  and  began  the  town  of  St.  Augustine.  This  was  in  1565t 
and  St.  Augustine  is,  therefore,  the  oldest  settlement  within  the  present  limits 
of  the  United  States,  excluding  those  founded  in  some  of  our  colonial  pos 
sessions. 

Let  us  now  turn  attpntion   to  the  French  explorations.     France  in  those 


SEARCH    FOR   THE    FOUNTAIN    OF    YOUTH    BY    PONCE    DE    LEON  39 


40  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION. 

days  was  a  spirited  rival  of  Spain,  and,  111  1524,  she  sent  out  a  fleet  of  four 
vessels  under  the  command  of  Verrazzani,  who,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  was  also 
an  Italian.  Two  months  later,  with  only  a  single  ship  remaining,  he  sighted 
the  mainland  of  America,  it  is  believed  near  North  Carolina,  from  which  point 
he  coasted  northward  along  New  England.  He  gave  the  name  of  New  France 
to  all  the  countries  he  visited,  but  his  account  of  his  explorations  is  so  vague 
that  it  is  uncertain  what  lands  he  saw.  Verrazzani,  however,  seems  to  have  been 
the  first  navigator  who  formed  a  correct  idea  of  the  size  of  the  globe. 

In  1534  Jacques  Carrier,  with  two  ships,  entered  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  He  was  so  impressed  by  the  desolation  of  the  shores  of  Newfound 
land  that  he  declared  his  belief  that  it  was  the  land  to  which  God  had  banished 
Cain.  Nevertheless,  he  took  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of  France 
and  then  returned  home. 

Carrier  visited  the  country  the  following  year  with  a  larger  expedition  and 
sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  sites  of  Quebec  and  Montreal.  He  was  not 
successful  in  his  attempts  to  found  colonies,  but  his  discovery  gave  France  a  title 
to  the  immense  region  which  she  held  with  a  firm  grasp  for  more  than  a  hun 
dred  years. 

Failing  to  establish  colonies  in  the  North,  France  now  directed  her  efforts 
to  the  south.  The  Huguenots  suffered  so  much  persecution  in  the  Old  World 
that  they  sought  a  home  in  the  New.  Captain  John  Ribault,  sailing  from  Havre 
with  two  ships,  sighted  Florida  on  the  last  day  of  April,  1562.  The  Indians 
were  friendly  and  the  explorers  were  charmed  with  the  country.  Ribault  took 
possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  France  and  gave  French  names  to  various  places. 
Finally  he  dropped  anchor  in  the  harbor  of  Port  Royal  and  began  founding  a 
settlement. 

All  were  in  good  spirits  and  wished  to  remain,  but  Ribault  sailed  for  France, 
leaving  thirty  men  behind.  After  a  time  they  quarreled  and  rigged  up  a 
worthless  boat  with  which  they  set  sail  for  home.  All  would  have  perished, 
had  they  not  been  picked  up  by  an  English  vessel,  which  humanely  landed  the 
feeblest  on  the  coast  of  France,  while  the  strong  men  were  taken  to  England  as 
prisoners  of  war. 

^  It  was  the  intention  of  Ribault  to  return  to  America,  but  civil  war  was 
raging  in  France,  and  for  a  time  he  was  prevented.  In  April,  1564,  three  more 
ships  set  sail  to  repeat  the  attempt  at  colonization.  They  were  under  the  com 
mand  of  Captain  Laudonniere,  who  had  been  a  member  of  the  former  expe- 
He  began  a  settlement  at  what  is  now  known  as  St.  John's  Bluff.  The 
friendly  Indians  helped  and  all  promised  well,  but  unfortunately  the  colonists 
became  dissatisfied  and  rebelled  against  the  strict  rule  of  Laudonniere.  Some 
of  the  men  stole  two  small  vessels  and  set  sail  for  the  West  Indies  on  a  piratical 


THE  FRENCH  EXPLORERS. 


41 


expedition.  Laudonniere  hurriedly  prepared  two  larger  vessels  to  pursue  them. 
When  they  were  ready,  the  malcon tents  stole  them  and  followed  their  comrades. 
Three  of  the  buccaneers  were  captured  by  the  Spanish,  while  the  pilot  of  the 
fourth,  who  had  been  pressed  into  service,  steered  the  vessel  back  to  the  colony 
before  the  rogues  suspected  what  he  was  ^fM>^ 

doing.       Laudonniere    made    them    pris 
oners  and  hanged  the  ringleaders. 

At    the    time   when    utter  ruin   im 
pended,  Ribault  arrived  with  seven  ships 


;V~ 
-•^''s 


AN  INDIAN   COUNCIL  OF    WAR. 


pp£s  ,  and  plenty  of  supplies.  It 
'$jf  was  at  this  juncture,  when 
everything  promised  well, 
that  Menendez,  the  Spanish 
miscreant,  as  already  stated,  appeared  with  his  powerful  fleet  and  attacked  the 
French  ships.  Three  were  up  the  river,  and  the  four,  being  no  match  for  the 
Spaniards,  escaped  by  putting  to  sea.  Menendez  landed  men  and  supplies  further 


42  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION. 

south,  learning  which  Ribault  prepared  to  attack  them.  Before  he  could  do  so.  a 
violent  tempest  scattered  his  ships.  By  a  laborious  march  through  swamps  and 
thickets,  amid  a  driving  storm,  Menendez  descended  like  a  cyclone  upon  the  unpro 
tected  French  and  massacred  them  all,  including  the  women  and  children.  Another 
force  of  French,  under  solemn  promise  of  protection,  surrendered,  but  they,  too, 
were  put  to  death.  They  were  afterwards  avenged  by  an  expedition  from  France. 

Samuel  de  (Jhainplain  proved  himself  one  of  the  greatest  of  French 
explorers.  He  left  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  discovered  the  lake  which  bears  his  name.  His 
numerous  excellent  maps  added  much  to  the  knowledge  of  the  country.  Join 
ing  De  Monte,  another  explorer,  he  founded  the  colony  of  Pon  Royal  in  Nova 
Scotia  in  1605.  This  settlement,  afterward  named  Annapolis,  was  the  first 
permanent  French  colony  planted  in  America.  Quebec  was  founded  by  Cham- 
plain  in  1008. 

The  greatest  French  explorer,  however,  was  Sieur  de  la  Salle,  who  was 
hardly  twenty-three  years  old  when  he  first  visited  Canada  in  1666.  Leading 
an  expedition  westward,  he  fell  ill  while  in  the  country  of  the  Seneca  Indians 
and  was  forced  to  part  with  his  companions  near  the  head  of  Lake  Ontario. 
When  he  regained  his  strength  he  pressed  on  to  the  Ohio  River,  down  which 
he  descended  to  the  falls  opposite  the  present  city  of  Louisville.,  Returning  to 
France,  he  was  made  a  nobleman  and  appointed  governor  of  the  country  around 
Fort  Frontenac,  which  he  had  planted  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Ontario.  He 
demolished  the  fort  and  erected  a  much  stronger  one,  built  four  small  vessels, 
and  established  a  thriving  trade  with  the  Indians. 

In  August,  1679,  La  Salle  launched  a  vessel  at  the  port  of  Niagara,  with 
which  he  sailed  the  length  of  Lake  Erie,  across  Lakes  St.  Clair,  Huron,  and 
Michigan  to  Green  Bay.  He  then  sent  back  his  vessel  for  supplies  and  crossed 
the  lake  in  canoes  to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Joseph,  where  he  built  a  fort.  He 
visited  the  Indian  tribes  in  the  neighborhood  and  made  treaties  with  the 
chiefs. 

On  the  present  site  of  Peoria,  he  erected  a  fort  in  1680.  Then,  sending  Father 
Hennepin  to  explore  the  country  to  the  northward,  La  Salle  made  the  entire 
journey  of  several  hundred  miles,  alone  and  on  foot,  to  Fort  Frontenac,  where 
he  learned  that  the  vessel  he  had  sent  back  for  supplies  was  lost. 

With  a  new  party  he  made  his  way  to  the  fort  planted  on  the  Illinois 
River,  but  found  it  had  been  broken  up  and  all  the  white  men  were  gone. 
Thence  La  Salle  went  down  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth,  where  he  set  up  a 
column  with  the  French  arms  and  proclaimed  the  country  the  possession  of  the 
king  of  France.  He  was  welcomed  back  to  his  native  land,  and  when  he  pro 
posed  to  his  ruler  to  conquer  the  fine  mining  country  in  the  Southwest,  the  offer 


ENGLISH  EXPLORERS.  43 

was  promptly  accepted  and  he  was  made  commandant.  He  set  out  with  four 
ships  and  about  300  persons. 

But  the  good  fortune  that  had  marked  the  career  of  La  Salle  up  to  this 
point  now  set  the  other  way,  and  disaster  and  ruin  overtook  him.  His  men 
were  mostly  adventurers  and  vagabonds,  and  the  officer  in  command  of  the  ships 
was  an  enemy  of  the  explorer.  The  two  quarreled  and  the  vessels  had  gone 
some  distance  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  before  La  Salle  discovered 
the  blunder.  He  appealed  to  the  captain  to  return,  but  he  refused  and  anchored 
off  Matagorda  Bay.  Then  the  captain  decided  that  it  was  necessary  to  go  home 
for  supplies,  and  sailing  away  he  left  La  Salle  with  only  one  small  vessel  which 
had  been  presented  to  him  by  the  king. 

The  undaunted  explorer  erected  a  fort  and  began  cultivating  the  soil.  The 
Indians,  who  had  not  forgotten  the  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards,  were  hostile  and 
continually  annoyed  the  settlers,  several  of 
whom  were  killed.  Disease  carried  away 
others  until  only  forty  were  left.  Selecting 
a  few,  La  Salle  started  for  the  Illinois 
country,  but  had  not  gone  far  when  he  was 
treacherously  shot  by  one  of  his  men.  The 
Spaniards  who  had  entered  the  country 
to  drive  out  the  French  made  prisoners  of 
those  that  remained. 

THE    ENGLISH    EXPLORERS. 

Next  in  order    is   an  account  of  the 

English  explorations.     Going  back  tO  May,  (From  the  original  drawing  made  by  John  White  in  1585. 

1553,  we  find  that  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby 

sailed  from  London  in  that  month  with  three  ships.  At  that  time,  and  for  many 
years  afterward,  the  belief  was  general  that  by  sailing  to  the  northwest  a  shorter 
route  to  India  could  be  found,  and  such  was  the  errand  that  led  the  English 
navigator  upon  his  eventful  voyage. 

For  two  years  not  the  slightest  news  was  heard  of  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby. 
Then  some  Eussian  fishermen,  who  were  in  one  of  the  harbors  of  Lapland, 
observed  two  ships  drifting  helplessly  in  the  ice.  They  rowed  out  to  the  wrecks, 
and  climbing  aboard  of  one  entered  the  cabin  where  they  came  upon  an  impres 
sive  sight.  Seated  at  a  table  was  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby,  with  his  journal  open 
and  his  pen  in  hand,  as  if  he  had  just  ceased  writing.  He  had  been  frozen  to 
death  months  before.  Here  and  there  about  him  were  stretched  the  bodies  of 
his  crews,  all  of  whom  had  succumbed  to  the  awful  temperature  of  the  far  North. 

The  third  ship  was  nowhere  in  sight,  and  it  was  believed  that  she  had  been 


44 


DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION. 


crushed  in  the  ice  and  sunk,  but  news  eventually  arrived  that  she  had  succeeded 
in  reaching  Archangel,  whence  the  crew  made  their  way  overland  to  Moscow. 
A  result  of  this  involuntary  journey  was  that  it  opened  a  new  channel  for 
profitable  trade. 

Still  the  ignis  fatuus  of  a  shorter  route  to  India  tantalized  the  early  navi 
gators.  The  belief  was  general  that  the  coveted  route  lay  north  of  our  conti 
nent.  In  1576  Martin  Frobisher  started  on  the  vain  hunt  with  three  small 
vessels.  He  bumped  helplessly  about  in  the  ice,  but  repeated  the  effort  twice, 
and  on  one  of  his  voyages  entered  the  strait  that  bears  his  name.  The  region 
^ visited  by  him  is  valueless  to  the 

r  world,  and  his  explorations,  there 

fore,  were  of  no  practical  benefit  to 
anyone. 

Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  in 
June,  1583,  sailed  for  America 
with  an  important  expedition 
which  gave  every  promise  of  suc 
cess.  In  his  case,  however,  dis 
aster  overtook  him  earlier  than 
others.  He  was  hardly  out  of 
sight  of  land  when  his  most  impor 
tant  vessel  deserted  and  went  back 
to  port.  The  men  were  a  sorry 
lot,  and  at  Newfoundland  he  sent 
another  ship  home  with  the  sick 
and  the  mutineers.  Of  the  three 
vessels  remaining,  the  largest  was 

INDIAN  VILLAGE  ENCLOSED  WITH  PALISADES.  .          r*i> 

(From  the  original  drawing  in  the  British  Museum,  made  by  John    Wreckedaild  all  DUt  fifteen  drOWUCd. 

Sir  Humphrey  was  on  the  smallest 

boat  on  his  way  home,  when  one  dark  night  it  foundered,  carrying  down  all 
on  board. 

The  famous  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  a  half-brother  of  Gilbert,  and  a  great 
favorite  at  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  deeply  interested  in  the  plans  of 
his  relative,  and  in  April,  1584,  sent  out  two  well-equipped  vessels  for  the 
purpose  of  colonization.  They  brought  back  a  glowing  report  and  Raleigh 
was  knighted  by  the  pleased  queen,  who  gave  him  the  privilege  of  naming 
the  new  country.  He  called  it  Virginia,  in  honor  of  the  virgin  Queen  Eliza 
beth. 

A  large  expedition  sailed  for  the  new  country  in  the  spring  of  1585  and  a 
fort  was  built  on  Roanoke  Island.  But  the  Englishmen  were  as  greedy  for  gold 
is  the  Spaniards,  and,  instead  of  cultivating  the  land,  they  spent  their  time  grop- 


THE  LOST  COLONY.  45 

ing  for  the  precious  metal.  This  was  suicidal,  because  the  Indians  were  violently 
hostile,  and  would  not  bring  forward  any  food  for  the  invaders.  All  must  have 
perished  miserably  but  for  the  arrival  of  Sir  Francis  Drake,  who  carried  the 
survivors  back  to  England. 

It  is  worth  recording  that  this  stay  in  America  resulted  in  the  Englishmen 
learning  the  use  of  tobacco,  which  they  introduced  into  their  own  country.  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  became  a  great  smoker,  and  the  incident  is  familiar  of  his  ser 
vant,  who,  seeing  his  master  smoking  a  pipe,  was  terrified  at  the  belief  that  he 
was  on  fire  and  dashed  a  mug  of  ale  over  him  to  put  out  the  flames. 

Much  more  useful  knowledge  was  that  gained  of  maize  or  Indian  corn,  the 
potato,  and  sassafras.  They  attracted  favorable  attention  in  England,  and  were 
gradually  introduced  to  other  countries  in  Europe,  where  the  amount  raised  is 
very  large. 

THE    LOST    COLONY. 

A  strange  and  romantic  interest  attaches  to  the  colony  which  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  sent  out  in  1587.  It  numbered  300  men  and 
women  and  was  in  charge  of  John  White.  While  resting 
at  Roanoke,  the  daughter  of  Governor  White,  the  wife  of 
Ananias  Dare,  had  a  daughter  born  to  her.  She  was 
given  the  name  of  "  Virginia,"  and  was  the  first  child  of 
English  parentage  born  within  the  present  limits  of  the 
United  States. 

These  settlers  were  as  quarrelsome  as  many  of  their 
predecessors  and  got  on  ill  together.  Governor  White 
sailed  for  England  for  more  immigrants  and  supplies,  but 

,        /.  i  ,  i       •     ,  11          SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH. 

whenhereached  that  country  he  found  the  internal  troubles 

so  serious  that  he  was  kept  away  from  America  for  three  years.  When  finally 
he  returned  to  Virginia,  he  was  unable  to  find  a  member  of  the  colony.  On  one 
of  the  trees  was  the  word  "  CROATAN  "  cut  in  the  bark,  which  seemed  to 
indicate  that  the  settlers  had  removed  to  a  settlement  of  that  name  ;  but,  though 
long  and  continuous  search  was  made  and  many  of  the  articles  belonging  to 
the  settlers  were  recognized,  not  a  person  could  be  discovered.  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  sent  several  expeditions  with  orders  to  use  every  effort  to  clear  up  the 
mystery,  but  it  was  never  solved.  The  story  of  the  "  Lost  Colony"  has  led  to 
a  great  deal  of  investigation  and  surmise.  Two  theories  have  supporters.  The 
most  probable  is  that  all  the  settlers  were  massacred  by  Indians.  Another  is  that 
they  were  adopted  by  the  red  men  and  intermarried  among  them.  In  support 
of  this  supposition  is  the  fact  that  a  long  time  afterward  many  members  of  the 
adjoining  tribes  showed  unmistakable  signs  of  mixed  blood.  There  were  so- 
called  Indians  with  blonde  hair,  bine  eyes,  and  light  complexion — characteristics 
never  seen  among  those  belonging  to  the  genuine  American  race. 


4(5  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION. 

Holland's  explorations  in  America  were  less  important  than  those  of  any 
of  her  rivals.  The  thrifty  Dutchmen  were  more  anxious  to  secure  trade  than  to 
find  new  countries,  and  seemed  content  to  allow  others  to  spend  wealth  and  pre 
cious  lives  in  penetrating  to  the  interior  of  the  New  World  and  in  planting  set 
tlements,  which  almost  invariably  succumbed  to  disaster. 

Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  a  company  of  English  merchants  sent  out 
a  skillful  navigator  named  Henry  Hudson  to  hunt  for  the  elusive  northwest  pas 
sage.  He  took  with  him  only  eleven  men,  one  of  whom  was  his  son.  He  made 
a  brave  effort  to  succeed,  ploughing  his  way  through  the  frozen  regions  until  he 
passed  the  80th  degree  of  latitude,  which  was  the  furthest  point  then  attained  by 
man.  But,  within  less  than  ten  degrees  of  the  pole,  he  was  forced  by  the  ice  to 
turn  back. 

THE    DISCOVERY    OF    THE    HUDSON    RIVER. 

Hudson's  reputation  as  a  skillful  navigator  led  the  wealthy  corporation 
known  as  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  to  seek  his  services.  He  was  placed 
in  command  of  a  small  vessel  called  the  Half  Moon  and  ordered  to  sail  to  the 
northeast  instead  of  the  northwest.  He  did  as  directed,  but  his  experience  was 
similar  to  his  previous  one,  and,  being  compelled  to  withdraw,  he  headed  west 
ward.  Sighting  Cape  Cod,  he  named  it  New  Holland,  unaware  that  it  had  al 
ready  been  named  by  Champlain.  He  continued  southward  to  Chesapeake  Bay, 
where  he  learned  that  the  English  had  planted  a  settlement.  Turning  north 
ward,  he  entered  Delaware  Bay,  but  was  displeased  with  the  shallow  water  and 
sailed  again  northward.  On  September  3,  1609,  he  dropped  anchor  opposite 
Sandy  Hook. 

Hudson  now  began  ascending  the  magnificent  river  which  bears  his  name. 
At  the  end  of  ten  days  he  had  reached  a  point  opposite  the  present  site  of  Al 
bany.  The  Indians  were  friendly  and  curious.  Many  of  them  put  out  in  their 
canoes  and  were  made  welcome  on  board  the  little  Dutch  vessel,  which  was  a 
source  of  constant  wonderment  to  them,  for  they  had  never  seen  anything  of  the 
kind  before. 

Descending  the  stream,  Hudson  made  his  way  to  Dartmouth,  England,  from 
which  point  he  sent  an  account  of  his  discovery  to  Holland.  That  country  lost 
no  time  in  claiming  sovereignty  over  the  new  territory,  the  claim  being  so  valid 
that  no  other  nation  could  legitimately  dispute  it. 

Hudson's  achievement  added  to  his  fame,  and  he  was  once  more  sent  in  search 
of  the  northwest  passage.  He  entered  the  bay  and  strait  which  bear  his  name, 
and  passed  a  winter  in  that  terrible  region.  In  the  following  spring  his  crew 
mutinied,  and,  placing  the  navigator,  his  son,  and  several  members  in  an  open 
boat,  set  them  adrift,  and  none  of  them  was  ever  heard  of  again. 


CHAPTER  II. 


SKTTLRMKNT    OK   T^HK   THIRTKKN    ORIGINAL 

STATES. 

Virginia,  —  Founding  of  Jamestown  —  Captain  John  Smith  —  Introduction  of  African  Slavery  —  Indian 
Wars  —  Bacon's  Rebellion  —  Forms  of  Government  —  Prosperity  —  Education  —  New  England,  —  Ply 
mouth  —  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  —  Union  of  the  Colonies  —  Religious  Persecution  —  King  Philip's 
War  —  The  Witchcraft  Delusion  —  New  Hampshire,  —  The  Connecticut  Colony,  —  The  New  Haven 
Colony,  —  Union  of  the  Colonies  —  Indian  Wars  —  The  Charter  Oak  —  Rhode  Island,  —  Different  Forms 
of  Government  —  NeivYork,  —  The  Dutch  and  English  Settlers  —  New  Jersey,  —  Delaware,  —  Pennsyl 
vania,  —  Maryland,  —  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line  —  The  Carolinas  —  Georgia. 

AT  the  opening  of  the  seventeenth  century  there  was  not  a  single  English 
settlement  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  French 
succeeded  in  planting  colonies  in  Canada,  that  of  De  Monts,  in  1605,  in  Acaclia 
(the  French  name  of  Nova  Scotia),  proving  successful,  while  Champlain  founded 
Quebec  three  years  later.  St.  Augustine,  Florida,  was  founded  by  the  Spanish 
in  1565,  but  it  has  played  an  insignificant  part  in  our  history.  England  was 
the  mother  of  the  colonies,  from  which  the  original  thirteen  States  sprang,  and 
we  are  vastly  more  indebted  to  her  than  to  all  other  nations  combined. 

THE    FIRST    ENGLISH    SETTLEMENT. 

In  the  year  1606,  when  James  I.  was  king  of  England,  he  gave  a  charter 
or  patent  to  a  number  of  gentlemen,  which  made  them  the  owners  of  all  that 
part  of  America  lying  between  the  thirty-fourth  and  thirty-eighth  degrees  of 
north  latitude.  The  men  who  received  this  gift  associated  themselves  together 
under  the  name  of  the  London  Company,  and  in  the  same  year  sent  out  three 
vessels,  carrying  105  men,  but  no  women  or  children.  A  storm  drove  them 
out  of  their  course,  and,  in  the  month  of  May,  they  entered  the  mouth  of  a 

(47) 


48  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES 

broad  river,  which  they  named  the  James  in  honor  of  their  king.  They  sailed 
up  stream  for  fifty  miles,  and,  on  the  13th  of  May,  1607,  began  the  settlement  of 
Jamestown,  which  was  the  first  English  colony  successfully  planted  in  America. 
Everything  looked  promising,  but  the  trouble  was  that  the  men  did  not 
wish  to  work,  and,  instead  of  cultivating  the  soil,  spent  their  time  in  hunting 
for  gold  which  did  not  exist  any  where  near  them.  They  were  careless  in  their 
manner  of  living  and  a  great  many  fell  ill  and  died.  They  must  have  perished 
before  long  had  they  not  been  wise  enough  to  elect  Captain  John  Smith  presi 
dent  or  ruler  of  the  colony. 

CAPTAIN    JOHN    SMITH    AND    HIS    ADVENTURES. 

This  man  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  characters  in  the  early  history  of  our 
country.  He  was  a  great  boaster,  and  most  of  his  associates  did  not  like  him. 
He  had  been  a  wanderer  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  had  any  number  of 
stories  to  tell  of  his  wonderful  adventures.  Probably  some  of  those  stories  were 
true  and  many  fiction.  Be  that  as  it  may,  he  was  an  energetic  and  brave  man, 
and  the  very  one  to  save  the  perishing  settlers.  He  made  every  man  work,  and 
none  wrought  harder  than  himself.  As  a  consequence  matters  began  to  mend  at 
once. 

Obeying  his  orders  in  London,  Captain  Smith,  when  it  seemed  prudent  to 
do  so,  spent  much  of  his  time  in  exploring  the  streams  that  flowed  into  the 
James.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  it  was  still  believed  in  Europe  that 
America  formed  a  part  of  Asia,  and  that  no  one  needed  to  penetrate  far  into  the 
interior  to  reach  that  country. 

On  one  of  these  voyages  Captain  Smith  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Indians, 
who  led  him  before  their  chief  Powhatan.  The  chief  decided  that  he  must 
be  put  to  death,  and,  with  his  hands  tied  together,  he  was  placed  on  the  ground, 
with  his  head  resting  on  two  big  stones.  Then  one  of  the  warriors  stepped  for 
ward  to  dash  out  his  brains  with  a  club.  At  that  moment  Pocahontas,  the  young 
daughter  of  the  chief,  ran  forward,  and,  throwing  her  arms  around  the  head  of 
Smith,  begged  her  father  to  spare  his  life.  The  chief  consented,  and  the  prisoner 
was  set  free  and  returned  to  Jamestown.  Such  is  the  story  which  Captain  Smith 
told  after  the  death  of  Pocahontas  in  England,  which  she  had  visited  with  her 
husband,  an  Englishman  named  Rolfe,  and  it  can  never  be  known  whether  the 
incident  was  true  or  not.  Some  years  later  Smith  was  so  badly  injured  by  the 
explosion  of  gunpowder  that  he  had  to  return  to  England  for  treatment.  There 
he  died  in  1631.  His  invaluable  services  in  this  country  have  led  historians  to 
regard  him  as  the  saviour  of  the  Virginia  colony. 

The  most  woeful  blow  that  was  struck  the  American  colonies  was  in  August, 
1619,  when  a  Dutch  ship  sailed  up  the  James  and  sold  twenty  negroes,  kidnapped 


THE    MARRIAGE   OF    POCHAHONTAS. 


BACON'S  REBELLION.  51 

in  Africa,  to  the  colonists  as  slaves.  It  was  thus  that  African  slavery  was  intro 
duced  into  this  country,  bringing  in  its  train  more  sorrow,  suffering,  desolation, 
and  death  than  pen  can  describe  or  imagination  conceive.  The  institution  be 
came  legal  in  all  the  colonies,  and  the  ships  of  New  England,  as  well  as  those 
of  old  England,  were  actively  engaged  for  many  years  in  the  slave  trade. 

WARS    WITH    THE    INDIANS. 

The  marriage  of  Pocahontas  to  one  of  the  settlers  made  her  father  a  firm 
friend  of  the  whites  as  long  as  he  lived.  At  his  death,  his  brother  Opechan- 
kano  succeeded  him.  He  hated  intensely  the  invaders  of  the  hunting  grounds, 
and  began  plotting  to  exterminate  them.  On  the  22d  of  March,  1622,  he  made 
such  a  sudden  and  furious  assault  upon  the  plantations,  as  the  farms  were  called, 
along  the  James  that  400  people  were  killed  in  one  day.  The  settlers  rallied, 
slew  many  of  the  Indians  and  drove  the  remainder  far  back  in  the  woods,  but 
by  the  time  this  was  accomplished  half  of  the  4,000  settlers  were  dead  and  the 
eighty  plantations  were  reduced  to  eight. 

Opechankano  was  not  crushed,  and  for  more  than  twenty  years  he  busied 
himself  in  perfecting  his  plans  for  a  greater  and  more  frightful  massacre.  It  was 
in  April,  1644,  that  he  struck  his  second  blow,  killing  between  three  and  four 
hundred  of  the  settlers.  Once  more  the  Virginians  renewed  the  war  of  extermi 
nation,  and  pressed  it  mercilessly  until  the  Indians  sued  for  peace,  gave  a  large 
tract  of  land  to  their  conquerors,  and  retired  still  further  into  the  wilderness.  It 
is  worth  noting  that  at  the  time  of  this  last  massacre  Opechankano  was  nearly  a 
hundred  years  old. 

BACON'S    REBELLION. 

Sir  William  Berkeley  was  the  most  bigoted  ruler  Virginia  ever  had.  In 
one  of  his  messages,  he  thanked  God  that  there  were  no  free  schools  or  printing 
in  his  province.  He  was  very  tyrannous,  and,  having  friends  in  the  assembly, 
they  prevented  the  election  of  any  new  members  from  1666  to  1676.  The  taxes 
became  intolerable,  and  trade  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  few  individuals.  Not  only 
that,  but  the  governor  disbanded  the  troops  which  had  gathered  for  protection 
against  the  Indians,  who  renewed  their  attacks  on  the  exposed  plantations. 

This  was  more  than  the  people  could  stand,  and  they  rose  in  rebellion 
under  the  leadership  of  Nathaniel  Bacon,  a  popular  young  planter,  who  had 
lost  several  members  of  his  family  through  the  attacks  of  the  Indians.  Berkeley 
was  cowed  for  a  time,  but  the  arrival  of  some  ships  from  England  enabled  him 
to  take  the  field  against  Bacon.  During  the  civil  war,  Jamestown  was  burned 
to  the  ground  and  never  rebuilt.  Bacon  pressed  his  resistance  so  vigorously 
that  his  success  seemed  certain,  when  unfortunately  he  fell  ill  and  died.  Left 
without  a  leader,  the  rebellion  crumbled  to  pieces.  The  exultant  Berkeley  pun- 


52 


SETTLEMENT  OF  THE   THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES. 


ished  the  leading  rebels  without  mercy.  He  hanged  twenty-two,  and  was  so 
ferocious  that  the  king  lost  patience  and  ordered  him  to  return  to  England. 
"  The  old  fool !  "  he  exclaimed  ;  "  he  has  taken  away  more  lives  in  that  naked 
country  than  I  did  for  the  murder  of  my  father." 


Colonial 


Virginia 


PROSPERITY    OF   THE   COLONY. 

underwent  several  changes  in  its  form  of  government. 

A  "Great  Charter"  was 
granted  to  it  in  1613  by  the 
London  Company.  This 
permitted  the  settlers  to 
make  their  own  laws.  The 
House  of  Burgesses,  which 
was  called  together  at  James 
town  by  Governor  Yeardley, 
July  30,  1619,  was  the  first 
legislative  body  that  ever 
met  in  this  country.  King 
James  was  dissatisfied  with 
the  tendency  of  things,  and 
in  1624  he  took  away  the 
charter  and  granted  a  new 
one,  which  allowed  the  col 
ony  to  elect  the  members  of 
the  House  of  Burgesses, 
while  the  king  appointed 
the  council  and  their  gov 
ernor.  This  made  Virginia 
a  royal  province,  which  she 
remained  until  the  Revolu 
tion. 

Virginia  became  very 
prosperous.  Immense  quan 
tities  of  tobacco  were  raised 
and  sent  to  England  and 
Holland,  where  it  became  widely  popular.  Its  cultivation  was  so  profitable  in 
the  colony  that  for  a  time  little  else  was  cultivated.  It  was  planted  even  along 
the  streets  of  Jamestown  and  became  the  money  of  the  province.  Everything 
was  paid  for  in  so  many  pounds  of  tobacco.  The  population  steadily  increased, 
and  in  1715  was  95,(K)(),  which  was  the  same  as  that  of  Massachusetts.  A  half- 


ARMOR   WORN   BY    THE   PIL.GRIMS   IN   1620. 


THE  PILGRIMS  AT  PLYMOUTH.  53 

century  later,  Virginia  was  the  richest  and  most  important  of  the  thirteen  colo 
nies.  The  people  lived  mostly  on  large  plantations,  for  land  was  plentiful  and 
the  Indians  gave  no  further  trouble.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  were  members  of 
the  Church  of  England,  and  their  assemblies  passed  severe  laws  against  the 
entrance  of  people  of  other  religious  beliefs  into  the  colony.  It  required  the 
furnace  blasts  of  the  Revolution  to  purify  Virginia  and  some  other  provinces 
of  this  spirit  of  intolerance. 

Education  was  neglected  or  confined  to  the  rich  who  could  send  their  chil 
dren  to  England  to  be  educated.  Some  of  the  early  schools  were  destroyed  by 
Indians,  but  William  and  Mary  College,  founded  in  1692,  was  the  second  col 
lege  in  the  United  States.  It  was  never  a  very  strong  institution. 


THE    "  OLD    DOMINION." 


It  is  worth  recording  how  Virginia  received  the  name  of  the  "  Old  Do 
minion."  She  remained  loyal  to  Charles  I.  throughout  the  civil  war  in  England 
which  ended  in  the  beheading  of  the  king.  She  was  true  also  to  Charles  II. 
when  he  was  a  fugitive  and  declared  an  outlaw.  While  in  exile,  he  sent 
Governor  Berkeley  his  commission  as  Governor  of  Virginia,  and  that  ruler  was 
immensely  pleased.  The  king,  to  show  his  appreciation  of  the  loyalty.of  his 
colony,  made  public  declaration  that  Virginia  added  a  fifth  country  to  his  king 
dom,  making  it  consist  of  England,  Scotland,  France,  Ireland,  and  Virginia, 
and  he  devised  as  an  addition  to  the  motto  of  the  English  coat  of  arms,  "En  dat 
Virginia  quintam"  ("Lo!  Virginia  gives  the  fifth").  While  Cromwell  was 
turning  things  topsy-turvy  in  England,  a  great  many  of  the  best  families  among 
the  Royalists  emigrated  to  Virginia,  where  they  were  received  with  open  arms 
by  Governor  Berkeley  and  the  owners  of  the  plantations.  From  this  arose  the 
name  "  Old  Dominion,"  which  is  often  applied  to  Virginia. 

THE    PILGRIMS    AT    PLYMOUTH. 

During  the  early  days  of  Virginia  there  was  bitter  persecution  in  England 
of  those  whose  religious  views  differed  from  the  Church  of  England.  This 
cruelty  drove  many  people  to  other  countries,  and  because  of  their  wanderings 
they  were  called  "  Pilgrims."  Those  who  remained  members  of  the  English 
church  and  used  their  efforts  to  purify  it  of  what  they  believed  to  be  loose  and 
pernicious  doctrines  were  nicknamed  "  Puritans."  Those  who  withdrew  from 
the  membership  of  the  church  were  termed  "  Separatists  "  or  "  Independents." 
This  distinction  is  often  confounded  by  writers  and  readers. 

One  hundred  and  two  Pilgrims,  all  Separatists,  who  had  fled  to  Holland, 
did  not  like  the  country,  and  decided  to  make  their  homes  in  the  New  World, 
where  they  could  worship  God  as  their  consciences  dictated.  They  sailed  in 


54 


SETTLEMENT  OF  THE   THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES. 


the  Mayflower,  and,  after  a  long  and  stormy   passage,   landed  at  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts,  December  21,  1620,  in  the  midst  of  a  blinding  snowstorm. 

The  Pilgrims  were  hardy,  industrious,  and  God-fearing,  and  were  prepared 
to  face  every  kind  of  danger  and  suffering  without  murmur.  They  were 
severely  austere  in  their  morals  and  conduct,  and,  when  writhing  in  the  pangs 
of  starvation,  maintained  their  faith  unshaken  in  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of 
their  Heavenly  Father.  All  these  admirable  qualities  were  needed  during  the 
awful  winter,  which  was  one  of  the  severest  ever  known  in  New  England. 
They  built  log-houses,  using  oiled  paper  instead  of  glass  for  the  windows,  and  in 
the  spring  were  able  to  buy  corn  of  the  Indians,  who  pitied  their  sufferings,  for 


LANDING    OF    MYLES    STANDISH. 


in  the  space  of  a  few  weeks  one-half  of  the  Pilgrims  had  died.  At  one  time 
there  were  but  seven  well  persons  in  the  colony.  Among  those  who  passed 
away  was  John  Carver,  the  first  governor. 

The  survivors  held  their  ground  with  grim  heroism,  and  by-and-by  other 

arrived,  and  the  growth  and  prosperity,  though  slow,  was  certain. 

had  no  charter,  but  was  governed  by  an  agreement  which  had  been  drawn  up 

an.    signed  in  the  cabin  of  the  Mayflower,  about  the  time  the  bleak  coast  of 

New  England  was  sighted.     For  sixty  years  after  the  settlement  of  Plymouth 

history  was  uneventful.     It  was  never  very  large,  but  the  real  work  which 


MASSACHUSETTS   HAY   COLONY.  55 

it  accomplished  was  in  bringing  thousands  of  other  colonists  to  follow  it  to  New 
England,  who  were  opponents  of  the  Established  Church,  and  who  gave  to  that 
section  of  our  country  a  distinctive  character  of  its  own. 

MYLES    STANDISH. 

It  is  an  interesting  coincidence  that  while  Virginia  had  her  Captain  John 
Smith,  Plymouth  possessed  a  character  quite  similar  in  the  person  of  Captain 
Myles  Standish.  He  was  the  military  leader  of  the  colony,  with  a  courage  that 
was  absolutely  fearless.  He  has  been  described  as  a  very  small  man,  with  a 
"long,  yellow  beard,"  and  a  temper  as  inflammable  as  gunpowder.  Nothing 
would  rouse  his  anger  sooner  than  to  hear  any  slur  upon  his  stature.  A  big, 
hulking  Indian,  belonging  to  a  party  much  larger  than  Standish's,  once  looked 
down  upon  the  diminutive  Englishman,  and,  with  a  curl  of  his  lip,  referred  to 
him  as  too  small  to  fight.  The  next  day,  in  a  fight  that  arose  with  the  chiefs, 
Standish  killed  the  insulting  Indian  with  his  own  knife.  All  readers  are  famil 
iar  with  the  beautiful  poem  of  Longfellow,  which  tells  how  Standish  employed 
John  Alden  to  woo  Priscilla,  the  "  loveliest  maid  of  Plymouth,"  for  him,  and 
he  did  it  with  such  success  that  Alden  won  her  for  himself. 

MASSACHUSETTS    BAY    COLONY. 

The  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  included  the  part  of  the  present  State  of 
Massachusetts  from  the  neighborhood  of  Boston  northward.  It  Avas  foundeo 
by  Puritans,  who,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  not  separated  wholly  from  the 
Church  of  England,  but  opposed  many  of  its  ceremonies.  In  the  civil  war 
with  England  they  sided  with  the  Parliament  and  were  subjected  to  the  same 
persecution  as  the  Separatists.  In  1628  a  number  of  wealthy  Puritans  bought 
the  territory  from  the  Council  of  Plymouth,  and,  receiving  a  charter  the  follow 
ing  year  from  Charles  I.,  sent  small  colonies  across  the  Atlantic.  Then  the 
company  itself  followed,  taking  with  it  the  charter  and  officers,  thus  gaining  a 
colony  in  America  that  was  wholly  independent  of  England.  Salem  and  some 
other  small  settlements  had  previously  been  made. 

The  colony  was  one  of  the  most  important  that  ever  settled  in  this  country. 
Its  leaders  were  not  only  of  the  best  character,  but  were  wealthy,  wise,  and  far- 
seeing.  A  large  number  arrived  in  1630,  and  founded  Boston,  Cambridge, 
Lynn,  and  other  towns.  Although  they  suffered  many  privations,  they  were  not 
so  harsh  as  those  of  Plymouth,  and  the  colony  prospered.  During  the  ten  years 
succeeding  1630,  20,000  people  settled  in  Massachusetts,  and  in  1692  the  two 
colonies  united  under  the  name  of  Massachusetts. 

It  would  seem  that  since  these  people  had  fled  to  America  to  escape  religious 
persecution,  they  would  have  been  tolerant  of  the  views  of  those  among  them, 


KING    PHILIP'S   WAR-DEATH    OF   THE    KING. 


RELIGIOUS  PERSECUTION. 


57 


but  such  unhappily  was  not  the  case.  The  most  important  part  of  their  work 
was  the  building  of  churches  and  the  establishment  of  religious  instruction.  The 
minister  was  the  most  important  man  in  the  colony,  and  no  one  was  allowed  to 
vote  unless  a  member  of  the  church.  A  reproof  in  church  was  considered  the 
most  disgraceful  penalty  that  could  be  visited  upon  a  wrong-doer.  The  sermons 
were  two,  three,  and  sometimes  four  hours  long,  and  the  business  of  one  of  the 
officers  was  to  watch  those  overcome  by  drowsiness  and  wake  them  up,  sometimes 
quite  sharply. 

RELIGIOUS    PERSECUTION. 

Roger  Williams,  a  Baptist  preacher,  told  the  Puritans,  as  the  people  came 
generally  to  be  called,  that 
they  did  wrong  to  take  the 
land  from  the  Indians  with 
out  paying  for  it,  and  that  a 
person  was  answerable  to  God 
alone  for  his  belief.  These 
charges  were  answered  by 
the  banishment  of  Williams 
from  the  colony.  All  the 
Baptists  were  expelled  in 
1635.  Shortly  afterward, 
Anne  Hutchinson  boldly 
preached  the  doctrine  of 
Antinomianism,  which  de 
clares  that  a  man  is  not 
saved  by  the  help  of  good 
works,  but  by  divine  grace 
alone.  In  other  words,  no 
matter  how  wickedly  he  lives, 
his  salvation  is  wholly  inde 
pendent  of  it.  She  went  to 
Rhode  Island  and  afterward 
to  New  Netherland,  where 

she  was  killed  in  one  of  the  attacks  of  the  Indians  upon  the  Dutch  settlements. 
The  Quakers  greatly  annoyed  the  New  England  colonists.  They  persisted 
in  rising  in  the  Puritan  meetings  and  disputing  with  ministers.  Many  were 
fined,  whipped,  imprisoned,  and  banished,  but  in  the  face  of  warnings  they 
returned.  As  a  consequence,  four  were  put  to  death.  Then  a  reaction  set  in 
and  the  persecution  ceased. 

The  most  formidable  war  in  which   the  early  colonies  of  New   England 


ROGER  WILLIAMS  IN   BANISHMENT. 


58  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES. 

were  involved  was  with  King  Philip,  who  was  the  son  of  Massasoit,  a  firm 
friend  of  the  settlers  until  his  death.  Philip  was  one  of  the  great  Indians  of 
history.  Like  many  of  his  people  he  saw  with  anger  the  growth  of  the  white 
men,  who  in  time  would  drive  him  and  his  warriors  from  their  hunting  grounds. 
Realizing  the  magnitude  of  the  work  of  exterminating  all  the  settlers,  he  visited 
the  different  tribes  and  used  every  effort  to  unite  them  in  a  war  against  the 
invaders.  He  was  partly  successful,  and,  with  the  allies  secured,  King  Philip 
began  the  war  by  attacking  a  party  of  settlers  at  Swansea,  on  Sunday,  June  24, 
1675,  while  they  were  on  their  way  to  church.  Several  whites  were  killed, 
when  the  Indians  hurried  off  to  the  Connecticut  Valley  to  continue  their  dread 
ful  work. 

All  understood  their  peril,  and  flew  to  arms.  Every  man  carried  his  musket 
to  church,  and  they  were  stacked  outside  the  door,  while  a  sentinel  paced  up 
and  down.  More  than  once  the  long  sermon  was  interrupted  by  the  crack  of 
the  red  men's  guns  and  their  wild  whoops,  as  they  swarmed  out  of  the  woods. 
Springing  down  from  the  pulpit,  the  minister  was  among  the  foremost  in  beat 
ing  the  heathen  back,  and,  when  quiet  Avas  restored,  probably  he  resumed  and 
finished  his  sermon. 

The  war  was  prosecuted  furiously  on  both  sides.  In  the  depth  of  winter, 
when  the  snow  lay  several  feet  on  the  ground,  John  Winslow  led  1,500  men 
against  the  Narragansett  stronghold,  which  was  in  the  heart  of  a  great  swamp, 
and  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  fortifications  ever  erected  by  the  red  men  on 
this  continent.  In  the  terrible  fight,  200  white  men  and  nearly  1,000  Indians 
were  killed.  Finally,  Philip  was  run  down  in  a  swamp  near  his  old  home  on 
Mount  Hope,  not  far  from  the  present  city  of  Bristol,  Rhode  Island.  While 
stealing  out  of  his  hiding-place,  he  was  confronted  by  a  white  soldier  and  a 
friendly  Indian.  The  gun  of  the  former  missed  fire,  whereupon  the  Indian 
leveled  his  musket  and  shot  the  Wampanoag  leader  dead.  The  war  ended  a 
few  months  later.  During  its  continuance,  six  hundred  white  men  were  killed 
and  many  more  wounded ;  thirteen  towns  were  destroyed  and  five  hundred  build 
ings  burned,  but  the  Indian  power  in  southern  New  England  was  shattered 
forever. 

THE   WITCHCRAFT   DELUSION. 

One  of  the  most  fearful  delusions  recorded  in  history  is  that  of  the  general 
belief  in  witchcraft  which  prevailed  in  Europe  down  to  the  seventeenth  cen 
tury.  Its  baleful  shadow  all  too  soon  fell  upon  New  England.  Massachusetts 
and  Connecticut  made  laws  against  witchcraft  and  hanged  a  number  of  persons 
on  the  charge  of  being  witches.  In  1692  the  town  of  Salem  went  crazy  over 
the  belief  that  the  diabolical  spirits  were  at  work  among  them.  Two  little  girls, 
who  were  simpletons  that  ought  to  have  been  spanked  and  put  to  bed,  declared 


GALLUP'S    RECAPTURE    OF    OLDHAM'S    BOAT 

Which  had  been  taken  by  the  Indians  from  the  Puritan  exiles  in  1636.     "Steer  straight  for  the  vessel,"  cried  Gallup,  and  stationing 
himself  at  the  bow  he  opened  fire  on  tl.e  Indians.     Every  time  his  gun  flashed  some  one  was  hit.     This  incident 

was  the  beginning  of  the  Pequot  War. 


THE  CONNECTICUT  COLONY.  59 

with  bulging  eyes  that  different  persons  had  taken  the  form  of  a  black  cat  and 
pinched,  scratched,  and  bitten  them.  The  people,  including  the  great  preacher 
Cotton  Mather,  believed  this  stuff,  and  the  supposed  wizards  and  witches  were 
punished  with  fearful  severity.  Suspicion  in  many  cases  meant  death ;  evil  men 
disposed  of  their  creditors  and  enemies  by  charging  them  with  witchcraft;  fami 
lies  were  divided  and  the  gentlest  and  most  irreproachable  of  women  suffered 
disgraceful  death.  Everybody,  including  ministers  and  judges,  lost  their  wits. 
The  magistrates  crowded  the  jails,  until  twenty  had  been  put  to  death  and  fifty- 
five  tortured  before  the  craze  subsided.  Then  it  became  clear  that  no  one,  no 
matter  what  his  station,  was  safe,  and  the  delusion,  which  forms  one  of  the  black 
est  pages  in  New  England,  passed  away. 

SETTLEMENT    OF    MAINE    AND    NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 

New  Hampshire  was  the  name  of  John  Mason's  share  of  a  territory  granted 
to  him  and  Sir  Fernando  Gorges  by  the  Council  of  Plymouth  in  1622.  This 
grant  included  all  the  land  between  the  Merrimac  and  Kennebec  Kivers.  The 
first  settlement  was  made  in  1623,  at  New  and  at  Little  Harbor,  near  Ports 
mouth.  In  1629  the  proprietors  divided  their  grants,  the  country  west  of  the 
Piscataqua  being  taken  by  Mason,  who  named  it  New  Hampshire,  while  Gorges, 
who  owned  the  eastern  section,  called  it  Maine. 

The  settlements  were  weak  and  their  growth  tardy.  In  1641  New  Hamp 
shire  placed  itself  under  the  protection  of  Massachusetts,  but  the  king  separated 
them  in  1679,  and  made  New  Hampshire  a  royal  colony.  In  1688  it  again 
joined  Massachusetts,  and  three  years  later  was  set  off  once  more  by  the  king, 
after  which  it  remained  a  royal  colony  until  the  Revolution. 

THE   CONNECTICUT    COLONY. 

The  Connecticut  colony  included  all  of  the  present  State  of  Connecticut, 
excepting  a  few  townships  on  the  shore  of  Long  Island  Sound.     It  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick  in  1630,  and  the  following  year  he  transferred 
it  to  Lords  Say,  Brooke,  and  others.    The  Dutch  claimed  the  territory  and  erected 
a  fort  on  the  Connecticut  River  to  keep  out  the  English.    The  latter,  howeN  ,r,  paid 
no  attention  to  them,  and  a  number  of  Massachusetts  traders  settled  at  Windsor  in 
1633.    Saybrook,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut,  was  settled  in  1635.    A  great 
many  emigrants  came  from  Massachusetts  in  1636,  the  principal  leader  being 
Thomas  Hooker.     They  founded  Weathersfield,  Windsor,  and  Hartford,  and  in 
1639  adopted  the  name  of  the  Connecticut  colony  and  drew  up  a  written  consti 
tution,  the  first  ever  framed  by  a  body  of  men  for  their  own  government.    Other 
settlements  were  made  and  Saybrook  united  with  them. 

The  most  eventful  incident  in  the  history  of  Connecticut  was  the  war  with 


60 


SETTLEMENT  OF  THE   THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES. 


the  Pequot  Indians,  who  were  a  powerful  tribe  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State. 
They  tried  to  persuade  the  Narragansetts  to  join  them,  but  Roger  Williams,  who 
lived  among  them,  persuaded  Canonicus,  their  chief,  to  refuse.  Then  the  Pequots 
committed  the  fatal  mistake  of  going  to  war  alone.  The  settlers,  fully  roused  to 
their  danger,  assailed  the  Pequot  stronghold  with  fury,  one  summer  morning  in 
1637,  and  killed  all  their  enemies,  sparing  neither  women  nor  children.  Thus? 
a  leading  tribe  of  Indians  were  blotted  out  in  one  day. 

THE   NEW    HAVEN   COLONY. 

The  New  Haven  colony  comprised  the  townships  already  reterred  to  as  lying 


PRIMITIVE    MODE    OF    GRINDING    CORN. 

on  Long  Island  Sound.  It  was  settled  in  1638  by  a  company  of  English  immi 
grants,  who  were  sufficiently  wise  and  just  to  buy  the  lands  of  the  Indians. 
Other  towns  were  settled,  and  in  1639  the  group  took  the  name  of  the  New 
Haven  colony.  Neither  of  the  colonies  had  a  charter,  and  there  was  much 
rivalry  in 'the  efforts  to  absorb  the  towns  as  they  were  settled.  The  majority 
preferred  to  join  the  Connecticut  colony,  for  the  other,  like  Massachusetts,  would 
permit  no  one  not  a  member  of  church  to  vote  or  hold  office. 

THE   COLONY   OF    CONNECTICUT. 

What  is  known  in  the  history  of  England  as  the  Commonwealth,  established 


THE  CHARTER    OAK.  61 

by  Cromwell,  came  to  an  end  in  1660.  Charles  II.  ascended  the  throne,  and 
Winthrop,  governor  of  the  Connecticut  colony,  which  had  now  grown  to  be  the 
stronger  of  the  two,  went  to  England  to  secure  a  charter.  It  was  granted 
to  him  in  1662,  and  covered  the  territory  occupied  by  both  colonies,  who  were 
permitted  to  elect  their  assembly,  their  governor,  and  to  rule  themselves.  New 
Haven,  after  deliberating  over  the  question,  reluctantly  accepted  the  charter,  and 
in  1665  the  two  were  united  under  the  name  of  the  Colony  of  Connecticut. 

Everything  was  going  along  smoothly,  when,  in  1687,  Governor  Andros 
came  down  with  a  company  of  soldiers  from  Boston  and  ordered  the  people  to 
surrender  their  charter.  He  was  acting  under  the  orders  of  the  king,  who  did 
not  fancy  the  independence  with  which  the  colony  was  conducting  matters. 
Andros  confronted  the  assembly,  which  were  called  together  in  Hartford.  They 
begged  that  he  would  not  enforce  his  demands.  He  consented  to  listen  to  their 
arguments,  though  there  was  not  the  slightest  probability  of  it  producing  any 
effect  upon  him. 

THE   CHARTER    OAK. 

The  talk  continued  until  dark,  when  the  candles  were  lighted.  Suddenly, 
at  a  signal,  all  were  blown  out.  When  they  were  re-lighted,  the  charter,  which 
had  been  lying  on  the  table  in  plain  sight,  was  nowhere  to  be  found.  Captain 
Wadsworth  had  slipped  out  during  the  interval  of  darkness  and  hidden  the 
paper  in  the  hollow  of  an  oak.  Then  he  returned  and  took  his  place  among 
the  members,  looking  the  most  innocent  of  all.  Andros  fumed  and  raved  and 
informed  the  assembly  that  their  trick  would  avail  them  nothing,  since  their 
charter  government  was  at  an  end.  He  went  back  to  Boston,  to  be  turned  out 
of  office  two  years  later,  when  the  precious  charter  was  brought  from  its  hiding- 
place. 

No  effort  was  spared  to  preserve  the  historical  "  Charter  Oak,"  that  had 
thus  been   made  famous.     It  was  supported  and  propped  in  every  part  that 
showed  signs  of  weakness,  and  held  up  its  head  until  1856,  when  a  terrific 
•  storm  brought  it  to  the  ground,  shattered  to  fragments,  all  of  which  were  care 
fully  gathered  and  preserved  by  those  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  them. 

*  The  early  division  of  the  colonies  was  long  marked  by  the  fact  that 
ford  and  New  Haven  served  as  the  two  capitals  of  the  State  until  1873,  when 
Hartford  became  the  sole  capital. 

SETTLEMENT    OF    RHODE    ISLAND. 

It  has  been  stated  that  when  Eoger  Williams  was  banished  from  Massa- 
j  ohusetts  he  took  refuse  among  the  Narragansett  Indians,  who  occupied  the 
i  country  at  the  head  of  Narragansett  Bay.     Canonicus,  the  chief,  held 
man  in  hi-h  esteem,  and  presented  him  with  a  large  tract  of  land,  which  the 


62  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES. 

devout  Williams  named  "  Providence  "  in  remembrance  of  the  manner  in  which 
he  believed  God  had  directed  him  thither.  Settlers  from  Massachusetts  fol 
lowed  him,  and  all  were  hospitably  received  and  kindly  treated.  The  fullest 
religious  liberty  was  allowed,  and  even  when  Anne  Hutchinson  visited  Wil 
liams,  he  treated  her  like  a  sister.  Williams  obtained  a  charter  in  1644  from 
the  Parliament  and  it  was  confirmed  in  1654.  The  new  one  granted  by  Charles 
II.  in  1663  united  all  the  colonies  into  one,  under  the  name  Rhode  Island  and 
Providence  Plantations.  This  is  still  the  legal  name  of  the  State,  which  retains 
its  two  capitals,  Providence  and  Newport,  the  Legislature  meeting  alternately  in 
each.  The  charter  of  Charles  II.  suited  the  people  so  well  that  it  remained  in 
force  until  1842,  when  Thomas  Dorr  headed  a  rebellion,  as  related  hereafter, 
which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  new  charter. 

The  existence  of  Rhode  Island  was  threatened  by  the  claim  of  Connecticut 
to  all  the  land  on  the  west  to  the  shore  of  Narragansett  Bay,  while  Plymouth 
insisted  that  the  land  on  the  east  to  the  shore  of  the  same  bay  belonged  to  her. 
Rhode  Island  stoutly  resisted,  and  succeeded  in  1741  and  1752  in  fixing  her 
boundaries  as  they  are  to-day,  which  make  her  the  smallest  State  in  the  Union. 

SETTLEMENT    OF    NEW    YORK. 

It  has  been  shown  that  Holland  was  more  anxious  to  secure  trade  than 
territory.  Soon  after  the  discovery  of  the  Hudson,  by  Captain  Henry  Hudson, 
the  Dutch  traders  sent  vessels  to  Manhattan  Island,  now  constituting  the  city  of 
New  York,  and  began  bartering  with  the  Indians.  In  1621  Holland  granted 
the  territory  from  Delaware  Bay  to  the  Connecticut  River  to  the  Dutch  West 
India  Company.  The  name  given  to  the  territory  was  New  Netherland,  while 
the  settlement,  which  grew  in  time  into  the  metropolis  of  America,  was  called 
New  Amsterdam.  The  whole  island  wns  bought  from  the  Indians  for  sixty 
guilders,  equal  to  about  twenty-four  dollars,  a  price  which  is  considerably  less 
than  would  be  demanded  to-day  for  the  site  of  Greater  New  York. 

New  Netherland  was  governed  successively  by  Peter  Minuet,  Walter  Van 
Twiller,  William  Kieft,  and  Peter  Stuyvesant,  who  were  sent  out  by  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company,  and  whose  rule  extended  from  1626  to  1664.  Of  these, 
Stuyvesant  was  by  far  the  ablest,  and  he  made  a  strong  impression  on  the  social 
and  political  life  of  New  Netherland.  He  was  severe  and  stubborn,  however, 
and  many  of  the  Dutchmen  found  his  rule  so  onerous  that  they  were  rather 
pleased  than  otherwise,  when  the  English,  in  1664,  claimed  the  territory  by 
right  of  discovery  and  sent  out  a  fleet  which  compelled  Stuyvesant  to  surrender 
the  town.  The  doughty  old  governor  stamped  about  New  Amsterdam  with  his 
wooden  leg,  calling  upon  his  countrymen  to  rally  and  drive  back  the  rascals, 
but  little  or  no  heed  was  paid  to  his  appeals. 


WILLIAM  KIDD,    THE  PIRATE.  63 

Charles  II.  had  granted  the  territory  to  his  brother  the  Duke  of  York,  who 
soon  after  ascended  the  throne,  thus  making  the  colony,  which  included  that  of 
New  Jersey,  a  royal  one.  The  Connecticut  people  had  settled  a  large  part  of 
Rhode  Island,  which  they  claimed,  but  the  duke  was  too  powerful  to  be  resisted, 
and  Long  Island  became  a  part  of  New  York,  as  the  city  and  province  were 
named. 

In  1673,  while  at  war  with  England,  Holland  sent  a  fleet  which  recaptured 
New  York,  but  it  was  given  back  to  England,  upon  the  signing  of  a  treaty  in 
1674.  The  manner  in  which  New  Netherland  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  was 
quite  different  from  that  of  New  England.  Wealthy  men,  termed  "patroons," 
were  granted  immense  tracts  of  laud  and  brought  over  settlers,  whose  situation 
was  much  like  that  of  the  serfs  of  Russia.  Traces  of  the  patroon  system 
remained  long  after  the  Revolution,  and,  in  1846,  caused  the  "Anti-Rent 
War,"  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  a  number  of  people. 

The  province  of  New  York  suffered  greatly  from  misrule.  The  people 
were  not  permitted  to  elect  their  own  assembly  until  1683,  and  two  years  later, 
when  the  Duke  of  York  became  king,  he  took  away  the  privilege.  William 
and  Mary,  however,  restored  it  in  1691,  and  it  remained  to  the  Revolution. 

As  a  proof  of  the  bad  governorship  of  New  York,  it  may  be  sa:d  that  there 
is  good  reason  to  believe  that  one  of  its  rulers  was  interested  with  the  pirates 
•who  infested  the  coast,  while  another,  who  refused  to  sign  the  death-warrant  of 
two  persons  who  had  committed  no  serious  crime,  was  made  drunk  and  then 
persuaded  to  sign  the  fatal  paper.  When  he  became  sober,  he  was  horrified  to 
find  that  both  had  been  executed. 

WILLIAM    KIDD,   THE    PIRATE. 

The  piracy  alluded  to  became  such  a  scandalous  blight  that  strenuous  meas 
ures  were  taken  to  crush  it  In  1697  Captain  William  Kidd,  a  New  York  ship 
master  and  a  brave  and  skillful  navigator,  was  sent  to  assist  in  the  work.  After 
he  had  cruised  for  a  while  in  distant  waters,  he  turned  pirate  himself.  He  had 
the  effrontery  to  return  home  three  years  later,  believing  his  friends  would  pro 
tect  him ;  but,  though  they  would  have  been  willing  enough  to  do  so,  they  dared 
not.  He  was  arrested,  tried  in  England,  convicted,  and  hanged.  Piracy  was 
finally  driven  from  the  American  waters  in  1720. 

In  1740  New  York  was  thrown  into  a  panic  by  the  report  that  the  negroes 
had  formed  a  plot  to  burn  the  town.  It  is  scarcely  possible  that  any  such  plot 
existed,  but  before  the  scare  had  passed  away  four  whites  and  eighteen  negroes 
were  hanged,  and,  dreadful  as  it  may  sound,  fourteen  negroes  were  burned  at  the 
stake.  In  addition,  nearly  a  hundred  were  driven  out  of  the  colony. 

The  fine  harbor  and  noble  river  emptying  into  it  gave  New  York  such  ad- 


64 


SETTLEMENT  OF  THE   Till R TEE X  ORIGINAL   STATES. 


vantages  that,  by  1750,  it  had  become  one  of  the  most  important  cities  on  the 
coast,  though  its  population  was  less  than  that  of  Philadelphia.  At  the  time 
named,  its  inhabitants  numbered  about  12,000,  which  was  less  than  that  of  Phil 
adelphia.  The  province  itself  contained  90,000  inhabitants.  The  chief  towns 
were  New  York,  Albany,  and  Kingston.  Brooklyn,  which  attained  vast  pro 
portions  within  the  following  century,  was  merely  a  ferry  station. 

SETTLEMENT    OF    NEW    JERSEY. 

New  Jersey,  as  has  been  stated,  was  originally  a  part  of  New  Netherland. 
As  early  as  1618,  the  Dutch  erected  a  trading  post  at  Bergen.  All  now  included 
in  the  State  was  granted,  in  1664,  by  the  Duke  of  York  to  Lord  John  Berkeley 
and  Sir  George  Carteret.  Carteret  was  once  governor  of  the  island  of  Jersey 
in  the  English  Channel,  and  gave  the  name  to  the  new  province.  In  the  year 
mentioned,  the  first  English  settlement  was  made  at  Elizabethtown,  now  known 

as  Elizabeth. 

In  1674,  the  province  was 
i  divided  into  East  and  West 
Jersey,  a  distinction  which  is 
preserved  to  some  extent  to  the 
present  day.  Berkeley,  who 
owned  West  Jersey,  sold  it  to  a 
number  of  Quakers,  some  of 
whom  settled  near  Burlington. 
Carteret  sold  his  part  to  William 
Penn  and  eleven  other  Quakers. 
The  various  changes  of  owner 
ship  caused  much  trouble  with  the 
land  titles.  In  1702,  all  the  proprietors  surrendered  their  rights  to  the  crown 
and  New  Jersey  became  a  royal  colony.  The  same  governor  ruled  New  York 
and  New  Jersey,  though  those  in  the  latter  elected  their  own  assembly.  A  com 
plete  separation  from  New  York  took  place  in  1788,  and  New  Jersey  remained 
a  royal  province  until  the  Revolution.  Its  location  averted  all  troubles  with 
the  Indians.  Newark,  the  principal  city,  was  settled  in  1666,  by  emigrants  from 
Connecticut.  Burlington,  founded  in  1677,  was  one  of  the  capitals  and  Perth 
Am  boy  the  other. 

EARLY    SETTLEMENTS    ON    THE    DELAWARE. 

In  1638,  a  number  of  Swedes  formed  the  settlement  of  Christina  on  the 
Delaware,  near  Wilmington.  They  bought  the  land  from  the  Indians  and 
named  it  New  Sweden.  A  second  settlement,  that  of  Chester,  was  made  just  be 
low  the  site  of  Philadelphia  in  1643,  and  was  the  first  in  the  present  State  of 


;  j'$ 


THE    FIRST    FRIENDS'    MEETING-HOUSE, 
BURLINGTON,  NEW  JERSEY. 


WILLIAM     PENN,THE    GOOD    AND    WISE     RULER. 


NOTABLE    AUDIENCE     IN    MARYLAND    TO    HEAR    GEORGE     FOX,    THE     FOUNDER     OF    THE 
66  "SOCIETY     OF     FRIENDS"     OR     QUAKERS. 


PENNSYLVANIA   AND  DELAWARE.  67 

Pennsylvania.  The  fiery  Governor  Stuy vesant  of  New  Netherland  looked  upon 
these  attempts  as  impudent  invasions  of  his  territory,  and,  filled  with  anger,  hur 
ried  down  to  Delaware  and  captured  both.  It  was  a  matter  of  no  moment  to  the 
thrifty  Swedes,  who  kept  on  the  even  tenor  of  their  way  and  throve  under  the 
new  government  as  well  as  under  the  old.  A  further  account  of  the  settlement 
of  Delaware  will  be  given  in  our  history  of  that  of  Pennsylvania. 

SETTLEMENT    OF    PENNSYLVANIA    AND    DELAWARE. 

The  peace-loving  Quakers  were  among  those  who  suffered  persecution  in 
England  for  conscience  sake.  William  Penn  was  the  son  of  Admiral  Penn,  who 
disliked  the  Quakers  and  had  been  a  valiant  officer  for  the  English  government. 
When  he  died,  the  crown  owed  him  a  large  sum  of  money,  which  William  offered 
to  liquidate  in  return  for  a  grant  of  the  land  now  known  as  the  State  of  Penn 
sylvania.  The  king  willingly  agreed  to  this,  and  the  Duke  of  York,  who  had 
a  strong  liking  for  Penn,  added  the  present  State  of  Delaware  to  the  grant,  in 
which,  as  has  been  stated,  the  Swedes  had  made  a  number  of  settlements. 

William  Penn  was  one  of  the  best  and  wisest  rulers  that  had  to  do  with  the 
settlement  of  our  country.  The  king,  more  as  a  piece  of  pleasantry  than  other 
wise,  insisted  upon  naming  the  province  "  Pennsylvania,"  in  honor  of  the  pro 
prietor,  much  to  the  good  man's  dismay.  He  offered  the  royal  secretary  a  liberal 
fee  to  omit  the  first  part  of  the  name  from  the  charter,  but  it  was  not  done.  No 
rule  could  have  been  more  kindly.  Absolute  freedom  of  conscience  was  permitted ; 
in  all  trials  by  jury  of  an  Indian,  one-half  of  the  jury  were  to  be  composed  of 
Indians,  and,  although  Penn  was  induced  to  permit  the  punishment  of  death  fcr 
treason  and  murder,  to  be  provided  for  in  the  code,  no  man  was  ever  executed 
while  Penn  had  anything  to  do  with  the  province. 

His  first  act,  after  his  arrival  in  1682,  was  characteristic.  He  called  the 
Indian  chiefs  together,  under  a  great  spreading  elm  at  Shackamaxon,  and  paid 
them  for  the  land  that  was -already  his  by  royal  grant.  In  addition,  he  made 
the  red  men  many  presents  and  signed  a  treaty,  which  neither  party  broke  for 
sixty  years.  It  has  been  truly  said  that  this  was  the  only  treaty  not  sworn  to 
which  was  kept  inviolate  by  both  parties. 

Penn  himself  laid  out  the  city  of  Philadelphia  in  1683.  A  year  later,  it 
had  a  population  of  7,000,  and  in  three  years  more  its  population  increased 
faster  than  that  of  New  York  in  half  a  century.  Delaware,  then  called  the 
"  Three  Lower  Counties,"  was  given  a  separate  government  at  the  request  of  the 
people  in  1703.  They  were  allowed  their  own  deputy  governor,  but  Pennsyl 
vania  and  Delaware  continued  substantially  under  one  government  until  the 
Revolution. 

The  good  ruler  met  with   many  misfortunes.     In  1692,  the  province  was 


68 


SETTLEMENT  OF  THE   THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES. 


taken  from  him,  because  of  his  friendship  to  James  II.,  but  restored  soon  after 
ward.  In  1699,  when  he  made  his  second  visit,  he  found  the  people  had  in  a 
great  measure  grown  away  from  him,  and  were  unwilling  that  he  should  exercise 
his  former  supervision.  While  absent,  a  dishonest  steward  robbed  him  of  nearly 
all  his  property  in  England ;  and,  failing  in  health  and  mind,  he  died  in  1718. 
His  sons  became  proprietors,  but  the  people  grew  more  and  more  discontented 
with  the  payment  of  rents.  To  end  the  disputes  and  quarrels,  the  State  abolished 
the  rents  during  the  Revolution,  paying  the  proprietors  the  sum  of  $650,000  for 
the  extinguishment  of  their  rights. 


PHILADELPHIA. 

Philadelphia  was  prosper 
ous  from  the  first.  New  York 
City  did  not  catch  up  to  it  until 
after  the  year  1810.  It  was  early 
noted,  as  it  has  been  since,  for 
its  cleanliness,  fine  buildings, 
and  the  attention  it  gave  to 
education.  It  had  a  printing 


MORAVIAN    EASTER    SERVICE,    BETHLEHEM,   PENNSYLVANIA. 

press  in  1686,  and  three  years  later  a  public  high  school.  In  the  year  1749,  the 
present  University  of  Pennsylvania  was  founded  as  a  school,  becoming  a  college 
in  1755,  and  a  university  in  1779.  Many  of  the  names  of  streets,  such  as  Wal 
nut,  Chestnut,  Pine,  Mulberry,  and  others,  were  given  to  it  when  the  city  was 
laid  out. 

The  settlement  of  the  province  was  confined  for  a  long  time  to  the  eastern 
section.  No  population  was  more  varied.  The  Scotch  and  Irish  were  mainly 
in  the  central  portion,  the  Dutch  and  Germans  in  the  east  and  northeast,  and 
the  English  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  colony.  There  are  hundreds  of 
people  to-day  in  Pennsylvania,  whose  ancestors  for  several  generations  have  been 
born  there,  who  are  unable  to  speak  or  understand  a  word  of  English. 

Maryland  is  the  next  colony  in  order  of  settlement,     The  Roman  Catholics 


SETTLEMENT  OF  MARYLAND.  69 

were  among  those  who  suffered  persecution  in  England,  and  Maryland  was 
founded  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  them.  Among  the  most  prominent  of  the 
English  Catholics  was  Sir  George  Calvert,  known  as  Lord  Baltimore.  His  first 
attempt  to  found  a  colony  was  in  Newfoundland,  but  the  rigorous  climate  com 
pelled  him  to  give  it  up.  He  decided  that  the  most  favorable  place  was  that 
portion  of  Virginia  lying  east  of  the  Potomac.  Virginia  had  its  eye  already 
upon  the  section,  and  was  preparing  to  settle  it,  when  Charles  I.,  without  con 
sulting  her,  granted  the  territory  to  Lord  Baltimore.  Before  he  could  use  the 
patent,  he  died,  and  the  charter  was  made  to  his  son,  Cecil  Calvert,  in  1632.  He 
named  it  Maryland  in  compliment  to  the  queen,  Henrietta  Maria. 

Leonard  Calvert,  a  brother  of  Lord  Baltimore,  began  the  settlement  of 
Maryland  at  St.  Mary's,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Potomac.  He  took  with  him 
200  immigrants  and  made  friends  with  the  Indians,  whom  he  treated  with 
justice  and  kindness.  Annapolis  was  founded  in  1683  and  Baltimore  in  1729. 

Despite  the  wisdom  and  liberality  of  Calvert's  rule,  the  colony  met  with 
much  trouble,  because  of  Virginia's  claim  to  the  territory  occupied  by  the  new 
comers.  William  Clayborne  of  Virginia  had  established  a  trading  post  in 
Maryland  and  refused  to  leave,  but  he  was  driven  out,  whereupon  he  appealed 
to  the  king,  insisting  that  the  Catholics  were  intruders  upon  domain  to  which 
they  had  no  right.  The  king  decided  in  favor  of  Lord  Baltimore.  Clayborne 
however,  would  not  assent,  and,  returning  to  Maryland  in  1645,  he  incited  a 
rebellion  which  was  pressed  so  vigorously  that  Calvert  was  forced  to  flee.  He 
gathered  enough  followers  to  drive  Clayborne  out  in  turn.  The  Catholics  then 
established  a  liberal  government  and  passed  the  famous  "  Toleration  Act,"  which 
allowed  everybody  to  worship  God  as  he  saw  fit.  Many  persons  in  the  other 
colonies,  who  were  suffering  persecution,  made  their  homes  in  Maryland. 

After  a  time,  the  Protestants  gained  a  majority  in  the  assembly  and  made 
laws  which  were  very  oppressive  to  the  Catholics.  The  strife  degenerated  into 
civil  war,  which  lasted  for  a  number  of  years.  The  proprietor  in  1691  was  a 
supporter  of  James  II.,  because  of  which  the  new  king,  William,  took  away  his 
colony  and  appointed  the  governors  himself.  The  proprietor's  rights  were 
restored  in  1716  to  the  fourth  Lord  Baltimore.  The  Cal verts  became  extinct 
in  1771,  and  the  people  of  Maryland  assumed  proprietorship  five  years  later. 
Comparative  tranquillity  reigned  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution. 

An  interesting  occurrence  during  this  tranquil  period  was  the  arrival  from 
England  of  George  Fox,  the  founder  of  the  Society  of  Friends  or  Quakers.  In 
the  assemblage  which  gathered  on  the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake  to  listen  to  his 
preaching  were  members  of  the  Legislature,  the  leading  men  of  the  province, 
Indian  sachems  and  their  families,  with  their  great  chief  at  their  head. 

The  disputed  boundary  between  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  was  fixed  in 


70  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES. 

1767,   by  two  surveyors  named  Mason  and  Dixon.     This  boundary  became 
famous  in  after  years  as  the  dividing  line  between  the  free  and  slave  States. 

Charles  II.,  in  1663  and  1665,  granted  the  land  between  Florida  and 
Virginia  to  eight  proprietors.  The  country  had  been  named  Carolina  in  honor 
of  their  king,  Charles  IX.  (Latin,  Carolus),  and  since  Charles  II.  was  King 
of  England  the  mime  was  retained,  though  he  was  not  the  ruler  meant  thus 
to  be  honored.  The  country  was  comparatively  uninhabited  after  the  failure  of 
the  French  colony,  except  by  a  few  Virginians,  who  made  a  settlement  on  the 
northern  shore  of  Albemarle  Sound. 

THE    CAROLINAS. 

For  twenty  years  the  proprietors  tried  to  establish  upon  American  soil  one 
of  the  most  absurd  forms  of  government  ever  conceived.  The  land  was  to  be 
granted  to  nobles,  known  as  barons,  landgraves,  and  caziques,  while  the  rest  of 
the  people  were  not  to  be  allowed  to  hold  any  land,  but  were  to  be  bought  and 
sold  with  the  soil,  like  so  many  cattle.  The  settlers  ridiculed  and  defied  the 
fantastical  scheme,  which  had  to  be  abandoned.  It  was  the  work  of  John 
Locke,  the  famous  philosopher,  who  at  one  time  was  secretary  of  Lord  Cooper, 
one  of  the  proprietors. 

The  first  settlement  of  the  Carteret  colony  was  made  in  1670,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ashley,  but  in  1680  it  was  removed  to  the  present  site  of  Charleston. 
The  colonies  remained  united  for  about  seventy  years,  when  it  became  apparent 
that  the  territory  was  too  large  to  be  well  governed  by  one  assembly  and  a  single 
governor.  In  1729,  the  present  division  was  made,  and  the  rights  of  government 
and  seven-eighths  of  the  land  were  returned  to  the  crown. 

The  soil  and  climate  were  so  favorable  that  thousands  of  immigrants  were 
attracted  thither.  Among  them  were  numerous  Huguenots  or  French  Protest 
ants,  whose  intelligence,  thrift,  and  morality  placed  them  among  the  very  best 
settlers  found  anywhere  in  our  country.  Newbern  was  settled  by  a  colony  of 
Swiss  in  1711,  and  there  was  a  large  influx  of  Scotch  after  their  rebellion  of 
1740,  England  giving  them  permission  to  leave  Scotland.  Scotch  immigrants 
settled  Fayetteville  in  1746. 

There  were  occasional  troubles  with  the  Indians,  the  most  important  of 
which  was  the  war  with  the  Tuscaroras,  in  1711.  This  tribe  was  utterly  defeated 
and  driven  northward  into  New  York,  where  they  joined  the  Iroquois  or  Five 
Nations.  The  union  of  the  Tuscaroras  caused  the  Iroquois  to  be  known  after 
ward  as  the  Six  Nations. 

The  Carolinas  were  afflicted  with  some  of  the  worst  governors  conceivable, 
interspersed  now  and  then  with  excellent  ones.  Often  there  was  sturdy  resist 
ance,  and  in  1677  one  of  the  governors,  who  attempted  to  enforce  the  Naviga- 


GEORGIA.  71 

tion  Act,  was  deposed  and  imprisoned.  In  1688,  another  was  driven  out  of  the 
colony.  The  population  was  widely  scattered,  but  the  people  themselves  were 
as  a  whole  the  best  kind  of  citizens.  They  would  not  permit  religious  perse 
cution,  and  defeated  the  effort  to  make  the  Church  of  England  the  colony 
church.  As  a  consequence,  the  Carolinas  became,  like  Maryland  and  Pennsylva 
nia,  a  refuge  for  thousands  of  those  who  were  persecuted  in  the  name  of  religion. 

GEORGIA. 

Georgia  was  the  last  of  the  thirteen  original  colonies  to  be  settled,  and, 
though  it  long  remained  the  weakest  of  them  all,  its  history  is  very  interesting. 
It,  too,  was  a  country  of  refuge  for  those  suffering  persecution,  but  their  affliction 
was  different  in  its  nature  from  those  of  whom  we  have  made  record. 

One  of  the  remarkable  facts  connected  with  the  government  of  nations 
claiming  the  highest  civilization,  hardly  more  than  a  century  ago,  was  the 
brutality  of  their  laws.  Many  crimes, 
comparatively  trifling  in  their  nature, 
were  punishable  with  death.  One  of 
the  most  cruel  of  these  oppressive  laws 
was  that  which  permitted  a  man  to 
throw  into  prison  a  neighbor  who  was 
unable  to  pay  the  money  he  owed.  If  a 
poor  tenant  fell  ill,  and  could  not  pay 
his  landlord,  the  latter  could  have  him 

flung  into  jail  and  kept  there  until  the  COLONIAL  PLOW  WITH  WOODEN 
debt  was  paid.  Since  the  debtor  was  „„- 
able  to  earn  a  penny  while  in  prison, 
and  probably  his  wife  and  children  were  equally  helpless,  the  landlord  thus  de 
prived  himself  of  all  possibility  of  getting  his  money,  while  the  wretched  debtor 
literally  "rotted"  in  prison.  Thousands  died  in  dreadful  misery,  merely  because 
they  were  poor. 

This  system  of  allowing  imprisonment  for  debt  prevailed  in  our  own 
country  until  within  the  memory  of  men  still  living.  It  makes  one's  cheeks 
tingle  with  shame  and  indignation  to  recall  that  Robert  Morris,  who  devoted  ail 
his  wealth  and  energies  to  raising  money  for  the  patriots  during  the  Revolution, 
who  furnished  Washington  with  thousands  of  dollars,  and  but  for  whose  help 
the  war  must  have  failed,  became  poor  after  independence  was  gained  and  was 
imprisoned  for  debt. 

The  system  caused  such  horrible  suffering  in  England  that  the  pity  of  all 
good  men  was  stirred.  Among  these  was  James  Edward  Oglethorpe,  one  of  the 
most  admirable  characters  in  modern  history.  He  was  a  brave  and  skillful 


72 


SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES. 


soldier,  eminently  just,  of  the  highest  social  position  and  a  member  of  Parlia 

ment.     He  determined  to  do  something  practical  for  the 

perishing  debtors  in  English  jails.     He,  therefore,  asked 

George  II.  to  give  him  a  grant  of  land  in  America  to 

which    the    imprisoned  debtors    could  be  sent,  and  the 

king,  whose  heart  also  seemed  to  be  touched,  promptly 

did  so.      It  was  said  of  Oglethorpe  that  the  universal 

respect  felt    for   him    made  certain  that   any  favor    he 

asked  of  his  own  associates  or  friends  would  be  willingly 

granted. 

The  king  not  only  presented  him  with  valuable 
equipments,  but  Parliament  granted  him  a  liberal  sum, 
to  which  wealthy  citizens  added.  He  had  the  best  wishes 
of  his  entire  country  when  he  sailed  for  America  with 
one  hundred  and  fourteen  persons.  He  named  the  new 
colony  Georgia  in  honor  of  the  king,  and  began  the  set 
tlement  of  Savannah  in  1733,  Darien  and  Augusta  being 
founded  three  years  later.  It  need  hardly  be  said  of 
such  a  man,  that,  like  Penn  and  Baltimore,  he  bought 
the  lands  anew  of  the  Indians  and  retained  their  friend 
ship  from  the  start.  On  one  of  his  visits  to  England 
he  took  a  party  of  red  men  with  him,  entertained  them  at 
his  country  place  and  presented  them  at  court. 


SCHENECTADY  co., 


(In  the  New    * 


The  Spaniards  claimed  Georgia  as  their  own  terri- 


ral  Museum-> 


A   COLONIAL  FLAX- WHEEL. 

better. 


tory,  and  raised  a  large  force  with  which 
to  expel  Oglethorpe,  whose  colony  had 
been  increased  by  the  arrival  of  other 
immigrants,  but  the  English  officer  handled 
his  men  with  such  extraordinary  skill  that 
the  Spaniards  were  utterly  routed. 

It  would  be  supposed  that  Georgia 
would  have  been  one  of  the  most  successful 
of  the  original  colonies,  since  seemingly  it 
possessed  every  advantage,  but  such  was  far 
from  the  fact.  One  cause  for  this  was  the 
"coddling"  the  pioneers  received.  They 
were  harmed  by  too  much  kindness.  Had 
they  been  compelled  to  hew  their  own  way, 
like  their  neighbors,  they  would  have  done 


They  were  like  children  spoiled  by  being  granted  too  many  favors. 


HIAWATHA,    FOUNDER  OF  THE   IROQUOIS   LEAGUE 

The  Iroquois  League  was  composed  of  the  Mohawk,  Oneida,  Onondaga,  Cayuga,  Seneca  and  Tuscarora  nations, 

who  founded  in  the  New  York  wilderness  a  barbaric  republic,  with  bonds  of  union  that  might  serve  in 

many  respects  as  a  model  for  civilized  nations. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES. 


73 


Another  cause  was  the  poor  laws  by  which  the  people  were  ruled.  Slavery 
at  first  was  forbidden  within 
its  borders,  though  it  was  tol 
erated  all  about  them.  Then, 
in  1747,  the  trustees  yielded 
to  the  general  demand  and  ad 
mitted  slavery.  Other  rules 
caused  discontent,  and  many 
settlers  moved  away.  Popula 
tion  appeared  to  be  at  a  stand 
still,  and  finally  the  trustees  in 
1752  surrendered  their  rights 
to  the  crown.  More  liberal 
laws  followed  and  the  prosper- 
itv  increased  SILK-WINDING. 

J  (Fac-simile  of  a  picture  in  Edward  Williams'  "  Virginia  Truly  Valued."  1650.) 

Of  General  Ogletnorpe,  it 

may  be  added  that  he  lived  to  reach  his  ninety-eighth  year.  It  was  said  of  him 
that  he  was  the  handsomest  old  man  in  London,  and  people  often  stopped  on  the 
streets  to  look  at  and  admire  him.  He  always  had  a  warm  regard  for  the 
American  colonies.  Indeed,  it  was  this  marked  friendship  for  them  which  pre 
vented  his  appointment  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  during  the 
Re  volution. 

GROWTH    OF    THE    AMERICAN    COLONIES. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that,  beginning  with  Virginia,  in  1607,  the  American 
colonies  had  grown  in  a  little  more  than  a  century  and  a  quarter  to  thirteen. 
These  were  strung  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine  to  Florida,  and  in  1750 
their  population  was  about  1,260,000.  This  was  vigorous  growth.  All  the 
colonists,  although  born  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  considered  themselves  Eng 
lishmen,  and  were  proud  of  their  king,  three  thousand  miles  away  across  the 

ocean.  With  such  loyal  subjects,  the  English 
crown  had  the  best  opportunity  in  the  world  to 
become  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  nations. 

But  Great  Britain  was  not  free  from  mis 
giving  over  the  rapid  growth  of  her  American 
colonies.  Nothing  looked  more  probable  than 

>  ^-^ssa^ggF-  that  before  many  years  they  would  unite  in  one 

A  COMFORTIER,  OR  CHAFING-  o-overiimeiit  of  their  own  and  declare  their  inde- 

<NeW  YO*  state  °™*.f  s«n.i  His«ory,  Jendence  of  the  British    crown.     Then  was  the 

Albany.)  tmie  for  the  display  of  wise    statesmanship,  but 

unhappily  for  England  and  happily  for  the  colonies,  such  wise  statesmanship 


74 


SETTLEMENT  OF  THE   THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES. 


proved  to  be  lacking  on  the  other  side  of  the  water.  The  colonies  displayed 
great  industry.  They  grew  tobacco,  rice,  indigo,  and  many  other  products 
which  were  eagerly  welcomed  by  the  British  merchants,  who  exported  their 
own  manufactures  in  exchange  for  them.  The  inevitable  result  was  that 
England  and  the  American  colonies  increased  their  wealth  by  this  means. 
Not  only  that,  but  the  colonies  voted  ships,  men,  and  money  to  help  the 
mother  country  in  the  wars  in  which  she  was  often  involved. 

As  early  as  1651,  Parliament  passed  the  first  of  the  oppressive  Navigation 
Acts,  which  forbade  the  colonies  to  trade  with  any  other  country  than  England, 
or  to  receive  foreign  ships  into  their  ports.  This  act  was  so  harsh  and  unjust 
that  it  was  never  generally  enforced,  until  the  attempt,  more  than  a  century 
later,  when  it  became  one  of  the  leading  causes  of  the  American  Revolution. 


EARLY   DAYS   IN    JNIttW   ENGL.AND. 


Lli*j 

3  4  6  6789 

PLACES   OF   WORSHIP   IN  NEW   YORK   IN   1742. 
1.  Lutheran.    2.  French.    3.  Trinity.    4.  New  Dutch.    5.  Old  Dutch.    6.  Presbyterian.     7.  Baptist.     8.  Quaker.     9.  Synagogue. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THK    INTERCOLONIAL    WARS    AND    THK    KRKNCH 

AND    INDIAN    WAR. 

King  William's  War— Queen  Anne's  War— King  George's  War— The  French  and  Indian  War— Eng 
land  and  France  Rivals  in  the  Old  World  and  the  New— The  Early  French  Settlements— The 
Disputed  Territory— France's  Fatal  Weakness— Washington's  Journey  Through  the  Wilderness — 
The  First  Fight  of  the  War— The  War  Wholly  American  for  Two  Years— The  Braddock  Mas 
sacre—The  Great  Change  Wrought  by  William  Pitt— Fall  of  Quebec— Momentous  Consequences 
of  the  Great  English  Victory— The  Growth  and  Progress  of  the  Colonies  and  Their  Home  Life. 

KING  WILLIAM'S  WAR. 

IF  anything  were  needed  to  prove  the  utter  uselessness  and  horrible  bar 
barity  of  war,  it  is  found  in  a  history  of  the  strife  in  which  the  American 
colonies  were  involved  through  the  quarrels  of  their  rulers,  thousands  of  miles 
away  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Men  lived  for  years  in  America  as 
neighbors,  meeting  and  exchanging  visits  on  the  most  friendly  terms,  and  with 
no  thought  of  enmity,  until  the  arrival  of  some  ship  with  news  that  their  respec 
tive  governments  in  Europe  had  gone  to  war.  Straightway,  the  neighbors  be 
came  enemies,  and,  catching  up  their  guns,  did  their  best  to  kill  one  another. 
Untold  misery  and  hundreds  of  lives  were  lost,  merely  because  two  ambitious 
men  had  gotten  into  a  wrangle.  The  result  of  such  a  dispute  possessed  no  earthly 
interest  to  the  people  in  the  depths  of  the  American  wilderness,  but  loyalty  to 
their  sovereigns  demanded  tint  they  should  plunge  into  strife. 

As  time  passed,  Spain  and  Holland  declined  in  power,  and  England  and 
France  became  formidable  rivals  in  the  New  World  as  well  as  in  the  Old.  In 
1689,  when  William  III.  was  on  the  throne  of  England,  war  broke  out  between 
that  country  and  France  and  lasted  until  1697.  The  French,  having  settled  in 
Canada,  were  wise  enough  to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  the  Indians,  who  helped 
them  in  their  savage  manner  in  desolating  the  English  settlements.  Dover,  New 

(75) 


76  INTERCOLONIAL    WARS— FRENCH  AND   INDIAN   WAR. 

Hampshire,  was  attacked  by  the  French  and  Indians,  who  killed  more  than  a 
score  of  persons  and  carried  away  a  number  of  captives.  In  other  places,  settlers 
were  surprised  in  the  fields  and  shot  down.  Early  in  1690,  another  party  came 
down  from  Canada,  and,  when  the  snow  lay  deep  on  the  ground  and  the  people 
were  sleeping  in  their  beds,  made  a  furious  attack  upon  Schenectady.  The  town 
was  burned  and  sixty  persons  tomahawked,  while  the  survivors,  half-clad, 
struggled  through  the  snow  t£>  Albany,  sixteen  miles  distant. 

The  Americans  in  retaliation  attempted  to  invade  Canada,  but  the  result 
was  a  disastrous  failure.  The  war  continued  in  a  desultory  way,  with  great 
cruelties  on  both  sides,  until  1697,  when  a  treaty  signed  at  Ryswick,  Holland, 
settled  the  quarrel  between  King  William  and  James  II.,  by  deciding  that  the 
former  was  the  rightful  king  of  England.  The  suffering  and  deaths  that  had 
been  inflicted  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  produced  not  the  slightest  effect  upon 
the  quarrel  between  the  two  claimants  to  the  throne. 

QUEEN  ANNE'S  WAR. 

In  1702,  England  got  into  a  wrangle  with  France  and  Spain.  This  time 
the  Iroquois  Indians  took  no  part,  because  of  their  treaty  with  France,  although 
in  the  previous  war  they  fought  on  the  side  of  the  English.  In  the  depth  of 
winter  in  1703-4,  Deerfield,  Massachusetts,  was  attacked  and  destroyed.  Forty- 
seven  of  the  people  were  tomahawked  and  more  than  a  hundred  carried  into 
captivity.  Their  sufferings  were  so  dreadful  on  the  long  tramp  through  the 
snow  to  Canada  that  nearly  all  sank  down  and  died.  Maine  and  New  Hamp 
shire  were  devastated  by  the  hordes,  who  showed  no  mercy  to  women  and  chil 
dren.  Another  English  invasion  of  Canada  was  attempted,  but  failed  like  its 
predecessor.  The  aimless,  cruel  war  continued  until  1713,  when  a  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  at  Utrecht  in  Holland,  by  which  England  secured  control  of 
the  fisheries  of  Newfoundland,  while  Labrador,  Hudson  Bay,  and  Acadia  or 
Nova  Scotia  were  ceded  to  Great  Britain.  The  result  in  both  instances  would 
have  been  the  same  had  the  English  and  French  settlers  and  the  Indians  con 
tinued  on  amicable  terms. 

KING  GEORGE'S  WAR. 

In  1740,  the  War  for  the  Austrian  Succession  broke  out  in  Europe  and 
soon  involved  most  of  the  European  nations.  Because  George  II.  was  on  the 
throne  of  England,  the  struggle  is  known  in  this  country  as  King  George's  War. 

A  notable  event  in  America  was  the  capture  of  the  fortress  of  Louisburg, 
one  of  the  strongest  fortifications  in  the  world,  mainly  by  New  England  troops. 
It  was  a  grand  achievement  which  thrilled  this  country  and  England,  and 
caused  consternation  in  France.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  1744  at  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  a  town  in  western  Germany.  New  England  was  enraged  to  find 


THE  FRENCH  AND   INDIAN    WAR. 


77 


that  by  the  terms  of  this  treaty  Louisburg  was  given  back  to  France,  and  all 
her  valor,  sacrifice,  and  suffer 
ing  went  for  naught. 


THE    FKENCH    AND   INDIAN 

WAR. 

It  has  already  been  shown  , 
that  England  and  France,  « 
who  had  long  been  rivals  in  1 
the  Old  World,  had  become 


^a^ps 

THE  ATTACK  ON   RIOTERS   AT   SPRINGFIELD,  MASS., 
IN  1786. 


equally  bitter  rivals 
on   this  side   of   the 
Atlantic.       On    the 
west,    the  thirteen 
English  colonies  were 
walled  in  by  the  Al- 
leghany    Mountains, 
beyond  which    none 
of  the  settlers  had  advanced. 
All    the    country  lying   be 
tween    these   mountains    and 
the  Mississippi    was  claimed 
by  France,  who  was  pushing 
southward    through    it,    and 
had  given  it  the  name  of  New 
France   or    Louisiana.      The 
first  French  settlement  within 


the  northwestern  part  of  our 
country  was  the  mission  of  St.  Mary,  near  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  now  in  the  State  of 


78  INTERCOLONIAL    WARS— FRENCH  AND  INDIAN   WAR. 

Michigan,  it  having  been  established  in  1668.     (Several  others  of  minor  import 
ance  were  planted  at  different  points. 

England  did  not  oppose  the  acquirement  of  Canada  by  the  French  early 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  no  serious  attempt  was  made  by  that  people  to 
colonize  the  territory  within  the  United  States  until  16(J(J,  when  D'Iberville 
crossed  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  quest  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  When  he 
found  it,  he  planted  a  settlement  at  Biloxi,  now  in  Mississippi,  but  removed  it 
in  1702  to  Mobile.  The  Mississippi  Company,  a  French  organization,  obtained 
in  1716  a  grant  of  Louisiana,  and  in  1718  sent  out  a  colony  that  began  the 
settlement  of  New  Orleans. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  by  1750  the  French  had  acquired  large  posses 
sions  in  North  America.  *They  were  determined  to  hold  them,  and,  to  do  so, 
established  a  chain  of  sixty  forts  reaching  from  Montreal  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
These  forts  were  the  foundations  of  many  important  cities  of  to-day,  such  as 
New  Orleans,  Natchez,  Detroit,  Vincennes,  Toledo,  Fort  Wayne,  Ogdensburg, 
and  Montreal.  To  the  rear  of  the  main  chain  of  forts  were  others  like  Mack 
inaw,  Peoria,  and  Kaskaskia. 

Extensive  as  was  the  territory  thus  taken  possession  of  by  the  French, 
they  were  fatally  weak  because  of  their  scant  population,  amounting  to  less  than 
150,000  souls,  while  the  English  colonies  had  grown  to  1,500,000.  The  French 
traders  were  just  about  strong  enough  to  hold  the  Indians  in  check,  but  no 
more. 

Thus  with  the  French  on  the  west  and  the  English  on  the  east  of  the 
Alleghanies,  the  two  rival  forces  were  slowly  creeping  toward  each  other,  and 
were  bound  soon  to  meet,  when  the  supreme  struggle  for  possession  of  the 
North  American  continent  would  open.  By-and-by,  the  French  hunters  and 
traders,  as  they  climbed  the  western  slope  of  the  mountains,  met  the  English 
trappers  moving  in  their  direction.  Being  the  advance  skirmishers  of  their 
respective  armies,  they  often  exchanged  shots,  and  then  fell  back  to  report  what 
they  had  seen  and  done  to  their  countrymen. 

The  fertile  lands  of  the  Great  West  had  long  attracted  attention,  and 
many  efforts  had  been  made  to  buy  them  at  a  cheap  price  to  sell  again  to 
settlers.  In  1749,  the  Ohio  Company  was  formed  by  a  number  of  London 
merchants  and  several  prominent  Virginians.  The  lands  they  bought  lay  in 
western  Pennsylvania,  which  Virginia  claimed  as  part  of  her  territory.  This 
company  proved  its  earnestness  by  sending  out  surveyors,  opening  roads,  and 
offering  tempting  inducements  to  settlers. 

The  French  were  equally  prompt  and  took  possession  of  the  country 
between  the  Alleghanies  and  their  main  chain  of  forts.  They  built  a  fort  at 
Presq'  Isle,  on  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Erie,  and  began  erecting  a  new 


WASHINGTON'S  JOURNEY. 


79 


chain  of  forts  southward  toward  the  Ohio.  Governor  Dinwiddie  of  Virginia 
saw  the  danger  of  permitting  this  encroachment,  and  he  wrote  a  letter  of  remon 
strance  to  the  French  commander,  which  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  GEORGE 
WASHINGTON,  to  be  carried  five  hundred  miles  through  wilderness,  across  moun 
tains  and  dangerous  rivers,  to  the  point  in  western  Pennsylvania  where  the 
French  officer  was  building  his  forts  upon  disputed  ground. 


YOUNG    WASHINGTON   RIDING  A  COLT. 

One  summer  morning,  young  George,  with  three  or  four  boys,  was  in  the  field  looking  at  a  colt,  given  him  by  his  mother, 
and  when  the  boys  said  that  it  could  never  be  tamed,  George  said  :  "  You  help  me  get  on  its  back,  and  I'll  tame  it." 

The  journey  was  a  long  and  perilous  one,  but  Washington,  who  was  a 
magnificent  specimen  of  vigorous  young  manhood,  performed  it  in  safety  and 
brought  back  the  reply  of  the  French  commander,  which  notified  Governor 
Dinwiddie  that  he  not  only  refused  to  vacate  the  territory,  but  would  drive  out 
every  Englishman  he  found  within  it. 

This  meant  war,  and  Virginia  made  her  preparations.  She  raised  about 
400  men  and  placed  them  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  Washing- 


80  INTERCOLONIAL    WARS— FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR. 

ton,  who  was  more  familiar  with  the  country  than  anyone  else.  The  Ohio 
Company  at  that  time  were  putting  up  a  fort  on  the  present  site  of  Pitteburg, 
and  Washington  hurried  forward  to  protect  it.  The  Frenchmen  understood 
the  value  of  a  post  at  the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela  Rivers, 
and  also  started  on  a  race  for  it.  They  arrived  first,  captured  the  fort,  strength 
ened  it,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Fort  Duquesne.  That  done,  they  set  out  to 
meet  Washington,  who  was  descending  the  Monongahela. 

OPENING    OF    THE    WAR. 

The  meeting  between  these  forces  brought  on  the  first  fight  of  the  French 
and  Indian  War.  It  was  the  advance  party  of  each  which  met,  and  it  is  said 
that  the  first  musket  was  fired  by  Washington  himself.  The  French  had  en 
listed  a  number  of  Indians,  but  Washington  killed  or  captured  nearly  all  of 
them  as  well  as  the  whites.  The  main  body  of  the  French,  however,  was  so 
much  more  powerful  than  his  own,  that  Washington  moved  back  a  few  miles 
and  built  a  fortification  which  he  named  Fort  Necessity.  There,  after  a  brisk 
fight,  he  was  compelled  to  surrender,  July  4,  1754,  on  the  promise  that  he  and 
his  men  should  be  allowed  to  return  to  Virginia.  That  province  was  so  well 
pleased  with  his  work  that  he  acted  as  its  leading  officer  throughout  the  re 
mainder  of  the  war. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  must  be  noted.  For  two 
years  it  was  entirely  an  American  war,  not  extending  to  Europe  until  1756. 
For  the  first  time  the  English  colonies  acted  together.  They  saw  the  value  of 
the  territory  in  dispute  and  were  ready  to  make  common  cause  for  its  possession. 
England  was  inclined  to  let  them  do  the  best  they  could  without  help  from 
her.  She  advised  that  they  form  some  plan  for  united  action.  In  accordance 
with  this  suggestion,  a  meeting  was  held  at  Albany  in  1754,  composed  of  dele 
gates  from  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  the  New  England  colonies. 
Benjamin  Franklin,  the  great  philosopher,  proposed  the  "Albany  plan  of 
Union,"  which  was  agreed  upon. 

When  this  was  submitted  to  the  king,  he  saw  too  much  of  American  inde 
pendence  in  it,  and  promptly  rejected  it,  while  the  colonies  did  the  same  on 
the  ground  that  it  gave  the  king  too  much  power.  There  was  much  significance 
in  this  action. 

EXPULSION    OF    THE    CANADIANS. 

It  was  now  so  evident  that  war  must  soon  come  that  England  ana  France 
began  sending  troops  to  America.  At  the  same  time,  the  respective  govern 
ments  continued  to  profess — diplomatically — their  strong  friendship  for  each 
other.  In  June,  1755,  a  force  consisting  of  British  regulars  and  colonial  troops 
sailed  from  Boston  and  captured  the  few  remaining  French  forts  in  Nova 


BRADDOCK'S  MASSACRE. 


81 


Scotia.  The  inhabitants  were  gathered  together  in  their  churches,  placed  on 
ships,  and  then  distributed  southward  among  the  English  colonies.  This  act 
has  been  often  denounced  as  one  unworthy  of  the  British  people. 

BRADDOCK'S  MASSACRE. 
Among  the  English   officers  who  arrived  in  1755  was  General  Edward 


Bradd  ock. 
He   was  brave      l\ 
and  skillful,  but  \ 
conceited    and     stub-  ( 
born.    When  Washing-  */" 
ton,  who  was  one  of  his  '* 
aides,  explained    to    him      J 
the    character      of     the 
treacherous    foes     whom 
he    would    have    to    fight 
and  advised  him  to  adopt 
similar  tactics,  the  English 
officer   insultingly  answered 
that   when  he  felt  the  need 

of  advice  from  a  young  Virginian,  he  would  ask  for  it.  He  marched  toward 
Fort  Duquesne  and  was  within  a  few  miles  of  the  post,  when  he  ran  into  an  am 
bush  and  was  assailed  so  vehemently  by  a  force  of  French  and  Indians  that 
half  his  men  were  killed,  the  rest  put  to  flight,  and  himself  mortally  wounded. 
Washington  and  his  Virginians,  by  adopting  the  Indian  style  of  fighting, 
checked  the  pursuit  and  saved  the  remainder  of  the  men. 

In  the  spring  of  1756,  England   and  France  declared  war  against  each 
6 


BRADDOCK'S    DEFEAT. 


82  INTERCOLONIAL    WARS— FRENCH  AND  INDIAN   WAR. 

other  and  the  struggle  now  involved  those  two  countries.  For  two  years  the 
English,  despite  their  preponderance  of  forces  in  America,  lost  rather  than 
gained  ground.  Their  officers  sent  across  the  ocean  were  a  sorry  lot,  while  the 
French  were  commanded  by  Montcalm,  a  brilliant  leader.  He  concentrated  his 
forces  and  delivered  many  effective  blows,  capturing  the  forts  on  the  northern 
border  of  New  York  and  winning  all  the  Indians  to  his  support.  The  English 
fought  in  detached  bodies  and  were  continually  defeated. 

ENGLISH    SUCCESSES. 

But  a  change  came  in  1758,  when  William  Pitt,  one  of  the  greatest  Eng 
lishmen  in  history,  was  called  to  the  head  of  the  government.  He  weeded  out 
inefficient  officers,  replaced  them  with  skillful  ones,  who,  concentrating  their 

troops,  assailed  the  French  at  three  import 
ant   points.      Louisburg,    on    Cape    Breton 
Island,  which  had  been  captured  more  than 
a     hundred    years     before,    during    King 
George's  War,  was  again  taken  by  a  naval 
expedition  in  the  summer  of  1758.     In  the 
autumn,  Fort  Duquesne  was  captured  with 
out  resistance  and  named  Fort  Pitt,  in  honor 
L^  of  the  illustrious  prime  minister.    The  single 
-  defeat  administered  to  the  English  was  at 
Ticonderoga,  where  Montcalm  commanded 
%^'~     in  person.     This  was  a  severe   repulse,  in 
which  the  English  lost  in  the  neighborhood 

MARTELLO  TOWER  ON  THE  HEIGHTS    of  1,000    meil.        It  Was    offset    by  the    6 


OF  ABRAHAM  WHERE  WOLFE       gion  of  the  French  from  northwestern  New 

W  Ao    JvJ.l_iJ_ilLiL). 

York  and  the  capture  of  Fort  Frontenac, 
on  the  present  site  of  Kingston  in  Canada. 

One  wise  step  of  Pitt  was  in  winning  the  cordial  support  of  the  provincials, 
as  the  colonists  were  called,  to  the  British  regulars.  Our  ancestors  thus  gained 
a  most  valuable  military  training  which  served  them  well  in  the  great  struggle 
for  independence  a  few  years  later. 

WOLFE'S  GREAT  VICTORY. 

The  year  1759  brought  decisive  success  to  the  English.  Knowing  that 
they  intended  to  attack  Quebec,  Montcalm  drew  in  his  troops  to  defend  that 
city.  It  therefore  was  an  easy  matter  for  the  English  to  capture  Ticonderoga, 
Crown  Point,  and  Fort  Niagara.  General  Wolfe,  one  of  the  very  ablest  of 
English  leaders,  left  Louisburg  with  a  fleet  and  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence. 


WOLFE'S   GREAT   VICTORY. 


83 


He  found  the  fortifications  of  Quebec  at  so  great  an  elevation  that  he  could  make 
no  impression  upon  them.  Three  months  passed  in  idle  waiting  and  the 
besiegers  were  almost  disheartened.  Wolfe  himself  was  so  distressed  by  anxiety 

that  he  fell  ill.  The  saga 
cious  Montcalm  could  not  be 
induced  to  cume  out  and  give 


A  DUTCH  HOUSEHOLD. 
As  seen  in  the  early  days  in  New  York. 

battle,  and  there  seemed  no 
way  of  reaching  him. 

But  the  lion-hearted 
Wolfe  would  not  be  denied.  He  found  a  path  leading  up  to  the  Heights  of 
Abraham,  as  the  plain  above  was  called,  and,  selecting  a  mild  night  in  September, 
his  troops  floated  down  the  river  in  their  boats  and  landed  at  the  foot  of  the  cliff. 
All  night  long  the  English  soldiers  were  clambering  up  the  steep  path,  dragging 
a  few  guns  with  them,  and,  when  the  morning  sun  rose,  it  shone  on  the  flashing 
bayonets  of  the  whole  army  drawn  up  in  battle  array  before  the  walls  of  Quebec. 


84  INTERCOLONIAL    WARS— FRENCH  AND  INDIAN   WAR. 

The  astonished  Moiitcalm,  instead  of  remaining  within  the  city,  marched 
his  army  out  and  gave  battle.  In  the  fight  both  Wolfe  and  Moiitcalm  were 
fatally  wounded.  Wolfe  lived  long  enough  to  learn  that  the  French  were  flee 
ing  before  his  victorious  troops.  "  Now,  I  can  die  happy/'  lie  said,  and  shortly 
after  expired.  "When  Moiitcalm  was  told  he  must  die,  he  mournfully  replied : 
"So  much  the  better;  I  shall  not  live  to  see  the  surrender  of  Quebec." 

MOMENTOUS    RESULTS    OF   THE    WAR. 

This  battle  was  one  of  the  decisive  ones  of  the  world,  for,  as  will  be  seen, 
its  results  were  of  momentous  importance  to  mankind.  The  conquest  of  Canada 
followed  in  17(30,  and  the  other  French  forts  fairly  tumbled  into  the  possession 
of  the  English.  '  Pontiac,  Chief  of  the  Ottawas,  was  so  angered  at  the  turn  of 
events  that  he  refused  to  be  bound  by  the  terms  of  the  surrender.  He  brought 
a  number  of  tribes  into  an  alliance,  captured  several  British  posts  in  the  West, 
and  laid  siege  to  Detroit  for  more  than  a  year,  but  in  the  end  he  was  defeated, 
his  confederacy  scattered,  and  Pontiac  himself,  like  Philip,  was  killed  by  one 
of  his  own  race. 

The  war  was  over,  so  far  as  America  was  concerned,  but  England  and 
France  kept  it  np  for  nearly  three  years,  fighting  on  the  ocean  and  elsewhere. 
In  1702,  Spain  joined  France,  but  received  a  telling  blow  in  the  same  year, 
when  an  English  expedition  captured  the  city  of  Havana.  In  this  important 
event,  the  provincials  gave  valuable  aid  to  the  British  regulars.  The  colonies 
also  sent  out  a  number  of  privateers  which  captured  many  rich  prizes  from  the 
Spaniards. 

By  1763,  Great  Britain  had  completely  conquered  France  and  Spain,  and  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Paris.  France  and  Spain  agreed  to  give  up  all  of 
North  America  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  England  ceded  Cuba  to  Spain  in  ex 
change  for  Florida,  exchanging  Florida  in  1783  for  the  Bahama  Islands.  The 
former  was  a  victory  for  Spanish  diplomacy,  since  Florida  was  practically  worth 
less  to  Spain,  while  Havana,  the  capital  of  Cuba,  was  an  enormously  wealthy 
city,  and  the  island  possessed  marvelous  fertility  and  almost  boundless  resources. 

France,  after  her  wholesale  yielding  to  England,  paid  Spain  her  ally  by 
ceding  to  her  all  her  possessions  west  of  the  Mississippi,  including  the  city  of 
New  Orleans.  This  enormous  territory,  then  known  as  Louisiana,  compre 
hended  everything  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Mississippi  River,  from 
British  America  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  extent  it  was  an  empire  from  which 
many  of  the  most  important  States  of  the  Union  have  been  carved.  When  it 
is  remembered  that  these  changes  were  the  result  of  a  war  in  which  the  capture 
of  Quebec  was  the  decisive  conflict,  it  will  be  admitted  that  there  was  ample 
warrant  for  pronouncing  it  one  of  the  great  battles  of  the  world. 


MOMENTOUS  RESULTS    OF  THE    WAR. 


85 


The  thirteen  original  colonies  were  now  "full  grown/'  Their  population 
had  increased  to  2,000,000  and  was  fast  growing.  Their  men  had  proven  their 
bravery  and  generalship  in  the  French  and  Indian  War.  Many  of  them  had 
developed  into  fine  officers,  and  all  compared  favorably  with  the  British  regu 
lars.  Their  loyalty  to  England  was  proven  by  the  30,000  lives  that  had  been 
given  that  she  might  conquer  her  traditional  rival  and  enemy. 

The  adventurous  spirit  of  the  colonists  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  many 
began  crossing  the  Alleghanies  into  the  fertile  district  beyond,  where  they  were 
in  continual  danger  from  the  fierce  Indians.  James  Robertson  led  a  party  of 


MEMORIAL  HALL,   HARVARD   COLLEGE. 

emigrants  who  made  the  first  settlement  in  Tennessee  in  1768,  and  the  famous 
Daniel  Boone  and  a  company  of  immigrants  were  the  pioneers  in  Kentucky  in 
1769.  No  effort  was  made  to  settle  the  country  north  of  the  Ohio  until  after 
the  Revolution. 

The  intellectual  progress  of  the  colonies  was  remarkable.  The  first  print 
ing  press  was  set  up  at  Cambridge  in  1639,  and  newspapers  and  books  were  in 
general  circulation.  Harvard  College  was  founded  in  Massachusetts  in  1638 ; 
William  and  Mary,  in  Virginia,  in  1692 ;  Yale,  in  Connecticut,  in  1700 ;  the 
College  of  New  Jersey  (now  Princeton  University),  in  1746  ;  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  in  1749;  and  King's  College  (now  Columbia),  in  New  York,  in 


86  INTERCOLONIAL    WARS— FRENCH  A  XI)   INDIAN   WAR. 

1754.  Much  attention  was  given  to  education,  commerce  was  greatly  extended, 
the  oppressive  Navigation  Act  being  generally  disregarded,  and  thousands  of 
citizens  were  in  prosperous  circumstances. 

More  significant  than  all  else  was  the  growth  of  the  sentiment  of  unity 
among  the  different  colonies.  Although  properly  known  as  provincials,  to  dis 
tinguish  them  from  the  British,  they  now,  instead  of  speaking  of  themselves  as 
New  Englanders  or  Virginians  or  Englishmen,  often  substituted  the  name 
"  Americans."  The  different  colonies  were  looked  upon  as  members  of  the 
same  great  family,  ready  to  make  common  cause  against  a  danger  threatening 
any  one  of  them.  Some  of  the  bolder  ones  began  to  express  the  thought  that  it 
would  be  a  fine  thing  if  they  were  all  independent  of  the  mother  country, 
though  for  years  the  sentiment  assumed  no  importance. 

Now  was  the  time  for  England  to  display  wisdom,  justice,  and  statesman 
ship  toward  her  subjects  in  America. 
Had  she  treated  them  as  she  now  treats 
Canada  and  Australia  and  her  other  col- 

*"^T  V;'^§SllS  "*Sk.        I  '    on^es'  tnere    never    would    have    been   a 
^  Kevolution.     No  doubt  in  time  we  should 

have  separated  from  her,  but  the  sepa 
ration  would  have  been  peaceable. 

But  while  Great  Britain  has  always 
been  immeasurably  above  Spain  in  her 
I  treatment  of  her  American  subjects,  she 
was  almost  as  foolish,  because  she 
chilled  the  loyalty  that  had  been  proven 
in  too  many  instances  to  be  doubted. 
The  mother  country  was  laboring  under 
the  weight  of  burdensome  taxes,  and, 
since  the  colonies  had  always  been  prompt  in  voting  money  and  supplies  as  well 
as  men  to  assist  England,  Parliament  thought  she  saw  a  way  of  shouldering  a 
large  part  of  this  burden  upon  the  Americans.  Her  attempts  to  do  so  and  the 
results  therefrom  properly  belong  to  the  succeeding  chapter, 

HOME    LIFE    OF    THE    COLONISTS. 

A  few  facts  will  assist  in  understanding  the  events  that  follow.  Slavery, 
as  has  been  stated,  was  legal  and  existed  in  all  the  colonies,  but  climatic  con 
ditions  caused  it  to  flourish  in  the  South  and  decline  in  the  North.  All  the 
colonies  were  Protestant,  though  religious  liberty  was  permitted  everywhere. 

The  laws  were  amazingly  strict  and  would  never  be  submitted  to  in  these 
times.  To  illustrate :  a  watchman  in  Hartford  rang  a  bell  every  morning  as 


BIBLE  BROUGHT  OVER  IN  THE  "MAY 
FLOWER,"  IN   PILGRIM   HALL, 
NEW  PLYMOUTH. 


HOME  LIFE   OF  THE   COLONISTS. 


87 


notice  to  all  adults  to  rise  from  their  beds.  Massachusetts  had  fourteen  and 
Virginia  seventeen  offenses  that  were  punishable  with  death.  Some  of  the 
minor  punishments  were  unique.  If  a  woman  became  a  common  scold,  she 
was  placed  near  her  own  door,  with  a  gag  fastened  in  her  mouth,  that  all  might 
see  and  beware  of  her  example.  For  other  offenses,  a  man  was  ducked  in  water 
or  put  in  the  stocks.  A  stock  was  a  strong  framework,  through  which  the  feet 
or  both  feet  and  hands  were  thrust  and  held  fast,  while  the  pillory  was  a  frame' 
work  through  which  the  head  and  hands  of  a  criminal  were  imprisoned.  Be 
sides  the  disgrace  attending  such  punishment,  it  was  very  trying.  The  whipping 
post  was  quite  common  long  after  the  Revolution,  and  it  is  still  occasionally  used 
in  Delaware. 


AMERICAN  STAGE-COACH  OF  1795,  FROM  "'WELD'S   TRAVELS." 

(Probably  similar  in  form  to  those  of  the  later  colonial  period.) 

Men  and  boys  dressed  much  alike,  and  the  fashions  for  women  and  girls 
were  similar.  The  breeches  of  the  men  suggested  the  present  style  of  knicker 
bockers,  the  rich  making  quite  a  display  of  silver  buckles  and  buttons.  The 
breeches  of  the  poorer  people  were  made  of  coarse  cloth,  deerskin,  or  leather,  the 
object  being  to  obtain  all  the  wear  possible.  The  wealthy  used  velvet,  and  the 
men  and  women  were  as  fond  of  display  as  their  descendants. 

In  the  earliest  days,  all  the  houses  were  made  of  logs,  and  oiled  paper  took 
the  place  of  glass  for  windows.  Carpets  were  an  unknown  luxury.  Often  the 
floor  was  the  smooth,  hard  ground.  The  cooking  was  done  in  the  big  fireplace, 


88  INTERCOLONIAL    WAR— FRENCH  AND  INDIAN   WAR. 

where  an  iron  arm  called  a  crane  was  swung  over  the  fire  and  sustained  the 
pots  and  kettles.  Coal  and  matches  were  unknown,  a  fire  being  started  by 
means  of  a  piece  of  steel  and  flint  or  with  the  help  of  a  sun  glass. 

Coffee  and  tea  were  great  luxuries,  but  nearly  every  family  made  its  own 
beer.  Rum  and  hard  cider  were  drunk  by  church  people  as  well  as  others,  the 
only  fault  being  when  one  drank  too  much.  The  important  cities  and  towns 
were  connected  by  stages,  but  most  of  the  traveling  was  done  on  foot  or  horse 
back.  Since  most  of  the  settlements  were  near  the  sea  or  on  large  rivers,  long 
journeys  were  made  by  means  of  coasting  sloops.  When  a  line  of  stages  in 
1766  made  the  trip  between  New  York  and  Philadelphia  in  two  days,  it  was 
considered  so  wonderful  that  the  vehicles  were  called  "flying  machines." 

Regarding  the  state  of  religion  in  the  colonies,  Prof.  George  F.  Holmes 
says : 

"  The  state  of  religion  among  the  people  differed  greatly  in  the  different 
provinces.  The  Church  of  England  was  the  established  religion  in  New  York, 
Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas.  In  Maryland,  the  population  remained  largely 
Roman  Catholic.  In  New  England  the  original  Puritanism  was  dominant,  but 
its  rigor  had  become  much  softened.  A  solemn  and  somewhat  gloomy  piety, 
however,  still  prevailed.  The  Presbyterians  were  numerous,  influential,  and 
earnest  in  New  Jersey.  There,  but  especially  in  Pennsylvania,  were  the  quiet 
and  gentle  Quakers.  In  Carolina  and  Georgia,  Moravians  and  other  German 
Protestants  were  settled,  and  Huguenot  families  were  frequent  in  Virginia  and 
South  Carolina. 

"Everywhere,  however,  was  found  an  intermixture  of  creeds,  and  conse 
quently  the  need  of  toleration  had  been  experienced.  Laxity  of  morals  and  of 
conduct  was  alleged  against  the  communities  of  the  Anglican  Church.  In  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  low  tone  of  religious  sentiment  was  general. 
The  revival  of  fervor,  which  was  incited  then  by  the  Wesleys,  was  widely  spread 
by  Whitefield  in  America,  and  Methodism  was  making  itself  felt  throughout  the 
country.  The  Baptists  were  spreading  in  different  colonies  and  were  acquiring 
influence  by  their  earnest  simplicity.  They  favored  liberty  in  all  forms  and  be 
came  warm  partisans  of  the  revolutionary  movement." 


CHAPTER  IV, 

THE    REVOLUTION—  THE    WAR    IN    NEW 

ENOLAND. 

Causes  of  the  Revolution — The  Stamp  Act — The  Boston  Tea  Party — England's  Unbearable  Measures — 
The  First  Continental  Congress — The  Boston  Massacre— Lexington  and  Concord — The  Second  Con 
tinental  Congress — Battle  of  Bunker  Hill — Assumption  of  Command  by  Washington — British 
Evacuation  of  Boston — Disastrous  Invasion  of  Canada. 

CAUSES    OF    THE   REVOLUTION. 

ENGLAND  was  never  guilty  of  greater  folly  than  in  the  treatment  of  her 
American  colonies  after  the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War.  As  has  been 
said,  she  was  oppressed  by  burdensome  taxation  and  began  seeking  excuse  for 
shifting  a  large  portion  of  it  upon  the  shoulders  of  her  prosperous  subjects 
across  the  sea,  who  had  always  been  ready  to  vote  money  and  give  their  sons  to 
help  in  the  wars  which  were  almost  solely  for  the  benefit  of  the  mother  country. 
It  has  been  shown  that  the  intercolonial  conflicts  were  of  no  advantage  to  the 
colonies  which  were  dragged  into  them  and  suffered  greatly  therefrom.  Since 
the  surrounding  territory  would  soon  be  necessary  for  the  expansion  of  the 
Americans,  they  had  much  to  gain  by  the  defeat  of  the  French  and  their  expul 
sion  from  America;  but  they  had  done  their  full  share,  and  it  was  unjust  to  de 
mand  further  sacrifices  from  them. 

PASSAGE    OF   THE   STAMP   ACT. 

Hardly  had  peace  been  declared,  when,  in  1764,  the  British  government 
asserted  that  it  had  the  right  to  tax  her  colonies.  The  latter  paid  little  atten 
tion  to  the  declaration,  but  were  rudely  awakened  in  1765  by  the  passage  of 
the  Stamp  Act,  which  was  to  go  into  effect  in  November  of  that  year.  It  de 
creed  that  thenceforward  no  newspapers  or  pamphlets  could  be  printed,  no  mar 
riage-certificate  given,  and  no  documents  used  in  lawsuits,  unless  stamps  were 
attached,  and  these  could  be  bought  only  from  British  agents. 

It  was  ordered  further  that  the  oppressive  Navigation  Acts,  which  had 
been  evaded  for  a  hundred  years,  should  be  rigidly  enforced,  while  soldiers  were 
to  be  sent  to  America  to  see  that  the  orders  were  carried  out.  Since  these 
troops  were  to  be  paid  from  the  money  received  for  the  stamps,  it  will  be  seen 

(89) 


90  THE  REVOLUTION— THE   WAR  IN  NEW  ENGLAND. 

that  the  Americans  would  be  obliged  to  bear  the  expense  of  the  soldiers  quar 
tered  upon  them. 

Now  we  use  revenue  stamps  to-day  and  no  one  objects,  but  the  difference 
in  the  two  cases  is  that  we  tax  ourselves  for  our  own  expenses,  and  our  repre 
sentatives  grade  the  taxes  so  as  to  suit  the  people.  If  we  do  not  think  the  taxes 
equitable,  we  can  elect  other  representatives,  pledged  to  change  them.  But  it- 
must  be  remembered  that  we  never  had  a  representative  in  the  British  Parlia 
ment,  whose  English  members  did  just  as  they  pleased.  That  was  "  taxation 
without  representation." 

The  news  of  the  action  of  the  British  government  threw  the  colonies  into 
an  angry  mood  and  they  vehemently  declared  their  intention  to  resist  the  Stamp 
Act.  They  did  not  content  themselves  with  words,  but  mobbed  the  stamp 
agents,  compelled  others  to  resign,  and,  when  the  date  arrived  for  the  act  to  go 
into  effect,  they  refused  to  buy  a  single  obnoxious  stamp. 

REPEAL   OF   THE    STAMP    ACT. 

The  Stamp  Act  Congress,  as  it  was  called,  met  in  New  York  City,  October 
7,  1765.  There  were  representatives  from  all  the  colonies  except  four,  but  they 
supported  the  others.  Lacking  the  authority  to  make  any  laws,  it  issued  a  bold 
declaration  of  rights  and  sent  petitions  to  the  king  and  Parliament,  setting  forth 
the  American  grievances.  The  sturdy  resistance  of  the  colonies  alarmed  Eng 
land.  They  had  many  friends  in  Parliament,  including  the  illustrious  Pitt, 
and,  at  the  beginning  of  1766,  the  act  was  repealed.  The  Americans  were  so 
delighted  that  they  almost  forgot  that  England  in  repealing  the  act  still  asserted 
her  right  to  tax  them. 

Several  years  now  followed  in  which  the  colonies  quietly  resisted  the  efforts 
of  England  to  tax  them.  This  was  done  by  a  general  agreement  not  to  buy 
any  of  the  articles  upon  which  taxes  were  laid.  The  men  who  did  this  and 
opposed  the  mother  country  were  known  as  Whigs,  while  those  who  stood  by 
England  were  called  Tories. 

DEFIANT   ACTS    BY   THE   AMERICANS. 

But  violence  was  sure  to  follow  where  the  indignation  was  so  intense  and 
widespread.  There  were  continual  broils  between  the  British  soldiers  and  citi 
zens,  the  most  serious  of  which  occurred  in  Boston  on  March  5,  1770,  when  the 
soldiers  fired  upon  the  citizens  who  had  attacked  them,  killed  three  and  wounded 
several.  This  incident,  known  in  history  as  the  "  Boston  Massacre,"  added  to 
the  mutual  anger.  In  North  Carolina,  William  Tryon,  the  Tory  Governor,  had 
a  battle  with  the  patriots  at  Alamance  in  1771,  killed  a  large  number,  and 
treated  others  so  brutally  that  many  fled  across  the  mountains  and  helped  to 


ENGLAND'S    UNBEARABLE  MEASURES 


91 


settle  Tennessee.  In  1772,  a  British  vessel,  the  Gaspe,  which  was  active  in  col 
lecting  duties  from  Providence,  was  captured  and  burned  by  a  number  of  Rhode 
Island  people.  England  offered  a  reward  for  the  capture  of  the  "  rebels,"  but, 
though  they  were  well  known,  no  one  would  have  dared,  if  so  disposed,  to  arrest 
them. 

THE    BOSTON    TEA    PARTY. 

The  British  Parliament  was  impatient  with  the  colonies,  and  threatened  all 
sorts  of  retaliatory  measures.  In  1770,  Parliament  took  the  tax  off  of  all  articles 
except  tea,  upon  which  it  was  made 
so  light  that  the  luxury  was  cheaper 
in  America  with  the  tax  than  in  Eng 
land  without  it.  The  Americans, 
however,  were  contending  for  a  prin 
ciple,  and  contemptuously  rejected  the 
offer.  When  the  tea  ships  reached 
Charleston,  the  cargoes  were  stored 
in  damp  cellars,  where  they  soon  mold 
ed  and  spoiled.  At  New  York,  Phil 
adelphia,  and  other  points  they  would 
not  allow  the  ships  to  land  their  car 
goes,  and  they  sailed  back  to  Eng 
land.  A  similar  reception  having 
been  given  the  vessels  in  Boston,  the 
British  officers  refused  to  leave  the 
harbor.  Late  at  night,  December  16, 
1773,  a  party  of  citizens,  painted  and 
disguised  as  Indians,  boarded  the  ship- 
and  emptied  342  chests — all  on  board 
— into  the  harbor. 

The  "Boston  Tea  Party"  thrilled 
the   colonies   and  exhausted  the   pa 
tience  of  England,  who  felt  that  the  time  for  stern  measures  had  come.     Her 
dallying  course  had  only  encouraged  the  rebels,  and  as  in  the  story,  having  tried 
in  vain  the  throwing  of  grass,  she  now  determined  to  see  what  virtue  there  was 

in  using  stones. 

ENGLAND'S  UNBEARABLE  MEASURES. 

The  measures  which  she  passed  and  which  were  unbearable  were :  1.  The 
Boston  Port  Bill,  which  forbade  all  vessels  to  leave  or  enter  Boston  harbor. 
This  was  a  death-blow  to  Boston  commerce  and  was  meant  as  a  punishment  of 
those  who  were  leaders  in  the  revolt  against  the  mother  country.  2.  The  Mas- 


THE   OLD   SOUTH   CHURCH,   BOSTON. 
An  immense  assemblage  gathered  here  on  the  evening  of  Dec. 
16, 1773,  and  stirring  addresses  were  made  by  Josiah  Quincy  and 
Samuel  Adams.    The  "  Boston  Tea  Party  "  followed. 


92  THE  REVOLUTION— THE    WAR  IN  NEW  ENGLAND. 

sachusetts  Bill,  which  was  another  destructive  blow  at  the  colony,  since  it 
changed  its  charter  by  taking  away  the  right  of  self-government  and  placing  it 
in  the  hands  of  the  agents  of  the  king.  3.  The  Transportation  Bill,  which 
ordered  that  all  soldiers  charged  with  the  crime  of  murder  should  be  taken 
to  England  for  trial.  4.  The  Quebec  Act,  which  made  the  country  east  of  the 
Mississippi  and  north  of  the  Ohio  a  part  of  Canada.  These  acts  were  to  be 
enforced  by  the  sending  of  troops  to  America. 

THE    FIRST   CONTINENTAL   CONGRESS. 

The  result  of  the  passage  of  these  harsh  measures  was  to  unite  all  the  colo 
nies  in  a  determination  to  resist  them  to  the  last.  The  necessity  for  consulta 
tion  among  the  leaders  was  so  apparent  that,  in  response  to  a  general  call,  the 
First  Continental  Congress  met  in  Philadelphia,  September  5,  1774,  all  the  colo 
nies  being  represented  except  Georgia,  which  favored  the  action. 

This  Congress  adopted  a  declaration  of  rights,  asserting  that  they  alone 
were  empowered  to  tax  themselves,  and  it  named  a  number  of  acts  of  Parliament 
that  were  a  direct  invasion  of  such  rights.  An  address  was  sent  to  the  king 
and  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  but  none  to  Parliament,  which  had  deeply 
offended  the  Americans.  The  agreement  known  as  the  Articles  of  Association 
pledged  our  ancestors  not  to  buy  goods  or  sell  them  to  Great  Britain  until  the 
obnoxious  acts  were  repealed  by  Parliament.  It  declared  further  that,  if  force 
was  used  against  Massachusetts  by  England,  all  the  other  colonies  would  help 
her  in  resisting  it.  Before  adjournment,  a  new  Congress  was  called  to  meet  in 
the  following  May. 

The  language  of  the  First  Continental  Congress  sounds  bold,  but  the  people 
themselves  were  bolder.  Companies  of  armed  men  began  drilling  everywhere, 
and  the  Americans  were  eager  for  a  conflict  with  the  detested  "  red  coats."  The 
excitement  was  more  intense  in  Massachusetts  than  anywhere  else,  and  it  was 
plain  that  the  opening  gun  of  the  impending  Revolution  would  be  fired  upon 
her  soil.  The  affairs  of  the  colony  were  directed  by  a  provincial  congress, 
which  collected  a  quantity  of  guns  and  ammunition,  and  ordered  the  enrollment 
of  20,000  "minute  men,"  wrho  were  to  hold  themselves  ready  to  answer  any  call 
at  a  minute's  notice. 

General  Gage  was  the  British  commander  in  Boston,  and  he  was  so  alarmed 
by  the  aggressive  acts  of  the  Americans  that  he  began  to  throw  up  fortifications 
on  the  neck  of  land  connecting  the  town  with  the  mainland.  His  alert  spies 
notified  him  that  the  Americans  had  collected  a  quantity  of  military  supplies 
which  were  stored  at  Concord,  some  twenty  miles  from  Boston.  Gage  ordered 
800  troops  to  march  secretly  to  Concord  and  destroy  them. 

Guarded  as  were  the  movements  of  the  British,  the  Americans  were  equally 


BATTLE  OF  BUNKER  HILL.  93 

watchful  and  discovered  them.  Paul  Revere  dashed  out  of  the  town  on  a  swift 
horse  and  spread  the  news  throughout  the  country.  In  the  gray  light  of  the 
early  morning,  April  19,  1775,  as  the  soldiers  marched  into  Lexington,  on  the 
way  to  Concord  beyond,  they  saw  some  fifty  minute  men  gathered  on  the  village 
green.  Major  Pitcairn  ordered  them  to  disperse,  and  they  refusing  to  do  so,  a 
volley  was  fired.  Eight  Americans  were  killed  and  a  large  number  wounded, 
the  others  fleeing  before  the  overwhelming  force.  Thus  was  the  shot  fired  that 
"was  heard  round  the  world." 

The  British  advanced  to  Concord,  destroyed  the  stores  there,  and  then  began 
their  return  to  Boston.  All  the  church  bells  were  ringing  and  the  minute  men 
were  swarming  around  the  troops  from  every  direction.  They  kept  up  a  con 
tinuous  fire  upon  the  soldiers  from  behind  barns, 
houses,  hedges,  fences,  bushes,  and  from  the  open 
fields.  The  soldiers  broke  into  a  run,  but  every 
one  would  have  been  shot  down  had  not  Gage  sent 
reinforcements,  which  protected  the  exhausted  fu 
gitives  until  they  reached  a  point  where  they  were 
under  the  guns  of  the  men-of-war.  In  this  first 
real  conflict  of  the  war,  the  Americans  lost  88  and 
the  British  273  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing. 
General  Gage  was  now  besieged  in  Boston  by  the 
ardent  minute  men,  who  in  the  flush  of  their  patri 
otism  were  eager  for  the  regulars  to  come  out  and 
give  them  a  chance  for  a  battle.  Men  mounted  on 
swift  horses  rode  at  headlong  speed  through  the  "  PATRICK  HENRY, 

•  America  s  greatest  orator ;  member  of  the 

colonies,  spreading  the  stirring  news,  and  hundreds 

of  patriots  hurried  to  Boston  that  they  might  take  part  in  the  war  for  their 
rights.  Elsewhere,  the  fullest  preparations  were  made  for  the  struggle  for  inde 
pendence  which  all  felt  had  opened. 

As  agreed  upon,  the  Second  Continental  Congress  assembled  in  Philadel 
phia,  May  10,  1775.  It  included  some  of  the  ablest  men  in  America,  such  as 
George  Washington,  Thomas  Jefferson,  Patrick  Henry,  Richard  Henry  Lee, 
and  Peyton  Randolph,  of  Virginia ;  Benjamin  Franklin  and  Robert  Morris,  of 
Pennsylvania ;  John  Adams,  Samuel  Adams,  and  John  Hancock,  of  Massachu 
setts  ;  John  Jay,  of  New  York ;  and  Roger  Sherman  and  Oliver  Ellsworth,  of 
Connecticut.  The  former  Congress  had  talked  ;  the  present  acted.  By  general 
consent  it  was  accepted  as  the  governing  body  of  the  colonies.  The  forces 
around  Boston  were  declared  to  be  a  Continental  army,  money  was  voted  to 
support  it,  and  Washington  was  appointed  its  commander. 

Meanwhile,  British  reinforcements  under  Howe,  Clinton,  and  Burgoyne 


94 


THE  REVOLUTION— THE   WAR  IN  NEW  ENGLAND. 


arrived  in  Boston,  swelling  Gage's  army  to  10,000  men.  They  occupied  the 
town,  on  the  peninsula  which  covers  the  middle  of  the  harbor,  while  around 
them  on  the  hills  of  the  mainland  was  a  larger  force  of  Americans,  without  uni 
forms,  poorly  clothed,  badly  armed  and  undisciplined,  but  overflowing  with 
patriotism. 

A  little  to  the  north  of  Boston 
the  harbor.  It  has  several  eleva 
the  patriots  determined  to  seize 
a  thousand  men  set  out  one  dark 
lieving  Breed's  Hill  more  de 
he  set  his  men  to  work  upon  that, 
euphonious  than  "Breed's,"  and 
by  the  former  name.  Upon  it  has 
ment.) 


a  second  peninsula  extended  into 
dons,  one  of  which,  Bunker  Hill, 
and  fortify.  Colonel  Fresco tt  with 
night  to  perform  the  task,  but,  be- 
sirable,  since  it  was  nearer  Boston, 
(The  name  "Bunker"  is  more 
the  latter  is  now  generally  known 
been  built  the  Bunker  Hill  Monu- 


Although  close  to  the 
ricans  toiled  through  the 
When  the  sun  rose  June 
Boston  were  astonished  to 
mente  extending  across  the 
Americans  still  working 
tinned  without  interruption 
ish  were  seen  coming  across 
were  the  regulars,  finely 
ed  nearly  3,000,  who,  land 
formed  in  fine  order  and 
against  the  1,500  patriots, 
behind  their  intrench 
It  was  about  the  middle 
British  columns  marched 
a  heavy  fire  of  cannon  and 
commanding  the  right 
roofs  of  Boston  swarmed 
watching  the  thrilling 
been  fired  and  four  him 
ashes. 

The  Americans  behind  their  breastworks  were  impatient  to  open  fire,  but 
Prescott  restrained  them  until  they  could  "  see  the  whites  of  the  eyes  "  of  their 
enemies.  Then  in  a  loud,  clear  voice  he  shouted  "Fire!"  There  was  an 
outflame  of  musketry  along  the  front  of  the  intrenchments,  and  scores  of  troops 
in  the  first  rank  fell.  The  others  hesitated  a  moment,  and  then  turned  and  fled 


THE     MONUMENT     ON 
BUNKER  HILL. 


British  sentinels,  the  Ame- 
l  night   without  discovery. 
17,  1775,  the  enemy   in 
see    a   line   of    in  trench- 
hill  above  them,  with  the 
like  beavers.  They     con- 
until  noon,  when  the  Brit- 
j  the  harbor  in  boats.  They 
I  disciplined,  and  number- 
[  ing     near      Charlestown, 
!  advanced   with   precision 
jj  eagerly  waiting  for  them 
1  ments. 

\  of  the  afternoon  that  the 
to  the  attack,  covered  by 
howitzers,  Howe  himself 
wing.  The  steeples  and 
with  people,  breathlessly 
sight.  Charlestown  had 
dred  of  its  houses  laid  in 


BATTLE  OF  BUNKER  HILL.  95 

down  the  slope.  There  their  officers  formed  them  into  line,  and  once  more  they 
advanced  up  the  slope.  The  delay  gave  the  Americans  time  to  reload,  and  they 
received  the  troops  with  the  same  withering  fire  as  before,  sending  them  scurry 
ing  to  the  bottom  of  the  hill,  where  with  great  difficulty  the  daring  officers 
formed  them  into  line  for  a  third  advance.  The  British  cannon  had  been 
brought  to  bear,  and  the  ships  and  batteries  maintained  a  furious  cannonade. 
The  patriots  were  compelled  to  withdraw  from  the  breastwork  outside  the  fort, 
and  the  redoubt  was  attacked  at  the  same  moment  from  three  sides.  The  spec 
tators  were  confident  of  seeing  the  invaders  hurled  back  again,  but  saw  to  their 
dismay  a  slackening  of  the  fire  of  the  Americans,  while  the  troops,  rushing  over 
the  intrenchments,  fought  with  clubbed  muskets. 

At  the  very  moment  victory  was  within  the  grasp  of  the  patriots,  their 
recklessly  fired  ammunition  gave  out,  and  they  began  sullenly  retreating,  fighting 
with  clubbed  weapons.  As  it  was,  their  retreat  would  have  been  cut  off,  had 
not  a  company  of  provincials  checked  the  British  until  the  main  body  of  Ameri 
cans  had  fallen  back.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  was  over  and  ended  with  the 
defeat  of  the  patriots,  who  had  lost  150  killed,  270  wounded,  and  30  taken  pris 
oners.  General  Gage  gave  his  loss  as  224  killed  and  830  wounded.  Among  the 
killed  was  Major  Pitcairn,  the  leader  of  the  English  troops  who  fired  upon  the 
minute  men  at  Lexington.  The  American  Colonel  Prescott  had  his  clothing 
torn  to  shreds  by  bayonet  thrusts,  but  was  not  hurt.  A  British  officer,  recog 
nizing  the  brilliant  Warren,  snatched  a  musket  from  the  hands  of  a  soldier  and 
shot  him  dead. 

Prescott  and  Putnam  conducted  the  retreat  by  way  of  Charlestown  Neck 
to  Prospect  Hill,  where  new  intrenchments  commanding  Boston  were  thrown 
up.  The  British  fortified  the  crest  of  Breed's  Hill.  General  Gage,  in  report 
ing  the  affair  to  his  government,  used  the  following  impressive  language  : 

"The  success,  which  was  very  necessary  in  our  present  condition,  cost  us 
dear.  The  number  of  killed  and  wounded  is  greater  than  our  forces  can  afford 
to  lose.  We  have  lost  some  extremely  good  officers.  The  trials  we  have  had 
show  the  rebels  are  not  the  despicable  rabble  too  many  have  supposed  them  to 
be,  and  I  find  it  owing  to  a  military  spirit  encouraged  among  them  for  a  few 
years  past,  joined  with  uncommon  zeal  and  enthusiasm.  They  intrench  and 
raise  batteries ;  they  have  engineers.  They  have  fortified  all  the  heights  and 
passes  around  the  town,  which  it  is  not  impossible  for  them  to  occupy.  The 
conquest  of  this  country  is  not  easy  ;  you  have  to  cope  with  vast  numbers.  In 
all  their  wars  against  the  French,  they  never  showed  so  much  conduct,  atten 
tion,  and  perseverance  as  they  do  now.  I  think  it  my  duty  to  let  you  know 
the  situation  of  affairs." 

General  Washington,  accompanied  by  his  aide,  Mifflin,  Joseph  Keed,  his 


96 


THE  REVOLUTION— THE   WAR  IN  NEW  ENGLAND. 


military  secretary,  and  General  Lee,  arrived  at  Cambridge,  July  2,  1775.     He 
was  joyfully  welcomed,  and  he  and  his  companions  remained  for  a  few  days  the 

guests  of  President  Langdon  of  Harvard 
College.  On  the  3th  of  July,  Wash 
ington's  commission  was  read  to  a  part 
of  the  army  and  to  the  provincial  con 
gress  of  Massachusetts,  and  he  assumed 

command  of 
the  Continen 
tal  forces. 

A  prodig 
ious  task  con 
fronted  him. 
The  undisci 
plined  and 
wretchedly 
clad  swarm 
came  and  went 
as  they  chose, 
none  having 

o 

enlisted  for 
more  than  a 
brief  term. 
About  2,000 
were  sick  or 
absent  on  fur 
lough,  out  of  a 
total  of  16,771 
soldiers.  Sev 
eral  thousand 
more  were 
needed  to  re 
sist  the  attack 
that  it  was  be 
lieved  the  ene 
my  would  soon 

But  the  British  had  received  so  severe  treatment  that  it  required  weeks 
for  them  to  recover,  and  the  summer  became  oppressively  hot.  England  recalled 
Gage,  who  sailed  for  home  in  October,  and  was  succeeded  by  Howe.  Washing 
ton  closely  besieged  the  enemy  in  Boston.  Throwing  up  intrenchments,  he 


NOMINATION    OF  WASHINGTON    AS    COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF    OF 
THE  CONTINENTAL  ARMY. 


BRITISH  EVACUATION  OF  BOSTON. 


97 


steadily  approached  the  city,  and  day  by  day  and  week  by  week  the  situation 
of  Howe  became  more  critical.  When  winter  arrived,  Washington  formed  the 
plan  of  crossing  Charles  Eiver  on  the  ice,  but  at  a  council  of  war  the  majority  of 
officers  declared  the  scheme  too  hazardous. 

Washington  now  decided  to  fortify  and  occupy  Dorchester  Heights,  which 
would  command  the  city  and  in  a  large  degree  the  harbor.  General  Knox 
brought  a  number  of  cannon  from  Ticonderoga,  that  were  dragged  over  the 
Green  Mountains  on  sleds.  Their  arrival  did  much  to  cheer  the  spirits  of  the 
patriots,  who  numbered  about  14,000.  The  commander  called  upon  Massachu 
setts  to  furnish  him  with 
6,000  militia,  wjiich  was 
partly  done. 

With  a  view  of  con 
cealing  his  real  purpose, 
Washington  kept  up  a 
bombardment  of  the  British 


FANEUIL  HALL,   BOSTON,   "THE   CRADLE   OF   LIBERTY." 

lines  throughout  the  nights  of  March  2,  3,  and  4,  1776.  On  the  night  last 
named,  General  Thomas  moved  with  1,200  men  from  Roxbury  and  took  posses 
sion  undetected  of  the  higher  hill  which  commanded  Nook's  Hill,  nearer  the 
city.  General  Howe  was  amazed  the  next  morning  when  he  saw  what  had  been 
done,  for  his  position  had  become  untenable.  Preparations  were  made  to  em 
bark  men  in  boats  and  attack  the  Americans,  but  a  violent  storm  prevented. 
Then  it  was  agreed  that  but  one  thing  could  be  done,  and  that  was  to  evacuate 
Boston. 

The  evacuation  took  place  March  17th.     The  British  destroyed  a  great  deal 

7 


98  THE  REVOLUTION— THE    WAR  IN  NEW  ENGLAND. 

of  property,  but  left  many  supplies  behind  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Americans.  Washington  entered  the  city  on  the  19th,  the  main  body  of  troops 
following  the  next  day.  The  street  through  which  he  rode  still  bears  his  name. 
The  Massachusetts  Legislature  voted  their  thanks  to  the  great  man,  and  Congress 
ordered  a  commemorative  medal  in  gold  and  bronze  to  be  struck.  This  medal 
is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society. 

When  Howe  sailed  away,  he  took  with  him  more  than  a  thousand  Tories, 
who  dared  not  remain  behind  and  meet  their  indignant  countrymen.  Instead 
of  going  to  New  York,  as  he  originally  intended,  the  British  commander  went 
to  Halifax,  where  he  waited  for  reinforcements  and  gave  his  thoughts  to  forming 
campaigns  for  the  conquest  of  the  colonies. 

DISASTROUS    INVASION    OF    CANADA. 

While  the  siege  of  Boston  was  in  progress,  the  Americans  fixed  upon  a 
plan  for  the  invasion  of  Canada.  The  mistake,  which  has  been  repeated  more 
than  once,  was  in  believing  that  the  Canadians,  if  given  the  opportunity,  would 
make  common  cause  against  Great  Britain.  General  Philip  Schuyler  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  expedition,  but  fell  ill,  and  Richard  Montgomery,  the  second 
in  command,  took  charge.  He  was  a  valiant  Irishman,  who  had  done  brilliant 
service  in  the  British  army,  and  was  full  of  ardor  for  the  American  cause. 

In  several  unimportant  skirmishes,  his  men  were  so  insubordinate  and 
cowardly  that  he  was  disgusted,  and  expressed  his  regret  that  he  had  ever  taken 
command  of  such  a  lot  of  troops.  Nevertheless,  he  pressed  on  from  Ticon- 
deroga,  while  Schuyler  at  Albany  used  every  effort  to  forward  him  supplies. 
St.  John  was  invested,  and  the  impetuous  Ethan  Allen,  one  of  his  officers, 
hastened  to  Chambly  to  raise  a  force  of  Canadians.  He  recruited  nearly  a 
hundred,  and,  being  joined  by  a  few  Americans,  set  out  to  capture  Montreal. 
The  promised  reinforcements  did  not  reach  him,  and,  being  attacked  by  a  pow 
erful  force,  he  made  the  best  defense  he  could,  but  was  finally  compelled  to 
surrender,  with  all  of  his  men  who  had  not  escaped.  Allen  was  sent  to  England, 
where  he  was  held  a  prisoner  for  a  long  time. 

The  British  fort  at  Chambly  was  besieged,  and  surrendered  October  18th. 
With  its  capture,  the  Americans  secured  six  tons  of  powder  and  seventeen 
cannon.  The  fort  of  St.  John  was  captured  November  3d.  By  that  time,  Carle- 
ton,  the  British  commander,  was  so  alarmed  that  he  abandoned  Montreal,  which 
surrendered  on  the  20th.  Taking  possession,  Montgomery  issued  a  proclama 
tion,  urging  the  Canadians  to  unite  with  the  colonies  in  the  war  for  independ 
ence,  and  to  elect  representatives  to  the  Continental  Congress. 

Benedict  Arnold,  at  the  head  of  eleven  hundred  men,  had  withdrawn  from 
the  camp  before  Boston,  September  13th,  and  was  pressing  forward  to  join  Mont- 


DISASTROUS  INVASION  OF  CANADA.  99 

gomery.  His  course  was  up  the  Kennebec,  through  the  gloomy  wilderness  to 
the  Chaudiere,  down  which  he  passed  to  Point  Levi.  The  journey  was  of  the 
most  trying  nature.  The  weather  became  bitterly  cold,  and  the  stream  was  too 
swift  at  times  for  them  to  make  headway  against  it,  except  by  wading  the  chilly 
current  and  slowly  dragging  the  boats  against  it.  At  other  places,  even  this 
was  impossible,  and  the  heavy  boats  had  to  be  laboriously  carried  around  the 
falls  and  rapids. 

Finally  the  time  came  to  leave  the  river  and  plunge  into  the  snowy  forests, 
where  all  would  have  been  lost,  had  not  a  small  party,  sent  in  advance,  "  blazed  " 
the  trees.  There  was  plenty  of  ice  in  the  swamps,  but  none  was  strong  enough 
to  bear  their  weight,  and  they  sank  through  to  their  knees  in  the  half-frozen 
ooze.  Toiling  doggedly  forward,  a  month  passed  before  they  reached  Duck 
River,  by  which  time  they  were  in  a  starving  condition.  Their  provisions  gave 
out,  and  they  ate  dogs  and  candles.  Some,  in  their  extremity,  chewed  boiled 
moccasins  for  the  infinitesimal  nourishment  to  be  extracted  from  them.  Roots 
and  the  bark  of  saplings  were  devoured,  and  the  wonderful  courage  of  Arnold 
was  all  that  prevented  the  men  from  throwing  themselves  on  the  ground  and 
giving  up.  So  many  fell  ill  and  died  that  Colonel  Enos,  in  command  of  the 
rear  division,  turned  about  with  his  men  and  returned  to  Cambridge. 

Nothing,  however,  could  shake  the  dauntless  courage  of  Arnold.  He 
pushed  on,  and,  obtaining  a  few  cattle,  was  able  to  give  his  men  temporary  relief. 
Winter  was  closing  in,  the  weather  was  growing  colder  every  day,  many  men 
were  barefoot,  and  without  any  protection  against  the  icy  rain  except  the  branches 
of  the  leafless  trees.  The  wonder  is  that  the  whole  band  did  riot  perish. 

Finally  on  the  4th  of  November,  the  famishing  band  caught  sight  of  the 
first  house  they  had  seen  in  weeks.  Traveling  now  became  better,  and  about  a 
week  later  they  reached  Point  Levi,  opposite  Quebec.  There  they  had  to  wait 
several  days  to  procure  canoes,  with  which  the  seven  hundred  men,  resembling 
so  many  shivering  tramps,  crossed  the  St.  Lawrence  and  huddled  together  under 
the  Heights  of  Abraham. 

What  earthly  hope  could  such  a  body  of  men,  without  cannon,  with  injured 
muskets  and  powder,  and  cartridges  partly  spoiled,  have  in  attacking  the  walled 
town  of  Quebec  ?  None,  unless  the  Canadians  made  common  cause  with  them. 
Following  the  steep  path  up  which  Wolfe  and  his  brave  men  had  climbed  seven 
teen  years  before,  the  gaunt  Americans  struggled  after  their  intrepid  leader. 

The  next  act  in  the  grim  comedy  was  to  send  forward  a  flag  of  truce  with 
a  demand  for  the  surrender  of  Quebec.  General  Carleton  must  have  smiled  at 
the  grotesqueness  of  the  proceeding,  when  he  sent  back  a  refusal.  A  few  shots 
followed,  when  Arnold,  finding  lie  had  not  half  a  dozen  rounds  of  ammunition 
apiece  for  his  men,  and  was  in  danger  of  being  attacked  himself,  retreated  to  a 


100  THE  REVOLUTION—  THE   WAR  IN  NEW  ENGLAND. 

point  twenty  miles  below  Quebec,  where  Montgomery  joined  him  on  the  1st  of 
December  and  assumed  command. 

•The  Americans  now  numbered  3,000,  and  had  six  fieldpieces  and  five  light 
mortars.  They  set  out  for  Quebec,  in  front  of  which  they  encamped  four  days 
later. 

Of  all  the  series  of  disastrous  invasions  of  Canada,  none  was  more  dismal 
and  pathetic  than  that  of  Montgomery  and  Arnold.  The  winter  was  unusually 
severe  for  a  region  which  is  noted  for  its  intensely  cold  weather.  The  ground 
froze  to  the  hardness  of  a  rock,  and,  unable  to  make  any  impression  in  it  with 
shovel  and  pick,  the  besiegers  threw  up  walls  of  ice,  which  the  cannon  of  the 
defenders  sent  flying  into  thousands  of  fragments.  The  men  grew  mutinous, 
and,  realizing  the  desperate  situation,  Montgomery  ordered  an  assault  to  be 
made  on  the  last  day  of  the  year. 

The  plan  was  for  the  first  division  under  Montgomery  to  move  down  the 
river  and  attack  the  lower  town  near  the  citadel,  while  the  second  division  under 
Arnold  was  to  pass  around  the  city  to  the  north,  assault  by  way  of  the  St. 
Charles,  and  unite  with  Montgomery  in  his  attack  upon  the  Prescott  gate.  The 
other  two  divisions  were  to  remain  in  the  rear  of  the  upper  town  and  divert  the 
garrison  by  feint  attacks. 

A  blinding  snowstorm  was  raging  and  the  men  could  hardly  distinguish 
one  another.     Success  depended  upon  surprise,  but  the  defenders  had  learned  of 
the  intended   attack,   and   Montgomery  had  hardly  started  when   the  battery 
delivered  a  fire  which  instantly  killed  him  and  both  his  aides.     Their  deaths  , 
threw  his  men  into  a  panic,  and  they  fled  in  such  haste  that  they  escaped  the*' 
fate  of  their  leaders. 

Meanwhile,  Arnold  had  moved,  as  agreed  upon,  with  his  division  along 
the  St.  Charles,  the  men  bending  their  heads  to  the  icy  blast  and  protecting 
their  muskets  under  their  coats.  As  soon  as  the  garrison  caught  sight  of  the 
dim  figures  they  opened  fire,  but  the  Americans  pressed  on  and  carried  the  first 
barricade.  Arnold,  however,  received  a  severe  wound  in  the  leg,  and,  suffering 
great  pain,  was  carried  to  the  rear.  Daniel  Morgan,  one  of  the  bravest  officers 
of  the  Revolution,  succeeded  to  the  command,  and,  with  his  riflemen  at  his  heels, 
was  the  first  to  climb  the  ladders  placed  against  the  barricade.  Two  musket- 
balls  grazed  the  leader's  face,  which  was  scorched  by  the  flash,  and  he  was 
knocked  down  ;  but  he  instantly  sprang  to  his  feet  and  called  upon  his  men  to 
follow  him.  They  did  so  with  such  dash  that  the  enemy  took  refuge  in  the 
houses  on  both  sides  of  the  street. 

But  for  the  disaster  that  had  overtaken  Montgomery,  Quebec  probably 
would  have  been  captured,  but  Morgan's  command  was  in  darkness,  the  driving 
enow  interfered  with  tiring,  and  they  knew  nothing  of  the  town.  Only  a  few 


DISASTROUS  INVASION    OF  CANADA. 


101 


of  the  troops  found  the  next  barricade,  and,  when  they  climbed  the  ladders, 
were  confronted  by  leveled  muskets  whose  lire  was  very  destructive.     Not  only 


ST.  PAUL'S   CHURCH,   NEW  YORK,  WHERE    MONTGOMERY    WAS    BURIED. 

that,  but  the  British,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  houses  in  the  streets,  kept  up 

their  firing. 

The  Americans  fought  for  a  long  time  with  the  greatest  heroism,  but  after 


102  THE  REVOLUTION— THE   WAR  IN  NEW  ENGLAND. 

the  loss  of  sixty,  the  remainder,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  that  had  fled,  were 
obliged  to  surrender.  The  fragments  of  the  helpless  army  fell  again  under  the 
command  of  the  wounded  Arnold,  who,  despite  the  hopelessness  of  the  attempt, 
still  pressed  the  siege  of  Quebec.  He  had  sent  an  urgent  message  to  Schuyler 
for  reinforcements.  They  straggled  through  the  wintry  forests  to  his  aid,  some 
3,000  arriving  in  the  course  of  the  winter.  Carleton,  who  was  too  wise  to  ven 
ture  out  on  the  plain  as  Montcalm  had  done,  felt  secure  behind  the  walls,  and 
gave  little  heed  to  the  ragged  swarm  huddled  together  in  front  of  the  town. 

General  Wooster  brought  fresh  troops  in  March  and  assumed  command. 
He  lacked  military  skill,  and  two  months  later  was  succeeded  by  General 
Thomas.  The  latter  saw  that  he  had  no  more  than  a  thousand  effective  troops 
under  his  control,  and  decided  to  withdraw  the  ill-starred  expedition.  Carle- 
ton,  who  had  received  large  reinforcements,  attacked  him  on  his  retreat  and 
captured  a  hundred  prisoners  and  nearly  all  the  stores.  The  sufferings  of  the 
Americans  were  now  aggravated  by  smallpox,  which  broke  out  among  them 
and  caused  many  deaths,  General  Thomas  being  one  of  the  victims.  General 
Sullivan  succeeded  him  in  command.  He  lost  a  number  of  prisoners  and  re 
treated  to  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  thus  bringing  the  disastrous  expedition 
to  a  close  in  the  month  of  June,  1776. 

It  is  proper  that  tribute  should  be  given  to  the  humanity  of  Carleton,  the 
British  commander.  He  caused  search  to  be  made  in  the  snow  for  the  body  of 
Montgomery,  and,  when  it  was  found,  it  was  brought  into  the  city  and  buried 
with  the  honors  of  war.  Other  parties  scoured  the  woods  for  the  suffering 
Americans,  who  were  placed  in  the  hospital  and  received  tender  care.  Those 
who  voluntarily  came  in  were  allowed  to  go  as  soon  as  they  were  strong  enough 
to  travel,  and  to  the  needy  ones  Carleton  furnished  money.  A  half-century 
later  the  remains  of  Montgomery  were  brought  to  New  York  and  deposited 
beneath  the  monument  in  St.  Paul's  churchyard. 


CHAPTER   V. 


REVOLUTION     (CONTINUKD).—  THK     WAR     IN 
THE    MIDDLK    STATKS    AND    ON    THK    SKA. 

Declaration  of  Independence — The  American  Flag — Battle  of  Long  Island — Washington's  Retreat  Through 
the  Jerseys — Trenton  and  Princeton — In  Winter  Quarters — Lafayette — Brandywine  and  Germantown 
— At  Valley  Forge — Burgoyne's  Campaign — Fort  Schuyler  and  Bennington — Bemis  Heights  and 
Stillwater — The  Conway  Cabal — Aid  from  France — Battle  of  Monmouth — Molly  Pitcher — Failure  of 
French  Aid — Massacre  at  Wyoming — Continental  Monej7 — Stony  Point — Treason  of  Arnold — Paul 
Jones'  Great  Victory. 

DIFFERENT    THEATRES    OF    WAR. 

THE  Revolution,  beginning  in  New  England,  gradually  moved  southward. 
After  the  first  few  conflicts  it  passed  into  the  Middle  States,  which  for  nearly 
three  years  became  the  theatre  of  the  war.  Then  it  shifted  to  the  South,  which 
witnessed  its  triumphant  close. 

It  has  been  shown  that,  despite  this  change  of  scene,  the  colonies  were 
ardently  united  from  the  beginning  in  the  struggle  for  independence.  It  should 
be  remembered,  however,  that,  for  a  considerable  time  after  the  beginning  of 
actual  fighting,  the  Americans  were  not  struggling  so  much  to  gain  their  liberty 
as  to  compel  England  to  do  them  justice.  But  for  the  stubbornness  of  George 
III.,  who  at  times  was  insane,  the  reasonable  prayers  of  the  patriots  would  have 
been  granted,  and  our  ancestors  would  have  been  retained  as  subjects  of  the 
crown. 

But  the  most  far-seeing  of  Americans  comprehended  the  inevitable  end, 
which  must  be  subjection  to  tyranny  or  independence.  The  trend  of  events  so 

(103) 


104 


WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND    ON  SEA. 


clearly  indicated  this  that  steps  were  taken  looking  toward  the  utter  and  final 
separation  of  the  colonies  from  the  mother  country. 

Congress  was  still  in  session  in  Philadelphia,  and  early  in  June  the  ques 
tion  of  declaring  American  independence  was  brought  forward  by  Richard 
Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia,  who 
seconded  by  John  Adams,  of 
the  colonies  free  and  indepen 
was  of  so  momentous  impor 
long  and  earnestly  by  the 
there  was  no  doubt  that  definite 
place,  a  committee  was  appointed 
tion  of  Independence.  The  mem 
ferson,  John  Adams,  Benjamin 


man,  and  R.  R.  Livingston. 

the  work  of  Thomas  Jefferson, 

members  being  so  slight  that  it 


introduced  a  resolution, 
Massachusetts,  declaring 
dent  States.  The  matter 
tance  that  it  was  debated 
able  members,  but  since 
action  would  soon  take 
to  draw  up  the  Declara- 
bers  were  Thomas  Jef- 
Franklin,  Roger  Slier- 
immortal  document  was 
the  assistance  of  the  other 
is  not  worth  mention. 


INDEPENDENCE  HALL,  PHILADELPHIA. 

(Washington's  statue  in  front.) 


The  debate  over  the  Declaration,  after  it  was  read  to  Congress,  was  earnest, 
and  considerable  difference  of  opinion  developed,  but  on  the  4th  of  July  it  was 
adopted  and  signed  by  every  member  present,  excepting  one,  while  the  absent 
delegates  afterward  attached  their  signatures.  Thornton,  the  member  from  New 


THE  AMERICAN  FLAG. 


105 


Hampshire,  signed  it  precisely  four  months  after  its  adoption.  John  Hancock, 
being  President  of  the  Congress,  placed  his  name  first  in  his  large,  bold  hand, 
and  it  appropriately  stands  by  itself. 

As  soon  as  the  Declaration  was  adopted,  it  was  ordered  that  copies  of  it 
should  be  sent  to  the  various  assemblies,  conventions,  and  committees  or  councils 
of  safety,  to  the  commanding  officers  of  the  Continental  troops,  and  that  it 
should  be  proclaimed  in  each  of  the  United  States  and  at  the  head  of  the  army. 

It  was  received  everywhere  with  delight.  Bells  were  rung,  bonfires  kin 
dled,  and  eloquent  addresses 
made.  The  old  Liberty 
Bell,  still  carefully  preserved 
in  Independence  Hall,  sent 
out  its  note  over  the  city  and 
across  the  Delaware.  How 
appropriate  is  the  inscription 
on  the  bell,  cast  many  years 
before  anyone  dreamed  of 
the  American  Revolution: 
"  Proclaim  liberty  through 
out  all  the  land  unto  all  the 
inhabitants  thereof." 


THE   AMERICAN  FLAG. 

Now  that  the  nation  was 
3orn,  it  required  a  flag  under 
which  to  fight  for  its  inde- 
pendence.  Various  patterns 
d  been  used.  The  one 
irst  raised  over  the  Ameri 
can  troops  at  Boston  con 
tained  thirteen  stripes,  as  at 
present,  but,  in  place  of 


THE    LIBERTY   BELL,   AS    EXHIBITED  AT   THE    NEW 
ORLEANS    EXPOSITION. 

white  stars  in  a  blue  field, 

it  displayed  a  union  of  the  crosses  of  St.  Andrew  and  8t  George.  Numerous 
designs  were  submitted  to  Congress,  but  the  first  recognized  Continental  standard 
|as  that  raised  by  Washington,  January  2,  1776.  By  resolution  of  Congress, 
June  14,  1777,  this  was  replaced  by  the  pattern  as  it  is  to-day,  excepting  in  the 
number  of  stars.  The  rule  is  that  whenever  a  new  State  is  admitted  to  the 
Union  its  representative  star  shall  appear  in  the  blue  field  of  the  banner  on 
the  4th  of  July  following  its  admission. 


106  WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND    ON  SEA. 

Despite  the  enthusiasm  with  which  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was 
received  everywhere,  the  affairs  of  the  States  (as  they  must  now  be  called)  were 
by  no  means  encouraging.  Montgomery  and  Arnold  were  engaged  upon  their 
disastrous  invasion  of  Canada,  and  the  city  of  New  York  was  in  grave  peril 
from  the  enemy.  Moreover,  England  was  not  to  be  frightened  by  the  Declara 
tion  of  Independence.  The  angered  king  and  Parliament  put  forth  more 
strenuous  efforts  than  before  to  conquer  their  rebellious  subjects. 

GENERAL    LEE    IN    NEW    YORK. 

When  Washington  entered  Boston  after  the  British  evacuation,  he  immedi 
ately  sent  six  of  his  best  regiments  to  New  York,  which  he  was  convinced  would 
soon  be  attacked.  General  Charles  Lee  had  been  placed  in  command  there  and 
Washington  intended  to  follow.  The  people  in  New  York  were  alive  to  their 
danger  and  Lee  did  his  utmost  to  strengthen  the  defenses.  An  intrenched 
camp  was  laid  out  on  Columbia  Heights,  on  the  Brooklyn  side,  to  guard  the 
town  against  an  attack  from  the  sea,  and  another  intrenched  camp  was  erected 
on  the  New  York  side,  between  Fulton  and  Wall  Streets.  This  was  named  Fort 
Stirling  and  was  an  important  position,  since  it  permitted  the  batteries  to  sweep 
the  channel,  or,  in  case  of  the  occupation  of  the  city  by  an  enemy,  they  could  be 
bombarded.  A  fort  was  built  opposite  Hell  Gate  to  defend  an  approach  by  way 
of  the  Sound,  while  works  were  placed  below  Canal  Street  to  cover  the  river. 
There  were  no  fortifications,  however,  on  the  Jersey  shore. 

Lee  ruled  with  a  high  hand  in  New  York,  showing  no  consideration  to  the 
Tories  and  making  himself  highly  popular  with  the  revolutionary  party.  Hav 
ing  been  placed  in  command  of  the  southern  department,  he  left  New  York,  and 
Lord  Stirling  (an  American  who  inherited  his  title)  succeeded  him.  He  put 
forth  every  effort  to  make  the  city  impregnable,  following  the  advice  and  orders 
of  Washington,  who  knew  the  necessity  of  such  rigorous  measures. 

BRAVE    DEFENSE    OF    CHARLESTON. 

The  British  plan  of  campaign  was  to  capture  the  city  of  New  York,  over 
run  the  State,  push  the  war  in  the  South,  and  invade  the  Northern  States  from 
Canada.  The  South  Carolinans,  as  soon  as  they  heard  the  news  of  Lexington, 
began  fortifying  the  harbor  of  Charleston.  These  included  the  barricading  of 
the  streets,  in  case  of  the  capture  of  the  harbor  defenses.  General  Lee,  as  soon 
as  he  arrived,  inspected  the  defenses  and  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  they  were 
not  strong  enough  to  resist  the  British  fleet  and  the  forts  would  be  knocked  into 
ruins. 

"  Then,"  said  Colonel  Moultrie,  "  we'll  fight  behind  the  ruins." 

"  You  have  no  means  of  retreat." 


SERGEANT  JASPER'S  EXPLOIT. 


107 


"  Since  we  shall  not  retreat,  no  means  are  needed." 

Lee,  although  still  apprehensive,  yielded  to  the  bravery  of  the  defenders 
and  agreed  to  do  his  utmost  to  assist  them  in  their  defense. 

On  the  17th  of  June, ,_^     2,500   British   troops 


landed  with  the  inten 
Sullivan's  Island,  but 
too  deep.  Delays  fol 
the  fleet  under  Admiral 
on  the  fort.  The  pal 
was  composed  were  the 
since  they  were  too 
and  seemed  to  absorb  the 
against  them.  The  re 
wrought  great  havoc 
the  battle  raged  fiercely 
When  everything 
blinding  smoke,  the  flag 
away  by  a  cannon  ball, 
when  Sergeant  William 


tion  of  wading  across  to 
found  the  supposed  ford 
lowed,  and  on  the  28th 
Parker  opened  the  attack 
metto  logs  of  which  it 
best  possible  material, 
spongy  to  be  shattered, 
ponderous  balls  hurled 
turn  fire  of  the  garrison 
among  the  vessels,  and 
for  hours. 

was  obscured  by  the 
staff  of  the  fort  was  cut 
It  had  scarcely  fallen, 
Jasper  sprang  through 


T±IE   STATUE  OF   LIBERTY  ON   GOVERNOR'S  ISLAND,  IN  NEW  YORK   HARBOR. 

(Presented  to  the  United  States  by  Bartholdi.) 

one  of  the  embrasures,  caught  up  the  flag,  climbed  the  wall  amid  a  frightful 
fire,  waved  it  defiantly  at  the  enemy,  fastened  it  to  a  pike,  fixed  it  in  place,  and 
then  coolly  leaped  down  among  his  comrades. 

That  night  Admiral  Parker  withdrew  his  fleet,  having  lost  more  than  two 


108  WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND   ON  SEA. 

hundred  in  killed  and  wounded,  while  of  the  Americans  only  ten  had  been  killed 
and  twenty-nine  wounded.  The  triumph  of  the  patriots  was  absolute,  and  General 
Lee  in  a  letter  to  Washington  wrote  that  he  was  enraptured  by  the  coolness  and 
bravery  of  the  defenders.  In  honor  of  the  gallant  conduct  of  Colonel  Moultrie, 
the  fort  was  given  his  name,  and  the  whole  country  was  inspired  by  what  was 
certainly  one  of  the  most  remarkable  achievements  of  the  Revolution. 

AN    UNSATISFACTORY    SITUATION. 

The  progress  of  the  war,  however,  was  less  satisfactory  in  the  North.  On 
the  same  day  that  the  British  attacked  Fort  Moultrie,  a  part  of  the  fleet  from 
Nova  Scotia  appeared  off  Sandy  Hook,  with  the  purpose  of  attacking  the  city. 
Before  Lee  left  for  the  South,  he  expressed  the  opinion  that  no  fleet  could  cap 
ture  it,  but  Washington,  after  arriving  and  inspecting  the  defenses,  failed  to 
share  his  confidence,  and  strengthened  the  works  in  every  way  possible. 

Believing  Governor's  Island  a  place  of  strategic  importance,  General  Put 
nam  had  seized  it  before  the  arrival  of  Washington,  and  threw  up  a  number  of 
breastworks,  occupying  also  Red  Hook  on  Long  Island.  Then  Paulus  Hook 
(now  Jersey  City)  was  fortified  and  hulks  were  sunk  in  the  channel  between 
Governor's  Island  and  the  Battery.  The  erection  of  Fort  Lee,  up  the  Hudson, 
was  begun  during  the  summer,  on  the  Palisades,  while  Fort  Washington  was 
built  on  the  New  York  side.  By  the  time  the  fleet  arrived,  about  a  hundred 
cannon  and  mortars  were  ready  for  service. 

GENERAL    HOWE'S    FIRST    MOVE. 

Governor  Tryon,  formerly  of  North  Carolina,  was  now  Governor  of  New 
York  and  a  bitter  Tory.  There  were  thousands  who  thought  like  him,  and 
they  welcomed  General  Howe,  whose  intention  was  to  land  on  Long  Island,  but 
the  strong  defenses  of  the  Americans  caused  him  to  disembark  his  troops  on 
Staten  Island.  Admiral  Howe,  brother  of  the  general,  arrived  soon  after,  and, 
in  August,  the  Hessians  swelled  the  British  force  to  32,000  men.  The  Hessians 
were  natives  of  Hesse-Cassel,  Germany,  and  were  hired  by  England.  De  Heis- 
ter,  their  commander,  was  a  veteran  of  many  campaigns,  and  they  formed  fully 
one-fourth  of  the  enemy's  forces.  Compared  with  this  formidable  array,  the 
Americans  presented  a  pitiful  plight.  They  were  scarcely  one-half  as  numer 
ous,  were  poorly  armed  and  disciplined,  most  of  them  without  uniforms,  while 
many  were  lacking  in  courage,  as  their  commander  was  to  learn  to  his  cost. 

General  Howe's  first  move  was  to  send  two  ships  and  three  tenders  up  the 
Hudson,  aiming  to  cut  off  Washington's  communication  with  the  country  and 
Canada.  At  the  same  time,  he  wished  to  take  soundings  of  the  river  and 
encourage  the  Tories,  who  were  more  plentiful  than  would  be  supposed.  Several 


AMERICAN  DEFEAT  ON  LONG   ISLAND. 


109 


weeks  were  spent  in  this  work,  during  which  one  of  the  tenders  was  burned  by 
the  Americans. 

AMERICAN    DEFEAT   ON    LONG    ISLAND. 

In  the  latter  part  of  August,  the  British  troops  were  moved  from  Staten 
Island  to  Gravesend  Bay  on  Long  Island,  and  it  was  evident  that  Howe, 
instead  of  bombarding  New  York,  meant  to  advance  upon  it  from  across  Long 
Island.  In  anticipation  of  this  movement,  Washington  had  stationed  General 
Greene's  division  at  Brooklyn.  Unfortunately  that  admirable  officer  was  ill, 
and  General  Sullivan  took  his  place.  He  boastingiy  declared  that  no  force  of 


AN    OLD    NEW  YORK    MANSION. 


the  British  could  carry  his  fortification,  and,  indeed,  was  so  foolishly  confident, 
that  Washington  superseded  him  with  Israel  Putnam,  who  was  no  better,  for 
he  left  the  pass  on  the  British  right  unguarded.  Quick  to  discover  the  over 
sight,  the  enemy  took  advantage  of  it,  and  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  fought 
August  27th,  the  Americans  suffered  disastrous  defeat.  Sullivan  was  caught  be 
tween  two  fires,  and,  fighting  with  the  energy  of  desperation,  most  of  his  men 
cut  their  way  through  the  English  line  and  reached  Brooklyn.  Lord  Stirling's 
division  was'  surprised  in  the  same  manner  and  few  escaped  the  enemy.  By 
noon  the  victory  of  the  British  was  complete. 


110  WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND    ON  SEA. 

Washington  with  deep  anguish  witnessed  the  overwhelming  disaster.  He 
hurriedly  crossed  to  Brooklyn  and  sent  forward  every  man  that  could  be  spared, 
but  nothing  availed  to  check  the  panic  of  the  rest  of  the  forces,  who  were 
chased  to  the  foot  of  the  lines  in  Brooklyn.  Howe  was  so  confident  of  bagging 
the  whole  lot  that,  in  order  to  save  loss  of  lite,  he  resorted  to  regular 
approaches. 

The  situation  of  the  Americans  could  not  have  been  more  critical,  for,  when 
the  British  fleet  passed  up  the  river,  their  supplies  would  be  cut  off.  Three 
hundred  patriots  had  been  killed  and  wounded,  and  among  the  prisoners  were 
Lord  Stirling  and  General  Sullivan.  The  Americans  in  Brooklyn  numbered 
10,000,  while  the  enemy  were  twice  as  numerous. 

When  it  looked  as  if  all  hope  was  gone,  the  elements  came  to  the  relief  of 
the  sorely  beset  patriots.  A  violent  head-wind  held  back  the  ships,  and  a 
tremendous  downpour  of  rain  on  the  28th  and  29th  suspended  operations.  It 
was  so  clear  that  the  only  course  open  was  to  evacuate  Brooklyn,  that  the  work 
was  begun  and  pressed  incessantly  for  thirteen  hoursa  the  rain  and  fog  hiding 
the  movement  from  Howe.  Too  weak  to  hold  the  city  against  him,  there  was 
nothing  left  to  do  but  to  retreat,  future  movements  being  guided  by  events. 

CAPTURE   OF    NEW    YORK    BY    THE    BRITISH. 

Four  ships  ascended  the  river,  September  13th,  and  anchored  a  mile  above 
the  city.  Others  followed.  The  movement,  however,  was  a  feint,  intended  to 
cover  General  Howe's  attack  by  land.  Before  the  latter,  the  Americans  made 
such  a  cowardly  flight  that  Washington  and  other  officers  were  filled  with  irre- 
strainable  rage,  struck  many  with  the  flat  of  their  swords,  and  threatened  to  run 
them  through.  But  nothing  could  check  the  panic,  until  they  joined  the  main 
body  at  Harlem.  In  this  manner,  the  city  of  New  York  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  British,  who  captured  300  prisoners,  a  number  of  cannon,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  stores.  The  American  army  pulled  itself  together  on  Harlem 
Heights,  while  the  enemy  encamped  in  front,  their  right  resting  on  the  East 
River  and  their  left  on  the  Hudson,  with  both  flanks  supported  by  armed  ships. 

NATHAN  HALE,  THE  "  MARTYR  SPY." 

While  General  Howe  occupied  New  York,  one  of  the  most  pathetic  inci 
dents  of  the  Revolution  occurred.  It  was  of  the  highest  importance  that 
Washington  should  gain  information  of  the  intentions  and  the  strength  of  the 
enemy.  In  order  to  do  so,  Captain  Nathan  Hale,  of  Connecticut,  voluntarily 
entered  the  British  lines  disguised  as  a  spy.  He  did  his  work  with  shrewdness 
and  skill,  but  on  his  return,  and  when  about  to  re-enter  the  American  lines,  he 
was  recognized  and  captured.  When  accused,  he  admitted  his  identity  and 


THE  DARK  DAYS   OF  THE  DEVOLUTION.  Ill 

business,  and  without  trial  was  condemned  to  death.  He  was  brutally  treated 
by  the  provost-marshal,  who  refused  him  a  light  to  read  his  Bible,  and  destroyed 
the  letters  he  wrote  to  his  mother.  He  was  hanged  the  morning  after  his  cap 
ture,  his  last  words  being  :  "  My  only  regret  is  that  I  have  but  one  life  to  give 
to  my  country." 

The  months  passed  without  any  important  movement  on  either  side.  Howe 
made  careful  preparations  and  Washington  closely  watched  him.  The  Conti 
nental  army  was  divided  into  four  divisions,  commanded  respectively  by  Generals 
Heath,  Sullivan,  Lincoln,  and  Lee  (who  had  lately  returned  from  the  South). 
At  a  council  of  war  it  was  decided  that  Harlem  Heights  could  not  be  held 
against  the  enemy,  but  at  the  urgent  request  of  General  Greene,  a  strong  garri 
son  was  left  in  Fort  Washington.  It  numbered  3,000,  and  was  under  the 
command  of  Colonel  Robert  Magaw  of  Philadelphia. 

CONTINUED    RETREAT    OF    THE   AMERICANS. 

In  accordance  with  the  plan  agreed  upon,  Washington  fell  slowly  back  and 
was  attacked  at  White  Plains.  He  inflicted  severe  loss  on  the  enemy,  but  con 
tinued  to  retreat,  whereupon  Howe  turned  back  and  assailed  Fort  Washington 
with  such  an  overwhelming  force  that  Colonel  Magaw  surrendered. 

Washington's  fear  now  was  that  the  British  would  press  a  campaign  against 
Philadelphia,  the  capital.  Accordingly,  he  crossed  to  New  Jersey,  and,  with 
General  Greene,  took  position  at  Fort  Lee.  The  enemy  threatened  it  with  such 
a  large  force  that  it  was  abandoned  and  he  began  his  retreat  through  New  Jer 
sey,  with  Cornwallis,  the  ablest  of  the  British  generals,  in  close  pursuit.  The 
two  armies  were  frequently  so  near  each  other  that  they  exchanged  shots. 

THE  DARK  DAYS  OF  THE  REVOLUTION. 

The  "  dark  days  "  of  the  Revolution  had  come.  Winter  was  at  hand,  and 
hundreds  of  the  ragged  Continentals,  as  they  tramped  over  the  frozen  roads,  left 
the  bloody  prints  of  their  bare  feet  on  the  ground.  Many  lost  heart,  and  the 
desertions  were  so  numerous  that  it  looked  as  if  the  whole  army  would  crumble 
to  pieces. 

The  remark  has  often  been  made  of  Washington  that  he  never  won  a  battle, 
but  the  wonder  is  that  he  did  so  well  with  the  miserable  force  under  his  com 
mand.  His  greatness,  however,  rests  upon  a  much  broader  foundation.  He,  far 
more  than  any  other  man,  saw  the  end  from  the  beginning,  and  embodied  within 
himself  the  spirit  of  the  struggle  for  American  independence.  He  was  the 
Revolution.  Had  he  been  killed,  the  struggle  would  have  stopped,  for  no  one 
could  have  been  his  successor.  Subjected  to  trials  whose  exasperating  nature  it 
is  impossible  for  us  to  comprehend,  he  never  lost  heart.  He  pressed  forward 


112  WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND   ON  SEA. 

with  sublime  faith  that  no  disaster,  defeat,  or  misfortune  could  weaken.  More 
over,  let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  he  fought  from  the  opening  to  the  close  of  the 
struggle  without  accepting  a  cent  in  the  way  of  payment. 

When  Washington  reached  the  little  town  of  Trenton,  he  was  joined  by 
Stirling,  the  junction  raising  the  force  to  5,000  men.  General  Lee,  disobeying 
orders,  marched  so  tardily  that  he  was  captured  at  Basking  Ridge,  N.  J.,  by  a 
company  of  British  horse.  Investigations  that  have  since  been  made  leave  no 
doubt  that  Lee  purposely  allowed  himself  to  be  taken,  and  that  while  in  the 
enemy's  hands  he  offered  to  do  all  he  could  in  the  way  of  betrayal  of  his  coun 
try.  Washington  crossed  the  Delaware  into  Pennsylvania,  just  as  Cornwallis 
entered  the  upper  end  of  the  town. 

The  great  man,  knowing  the  universal  depression,  saw  that  a  blow  must  be 
struck  to  raise  the  drooping  spirits  of  his  countrymen.  Otherwise  the  struggle 
would  3ollapse  from  sheer  despair.  As  for  the  enemy,  they  gave  scarcely  a 
thought  to  the  shivering  ragamuffins  on  the  other  side  of  the  river.  The  Hes 
sian  commander,  Colonel  Rail,  had  occupied  the  town  with  his  men,  and  they 
prepared  to  enjoy  life  to  the  full.  Rail  drank  toddy,  smoked,  and  played  cards, 
while  the  wintry  winds  roared  outside.  Perhaps  a  feeling  akin  to  pity  moved 
him  when  he  thought  of  the  starving,  freezing  Continentals  who  were  foolish 
enough  to  rebel  against  the  rule  of  the  great  and  good  King  George  III. 

BATTLE   OF    TRENTON. 

Washington  determined  to  attack  the  Hessians  in  Trenton.  He  divided  his 
army  into  three  divisions,  sending  one  to  Bristol,  opposite  Burlington,  another 
remained  opposite  Trenton,  while  he  himself  marched  several  miles  up  stream 
to  a  point  since  known  as  Washington's  Crossing. 

The  movements  down  the  river  were  to  be  directed  against  the  enemy's  de 
tachments  at  Bordentown,  Burlington,  and  Mount  Holly,  but  the  stream  was  so 
choked  with  masses  of  floating  ice  that  neither  division  was  able  to  force  its  way 
over.  Washington,  with  2,500  of  the  best  officers  and  men  in  the  army,  crossed 
the  stream  in  the  face  of  a  driving  storm  of  snow  and  sleet,  and,  reaching  the 
village  of  Birmingham,  several  miles  inland,  divided  his  force.  Sullivan  took 
the  road  which  runs  close  to  and  parallel  with  the  river,  while  Washington, 
with  Greene,  followed  the  Scotch  road.  The  latter  joins  the  upper  part  of  the 
town,  while  the  river  road  enters  the  lower  end.  The  plan  was  for  the  two 
divisions  to  strike  Trenton  at  the  same  time  and  attack  the  Hessians  in  front 
and  rear.  It  was  hardly  light  on  the  morning  succeeding  Christmas,  1776,  when 
Washington  drove  in  the  sentinels  and  advanced  rapidly  in  the  direction  of 
Sullivan,  the  report  of  whose  guns  showed  that  he  had  arrived  on  time  and  was 
vigorously  pressing  matters. 


BATTLE  OF  TRENTON. 


113 


The  rattle  of  musketry  and  the  boom  of  cannon  roused  the  startled  Hes 
sians,  who  made  the  best  defense  possible.     Colonel  Rail  leaped  from  his  bed, 
and,  hastily  donning  his  clothes,  strove  to  collect  and  form  his  men.     While 
doing   so   he    was  r 
mortally      wounded. 
The  moment  quickly  f 
came  when  his  situa 
tion  was  hopeless.  | 
Supported  on  either 
side  by    a   sergeant,  i 
Rail    walked    pain 
fully    forward     to 
where     Washington 
was    seated   on  his 
horse,  and,  handing 
his    sword    to    him 
asked   that   mercy 
should  be  shown  his 
men.       Washington 
assured  him  his  re 
quest    was    unneces 
sary.     Rail  was  car 
ried    to    a   building, 
where,  as  he  lay  on 
the  bed,  he  was  vis 
ited  by  Washington, 
who    expressed     his 
sympathy   for    his 
sufferings,  which  soon 
were   terminated  by 
death. 

The  battle  of 
Trenton,  as  it  is 
known  in  history,  was  remarkable  in  more  than  one  respect.  The  Americans 
captured  950  prisoners,  six  guns,  a  large  number  of  small  arms,  killed  twenty 
and  wounded  nearly  a  hundred  of  the  enemy.  Of  the  Americans,  four  were 
wounded  and  two  killed,  and  it  is  probable  that  these  deaths  were  due  to  the 
extreme  cold  rather  than  the  aim  of  the  Hessians,  whose  work  is  very  suggestive 
of  that  of  the  Spaniards  in  the  late  war. 

The  moral   effect  of  the  victory,   however,  was  aLnost  beyond  estimate. 


\ 


WASHINGTON    CROSSING    THE    DELAWARE. 


114  WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND    ON  SEA. 

The  threatening  clouds  that  had  so  long  darkened  the  land  were  scattered,  and 
the  glorious  sun  of  hope  burst  through  and  cheered  all.  The  triumph  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  expression  that  it  marked  the  "  turning  of  the  tide."  Re 
verses  were  yet  waiting  for  the  Americans,  but  the  war  for  independence  was 
steadily  to  advance  to  its  triumphant  conclusion. 

THE    EFFECT    OF    THE   VICTORY. 

The  situation  of  Washington  at  Trenton,  however,  was  critical.  Corn 
wall  is  with  his  powerful  force  was  at  Princeton,  ten  miles  distant,  and  was  sure 
to  advance  against  him  as  soon  as  he  learned  of  the  reverse  at  Trenton.  Wash 
ington,  therefore,  recrossed  the  Delaware  on  the  same  day  of  the  victory,  with 
his  prisoners  and  captured  war  material.  One  result  was  that  the  British,  as 
soon  as  they  learned  what  had  taken  place,  abandoned  South  Jersey. 

Washington  remained  three  days  in  Pennsylvania,  when  he  again  crossed 
the  Delaware  and  re-entered  Trenton.  More  than  3,000  reinforcements  joined 
him,  and  1,400  New  England  soldiers,  whose  terms  of  enlistment  were  expiring, 
were  so  inspired  by  the  victory  that  they  volunteered  for  six  weeks  longer. 
Robert  Morris,  to  whom  we  have  referred  as  the  financier  of  the  Revolution, 
raised  $50,000  in  specie  and  sent  it  to  Washington  to  be  used  in  paying  the 
troops,  who  very  sorely  needed  it. 

As  soon  as  Cornwallis  was  told  by  his  scouts  that  Washington  had  returned 
to  Trenton,  he  advanced  against  him  with  a  force  of  7,000  men,  determined  to 
wipe  out  the  disgrace  of  a  few  days  before.  This  was  on  the  2d  of  January, 
1777.  Greene  held  the  British  commander  in  check  until  the  close  of  the  day, 
when  he  was  able  to  drive  the  Americans  to  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Assunpink 
Creek,  which  runs  through  the  middle  of  the  town  and  was  spanned  by  a  wooden 
bridge.  There  was  brisk  fighting  at  this  bridge,  but  the  cannon  of  Washington 
were  so  effective  that  the  British  troops  gave  up  the  attempt  to  force  a  passage 
until  the  morning  of  the  following  day. 


WASHINGTON'S  CRITICAL  SITUATION. 


The  two  armies  encamped  in  sight  of  each  other  on  opposite  banks  of  the 
Assunpink,  their  camp-fires  and  sentinels  in  plain  sight.  The  situation  of  the 
American  army  could  not  have  been  more-  critical.  Behind  it  was  the  Delaware 
filled  with  floating  ice  and  in  front  the  superior  army  of  Cornwallis,  confident 
of  capturing  AVashington  and  his  forces  on  the  morrow. 

But  when  the  raw  wintry  morning  dawned,  Cornwallis  was  astounded  to 
hear  the  booming  of  cannon  in  the  direction  of  Princeton,  ten  miles  behind  him. 
Washington  had  withdrawn  his  entire  force,  and,  reaching  the  college  town  by 
a  roundabout  course,  was  driving  the  British  troops  before  him.  The  chagrined 


BATTLE   OF  PRINCETON. 


115 


and  angered  Cornwallis  hurried  to  Princeton  in  order  to  avert  the  threatened 
disaster. 

BATTLE    OF    PRINCETON. 

But  Washington  had  already  won  a  victory,  scattering  the  British  forces 
right  and  left.     Although  he  lost  a  number  of  brave  officers  and  men,  he  killed 


sixty  of  the  enemy 
and  captured  250  pris 
oners.  When  Corn 
wallis  arrived  the  Americans  were 
gone,  and  the  British  troops  hurried 
to  Brunswick  (now  New  Brunswick)  to 
protect  the  stores  there.  Washington 
withdrew  to  Morristown,  where  he 
went  into  winter  quarters  and  re 
mained  until  May,  much  of  the  time 
being  devoted  to  making  forays  upon 
the  enemy,  who  now  and  then  retali 
ated  in  kind. 

Washington  left  Morristown  on  the  28th  of  May,  aware  that  Howe  in 
tended  to  make  a  campaign  against  Philadelphia.  There  was  considerable 
manoeuvring  by  the  two  armies,  Howe  trying  to  flank  Washington,  who  was 
too  alert  to  be  entrapped,  and  no  material  advantage  was  grained  by  either  side. 


"GIVE   THEM   WATTS,   BOYS!" 

The  spirit  shown  by  our  sturdy  patriots  is  well  illustrated 

by  the  story  of  the  minister,  who,  when  in  one  battle  there 

was  a  lack  of  wadding,  brought  out  an  armful  of  hymn  books 

and  exclaimed  :  "Give  them  Watts,  boys ! " 


116  WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND   ON  SEA. 

About  this  time  a  number  of  foreign  officers  joined  the  American  army. 
The  most  distinguished  was  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  who  served  without  pay 
and  won  the  gratitude  of  the  whole  country  because  of  his  devotion  to  the  cause 
of  American  independence  and  his  intimate  friendship  with  Washington. 

Meanwhile,  being  driven  out  of  New  Jersey,  the  British  pushed  their  cam 
paign  against  Philadelphia  by  way  of  the  Chesapeake.  In  August,  1777,  Sir 
William  Howe  sailed  from  New  York  with  16,000  troops,  and,  on  the  24th, 
reached  the  head  of  Elk  River  in  Maryland.  At  Brandy  wine,  on  the  llth  of 
September,  the  American  army  was  defeated  with  severe  loss,  Lafayette  being 
among  the  wounded.  Washington  entered  Philadelphia  the  next  day,  and, 
crossing  the  Schuylkill,  posted  his  troops  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river,  with 
detachments  at  the  ferries  where  it  was  thought  the  enemy  were  likely  to  attempt 
to  cross.  General  Wayne  concealed  himself  and  1,500  men  in  the  woods,  in 
tending  to  attack  the  British  in  the  rear,  but  a  Tory  betrayed  his  presence  to  the 
enemy,  who  in  a  furious  assault  slew  300  of  his  men.  This  disaster  is  known 
in  history  as  the  Paoli  Massacre. 

BRITISH    OCCUPATION    OF    PHILADELPHIA. 

Howe,  having  gained  control  of  the  Schuylkill,  crossed  with  his  army,  and, 
advancing  to  Germantown,  took  possession  of  Philadelphia  on  the  27th  of  Sep 
tember.  The  main  body  remained  in  Germantown,  while  the  American  army, 
now  reinforced  to  11,000,  were  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Schuylkill,  eighteen 
miles  distant.  Howe  was  engaged  in  reducing  the  forts  on  the  Delaware  to  open 
a  passage  for  his  fleet,  when  Washington  advanced  against  the  force  at  German- 
town,  hoping  to  surprise  it.  He  would  have  succeeded,  but  for  several  obstacles 
wholly  unexpected.  The  stone  building  known  as  the  "Chew  House"  offered  a 
stubborn  resistance  and  defied  the  cannon  fired  against  it,  The  delay  caused  by 
the  attempt  to  reduce  it  gave  the  enemy  time  to  rally.  Besides,  the  dense  fog 
disorganized  the  attack,  and  more  than  once  bodies  of  Americans  fired  into  one 
another.  On  the  verge  of  victory,  a  retreat  was  ordered  and  the  Americans  fell 
back,  after  having  suffered  a  loss  of  1,200  men.  Congress  on  the  approach  of 
the  enemy  fled  to  the  little  town  of  York,  Pennsylvania. 

WASHINGTON  AT  VALLEY  FORGE. 

WTliile  the  British  were  holding  high  revel  in  Philadelphia,  the  Continentals 
shivered  and  starved  at  Valley  Forge,  twenty  miles  away.  Thousands  of  the 
men  were  without  shoes  and  stockings.  In  each  log  hut  were  twelve  privates, 
who  had  scarcely  any  bedding,  and  who  kept  from  freezing  at  night  by  the 
mutual  warmth  of  their  bodies.  The  farmers  of  the  neighborhood  were  so  un 
patriotic  that  Washington  was  often  compelled  to  take  straw  and  grain  from 


WASHINGTON  AT   VALLEY  FORGE. 


117 


them  by  force,  giving  in  return  an  order  upon  the  government  for  the  property 
thus  used.  It  is  said  that  Isaac  Potts,  a  Quaker  at  whose  house  Washington 
made  his  headquarters,  was  passing  through  the  woods  one  day,  when  he  heard 
the  voice  of  some  one  in  prayer.  Peering  among  the  trees  he  saw  Washington  on 


his'  knees,  beseeching 
the  struggle  for  liberty, 
to  bis  home  and  related 
he  added  that  he  could 
success  of  the  Ameri 
Washington  praying 
It  has  been  shown 
important  campaigns 
was  that  of  invading 
ada.  If  successful,  New 
off  from  the  other  States 
Formidable  prepara 
this  movement.  An 
7,000  British  and  Hes 
to  a  corps  of  artillery, 
command  of  General 
accompanied  by  several 
who  had  crossed  the 


WASHINGTON  AT  VALLEY  FORGE. 


the  help  of  heaven  in 
When  Potts  returned 
the  incident  to  his  wife, 
no  longer  doubt  the 
cans,  since  he  had  heard 
for  it. 

that  one  of  the  most 
planned  by  the  British 
New  York  from  Can- 
England  would  be  cut 
and  forced  to  submit 
dons  were  made  for 
army  of  more  than 
sian  troops,  in  addition 
was  placed  under  the 
Burgoyne,  who  was 
members  of  Parliament, 
ocean  for  the  pleasure 


ft  .  .  i  W  A.Ort±i\  \jr  J.WXM    Ji.J.     v  .rt.-Ljj_i.cj  i    -c  VXVVTJU.  n,       -I  1        IT 

ot  witnessing  the  over  throw  ot  the  rebellious 

Americans.  The  route  was  from  Canada  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain  to  Albany, 
where  the  army  was  to  be  joined  by  a  strong  force  to  be  sent  up  the  Hudson 
from  New  York.  Clinton  failed  to  carry  out  his  part,  because  of  the  delav  in 


118  WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND    ON  SEA. 

sending  to  him  from  London  a  detailed  account  of  the  intended  plan  of  cam 
paign. 

A    CLEVER    STRATAGEM. 

At  Crown  Point,  Burgoyne  was  joined  by  a  number  of  Indian  allies,  a  pro 
ceeding  which  greatly  incensed  the  patriots.  It  was  arranged  that  another  body 
of  British  troops  under  Colonel  St.  Leger,  including  Indians  and  Tories,  were 
to  ascend  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Lake  Ontario,  and  advance  across  the  State  by 
way  of  the  Mohawk  to  Albany.  Carrying  out  this  programme,  St.  Leger 
invested  Fort  Schuyler  at  the  head  of  the  Mohawk,  with  a  force  of  1,800  men. 
While  General  Herkimer  was  hurrying  with  some  militia  to  the  relief  of  the 
garrison,  he  was  ambuscaded  by  a  detachment  of  British  and  Indians  and  killed, 
but  an  advance  from  the  fort  drove  off  his  assailants.  St.  Leger  persisted  in  his 
siege  of  the  fort,  and  Benedict  Arnold  marched  with  a  brigade  to  attack  him. 
His  force,  however,  was  so  weak  that  he  saw  the  folly  of  assault,  and  had 
recourse  to  an  ingenious  and  successful  stratagem.  He  sent  an  underwitted  boy, 
who  had  been  arrested  as  a  Tory,  into  the  British  camp  with  the  story  that  the 
reinforcements  just  arrived  for  the  Americans  numbered  several  thousand,  the 
fable  being  confirmed  shortly  after  by  an  Indian  scout.  St.  Leger  was  so 
frightened  that  he  fled  to  Canada,  leaving  his  tents  and  most  of  his  military 
stores. 

The  Americans  abandoned  Fort  Ticonderoga  before  the  advance  of  Bur 
goyne,  who  reached  Fort  Edward,  while  General  Schuyler  crossed  the  Hudson 
and  assumed  position  at  Saratoga.  Burgoyne  crossed  the  river  on  the  13th  and 
14th  of  September,  and  General  Gates,  lately  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
northern  department,  advanced  toward  the  enemy  and  encamped  a  few  miles 
north  of  Stillwater.  On  the  night  of  .the  17th,  the  two  armies  were  within  four 
miles  of  each  other,  and,  two  days  later,  Burgoyne  attacked  Gates.  The  loss  on 
each  side  was  severe,  but  the  result  was  indecisive. 

A  danger  of  another  character  threatened  the  invading  army.  Provisions 
and  supplies  were  running  out,  and  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  more.  No  help 
arrived  from  Clinton,  the  desertions  were  numerous,  and,  realizing  his  desperate 
situation,  Burgoyne  determined  to  drive  the  Americans  from  their  position  on 
the  left  and  then  retreat  to  Canada.  He  made  a  determined  attempt,  but  was 
defeated  with  the  loss  of  several  hundred  men,  including  a  number  of  his  best 
officers,  nine  pieces  of  artillery,  and  the  encampment  and  equipage  of  a  Hessian 
brigade. 

SURRENDER   OF    BURGOYNE. 

General  Gates  now  disposed  his  forces  so  as  almost  completely  to  surround 
Burgoyne,  who  called  a  council  of  war,  at  which  it  was  agreed  that  nothing  was 
left  for  them  but  to  capitulate.  Accordingly,  October  17,  1777,  he  surrendered 


AID  FROM  FRANCE.  119 

his  army  to  General  Gates.  This  consisted  of  5,763  officers  and  men,  including 
the  disappointed  members  of  Parliament.  All  the  Indians  having  fled,  none 
was  left  of  them  to  surrender.  The  spoils  of  war  included  a  fine  train  of 
artillery  of  forty-two  pieces,  5,000  muskets,  and  a  vast  quantity  of  ammunition 
and  stores.  The  prisoners  were  treated  with  great  kindness,  their  captors  shar 
ing  their  food  with  them. 

The  news  of  the  loss  of  one  of  her  most  important  armies  caused  dismay  in 
England  and  unbounded  rejoicing  in  America.  It  was  the  climax  of  the 
triumph  at  Trenton,  and  renewed  hope  thrilled  the  country  from  New  England 
to  Georgia. 

THE    CONWAY    CABAL. 

Congress  awarded  a  gold  medal  to  Gates  for  his  capture  of  Burgoyne,  and 
he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  new  board  of  war.  He  was  puffed  up  over  his 
victory,  for  which  most  of  the  credit  was  due  to  Schuyler  and  Arnold.  Find 
ing  congenial  spirits  in  General  Mifflin  and  an  Irishman  named  Con  way, 
both  members  of  the  board,  including  also  General  Charles  Lee,  who  had  been 
exchanged,  a  plot  was  formed  for  displacing  Washington  and  putting  Gates  in 
supreme  command  of  military  affairs.  The  "  Con  way  Cabal "  utterly  failed,  for 
there  were  precious  few  in  the  country  who  did  not  appreciate  the  lofty  char 
acter  of  Washington,  and  none  except  the  plotters  felt  sympathy  with  any 
attempt  to  dim  the  lustre  of  the  name  that  will  always  be  among  the  brightest 
in  history. 

AID    FROM    FRANCE. 

One  of  the  immeasurable  advantages  that  followed  the  capture  of  Burgoyne 
was  our  alliance  with  France.  That  country  sympathized  with  us  from  the 
first,  though  her  traditional  hatred  of  England  had  much  to  do  with  the  senti 
ment,  but  hitherto  her  assistance  had  been  secret.  She  wished  a  good  pretext 
for  coming  out  openly,  and  this  was  furnished  by  the  capture  of  Burgoyne. 
Franklin  was  in  France  as  our  representative,  and  his  quaint  wit  and  homely 
wisdom  made  him  very  popular  at  the  gay  court.  He  urged  the  claims  of  the 
United  States  so  forcibly  that  the  king  yielded,  and  concluded  a  treaty,  February 
6, 1778,  by  which  the  independence  of  the  United  States  was  acknowledged  and 
relations  of  reciprocal  friendship  formed  with  our  country.  This  was  the  first 
treaty  tnade  by  the  United  States  with  a  foreign  country.  France  agreed  to 
send  a  fleet  of  sixteen  war-vessels,  under  D'Estaing,  and  an  army  of  4,000  men 
to  our  assistance.  Great  Britain  at  once  declared  war  against  France,  and 
offered  to  give  the  United  States  freedom  from  taxation  and  representation  in 
Parliament  if  they  would  join  in  the  hostilities  against  her  old  enemy.  The 
Americans  were  incapable  of  so  perfidious  a  course,  and  were  now  fully  deter 
mined  on  securing  their  independence.  Spain  joined  France,  in  1779,  in  the 


120 


WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND    ON  SEA. 


war  against  Great  Britain  (because  of  the  relations  of  the  ruling  families),  and 
Holland  for  commercial  reasons  united  with  them  in  1780.  Thus  Great  Britain 
soon  found  her  hands  full. 

Congress  decided,  while  Washington  was  at  Valley  Forge,  that  the  army 
should  cons;«t  of  40,000  foot,  besides  artillery  and  horse.  Washington  had 
12,000,  while  the  total  American  force  under  arms  was  barely  15,000.  At  the 
same  time  the  British  had  30,000  troops  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  besides 
3,700  in  Khode  Island. 

EVACUATION    OF    PHILADELPHIA. 

The  British  army  occupied  Philadelphia  from  September,  1777,  until  June 


AN   OLD   COLONIAL  HOUSE   OF   GERMANTOWN. 

the  following  year.  Admiral  Howe's  fleet  lay  in  the  Delaware,  and  General 
Howe,  who  was  of  a  sluggish  temperament,  was  superseded  by  Sir  Henry  Clin 
ton,  between  whom  and  Cornwallis  the  relations  soon  became  strained.  With 
a  view  of  concentrating  the  British  forces,  and,  since  the  French  fleet  was  known 
to  have  sailed  for  America,  it  was  decided  that  the  army  in  Philadelphia  should 
be  removed  to  New  York.  Wishing  to  strike  France,  it  was  determined  to 
make  a  descent  upon  the  French  West  Indies,  for  which  5,000  troops  were  to 
be  detached  from  the  army. 

BATTLE   OF    MONMOUTH. 

Clinton  found  that  he  had  not  enough  transports  to  tatfe  nis  troops  to  New 
York,  and  a  considerable  number  started  overland.     On  the  same  day  that  he 


EVACUATION  OF  PHILADELPHIA.  121 

marched  out  of  Philadelphia,  Washington's  vanguard  entered  it.  On  the  28th. 
Clinton  was  encamped  near  Monmouth  Court-House,  New  Jersey  (now  Free 
hold),  with  Washington  close  upon  him.  With  five  miles  separating  the  two 
armies  at  night,  Lee,  who  had  command  of  5,000  men,  moved  them  nearer  the 
enemy,  Washington  having  ordered  him  to  attack  in  the  morning  as  soon  as 
Clinton  began  moving. 

The  days  were  the  longest  in  the  year  and  the  heat  frightful.  At  the 
earliest  dawn,  Washington  was  notified  that  the  enemy  had  started  toward  New 
York.  He  ordered  Lee  to  advance  and  open  battle  without  delay,  unless  he  saw 
urgent  reasons  for  not  doing  so.  Washington  at  the  same  time  pushed  forward 
with  the  main  body  to  his  support. 

The  attack  was  made  about  eight  o'clock,  but  the  reports  of  the  movements 
were  so  confusing  that  those  of  the  Americans  became  disjointed  ;  but  everything 
was  going  in  their  favor,  when  greater  confusion  caused  a  falling  back  of  the 
patriots,  with  the  result  that  at  noon  Lee's  whole  division  was  in  retreat,  and  he 
had  started  to  follow  them  when  he  came  face  to  face  with  Washington  himself. 

Those  who  saw  the  meeting  never  forgot  it.  It  required  immense  provoca 
tion  to  rouse  Washington's  anger,  but  he  was  in  a  savage  mood,  and  in  a  voice 
of  thunder  demanded  of  Lee  the  meaning  of  his  retreat.  Lee  was  confused,  but, 
breaking  in  upon  him,  the  commander  ordered  him  to  the  rear,  while  he  took 
command.  The  battle  lasted  until  five  o  clock  in  the  afternoon,  scores  on  each 
side  succumbing  from  the  heat.  While  the  advantage  was  with  the  Americans, 
the  battle  was  indecisive,  and  Washington  anxiously  waited  for  daylight  to  com 
plete  his  victory ;  but  Clinton  moved  away  in  the  night,  and,  reaching  Sandy 
Hook,  was  taken  aboard  of  Howe's  fleet  and  landed  in  New  York  on  the  5th  of 
July.  Washington  marched  to  the  Hudson,  crossed  at  King's  Ferry,  and  took 
position  near  his  former  camp  at  White  Plains.  Lee  was  court-martialed  and 
dismissed  for  his  conduct,  and,  as  stated  elsewhere,  it  has  been  proven  that  he 
was  a  traitor  to  the  American  cause. 

There  are  several  interesting  facts  connected  with  the  battle  of  Monmouth, 
on  whose  grounds  a  fine  monument  was  erected  some  years  ago.  Among  the 
British  grenadiers  slain  was  a  sergeant  who  was  seven  feet  four  inches  in  height. 
So  many  of  these  grenadiers  were  killed  that  thirteen  were  buried  in  one  grave. 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Monckton,  their  commander,  was  among  the  slain.  On  the 
pews  and  floor  of  the  old  Tennent  church,  still  standing  on  the  scene  of  the 
battle,  may  be  seen  the  dark  stains  from  the  wounds  of  several  soldiers  who  were 
carried  within  the  quaint  structure. 

THE   STORY    OF    MOLLY    PITCHER. 

It  would  never  do  to  omit  the  story  of  Molly  Pitcher  from  the  account  of 


122  WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND   ON  SEA. 

the  battle  of  Monmouth,  for  the  incident  is  true,  and  is  commemorated  on  one 
of  the  bronze  reliefs  of  the  monument.  Her  husband  was  a  cannoneer,  who  with 
his  companions  suffered  so  much  from  thirst  that  Molly  was  kept  busy  carrying 
water  for  them  from  a  neighboring  spring.  While  thus  engaged,  her  husband 
was  killed  before  her  eyes,  and  there  being  no  one  available  to  handle  the  piece, 
an  officer  ordered  its  removal.  Molly  asked  the  privilege  of  taking  her  hus 
band's  place.  Permission  was  given,  and  she  handled  the  cannon  with  skill 
throughout  the  entire  action. 

The  incident  was  told  to  Washington,  who  after  the  battle  asked  that  she 
be  presented  to  him.  He  complimented  her  warmly,  and  conferred  upon  her  the 
rank  of  lieutenant,  while  Congress  gave  her  half-pay  during  life.  The  State  of 
Pennsylvania,  where  she  afterward  made  her  home  at  Carlisle,  added  to  this,  so 
that  she  lived  in  comfort  for  the  rest  of  her  days.  Her  right  name  was  Mary 
McAuley,  and  she  died  in  Carlisle  in  1833,  a  fine  slab  of  marble  marking  her 
last  resting-place. 

DISAPPOINTMENT    OVER    THE    AID    FROM    FRANCE. 

Despite  the  great  expectations  roused  by  the  friendship  of  France  and  the 
arrival  of  her  fleet,  it  gave  little  aid  to  the  Americans  until  the  Yorktown 
campaign.  D'Estaing  had  a  fine  opportunity  of  forcing  his  way  into  New  York, 
destroying  the  British  fleet  and  blockading  Clinton,  but  he  lacked  the  courage  to 
do  so.  Then  he  sailed  for  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  to  attack  the  British  forces 
there,  but  matters  were  so  delayed  that  Howe  arrived  with  a  fleet  of  equal 
strength.  While  they  were  manoeuvring  for  position,  a  violent  storm  arose,  and, 
at  the  close,  D'Estaing  sailed  to  Boston  for  repairs,  taking  all  his  troops  with 
him,  while  Howe  returned  to  New  York. 

The  Americans  were  indignant  over  the  desertion  of  their  allies.  The 
French  officers  were  insulted  on  the  streets  of  Boston,  and  one  of  them  was 
killed  in  a  brawl.  Sullivan  and  Greene  were  so  outspoken  that  it  required  all 
the  shrewdness  of  Washington  and  Congress  to  prevent  an  open  rupture. 

THE    WYOMING    MASSACRE. 

In  the  month  of  July,  1778,  a  band  of  Tories  and  Indians  entered  the 
lovely  valley  of  Wyoming,  under  the  leadership  of  Colonel  John  Butler,  whose 
cousin,  Colonel  Zebulon  Butler,  was  commander  of  the  old  men  and  boys  left  in 
the  town  by  the  departure  of  nearly  all  of  the  able-bodied  men  to  fight  in  the 
Continental  armies.  The  patriots  made  a  brave  defense,  but  they  were  overcome 
and  put  to  flight.  Women  and  children  ran  to  the  woods,  in  which  they  were 
overtaken  and  tomahawked  ;  others  died  from  exposure,  while  a  few  succeeded 
in  reaching  the  towns  on  the  upper  Delaware.  This  sad  massacre  has  made  the 


THE  CONTINENTAL   CURRENCY. 

name  of  Wyoming  known  throughout  the  world,  and  gives  a  saa  pathos  to  the 
monument  which  was  erected  in  1824  over  the  bones  of  the  victims. 

PUNISHMENT    OF    THE    IROQUOIS. 

Some  months  later,  Cherry  Valley  in  New  York  suffered  a  similar  visita 
tion  from  the  Indians,  who  now  learned  for  the  first  time  that  a  power  had 
grown  up  in  this  country  which  could  not  only  punish,  but  could  do  so  with  un 
precedented  vigor.  The  red  men  were  so  troublesome  that  Congress  saw  it 
would  not  do  to  defer  giving  them  a  much-needed  lesson.  The  guilty  Indians 
were  the  Iroquois  in  central  New  York.  In  1779,  General  Sullivan  led  an  ex 
pedition  against  them.  He  showed  no  mercy  to  those  that  had  denied  mercy  to 
the  helpless.  Hundreds  were  killed,  their  houses  burned,  their  fields  laid  waste, 
and  the  whole  country 
made  such  a  desert  that' 
many  perished  from  star 
vation. 


ONE  SIXTH  OFA.  SPANISH 


thereof  vn  GolclorSilver 
to&c  given  in  ex  change  at 

Treasury  of  VlRGItfTA* 
Pursuant  fo    A.  C  T     of 

ASSEMBLY 


THE     CONTINENTAL 
CURRENCY. 

One  of  the  "sinews 
of  war  "  is  money.  It  is 
impossible  for  any  nation 
to  carry  on  a  waif  long 
without  funds.  The 
Americans  were  poor, 

but    they    issued    paper  ™    '- 

promises  to  pay,  which  were  known  as  Continental  money. 


VIRGINIA  CTJRRUNC  X 


As  the  war  pro 
gressed,  and  more  money  was  needed,  it  was  issued.  In  1778,  it  took  eight 
paper  dollars  to  equal  one  of  gold  or  silver.  More  was  necessary  and  more  was 
issued.  Besides  this,  the  paper  and  printing  were  of  such  poor  quality  that  the 
British  in  New  York  made  a  great  many  counterfeits  that  were  exchanged  with 
the  farmers  in  the  vicinity.  The  value  of  the  currency  decreased  until  the  time 
came  when  it  was  absolutely  worthless. 

When  Clinton  occupied  New  York  and  Washington  was  encamped  on  the 
Hudson  above,  there  were  many  forays  against  each  other.  The  design  of  the 
British  commander  was  to  force  his  way  to  the  Highlands,  seize  the  passes  and 
gain  full  command  of  the  Hudson.  He  had  already  secured  Stony  Point,  and 
Washington  formed  a  Man  for  retaking  it,  which  was  intrusted  to  the  brilliant 
Anthony  Wayne. 

In  the  middle  of  July,  Wayne  took  command  of  four  regiments  of  infantry, 


124  WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND    ON  SEA. 

which  marched  twelve  miles  through  the  insufferably  hot  night,  when  they 
reached  a  point  about  a  mile  from  the  fort.  Wayne  went  forward  while  his 
men  were  resting  and  made  a  careful  reconnoissance.  Rejoining  his  troops,  he 
divided  them  into  two  columns,  and,  to  prevent  any  mistake  as  to  their  identity, 
a  piece  of  white  paper  was  pinned  to  each  hat.  All  the  superfluous  clothing 
was  flung  aside.  He  impressed  upon  his  men  that  the  bayonet  alone  was  to  be 
used,  and,  to  prevent  the  discharge  of  a  gun  by  some  nervous  soldier,  he  ordered 
his  officers  to  cut  down  the  first  man  who  took  his  musket  from  his  shoulder 
without  the  order  to  do  so. 

The  two  divisions  approaching  from  opposite  sides  were  to  attack  the  fort 
at  the  same  moment.  Before  it  was  reached,  the  pickets  discovered  them  and 
opened  fire.  The  garrison  was  aroused,  and,  hurrying  to  their  posts,  cried  out 
tauntingly : 

"  Come  on,  you  rebels  !  we're  waiting  for  you  !  " 

"  We'll  be  there,"  was  the  reply  ;  and  the  patriots  kept  their  word,  carrying 
matters  with  such  a  rush  that  the  flag  was  speedily  lowered.  While  leading  his 
men,  Wayne  was  struck  in  the  forehead  by  a  musket-ball  and  fell  to  the  ground. 
Believing  himself  mortally  wounded,  he  asked  to  be  carried  forward  that  he 
might  die  within  the  fort.  While  his  men  were  assisting  him,  it  was  found  that 
he  had  only  been  stunned.  He  recovered  a  moment  later  and  was  among  the 
first  to  enter  the  defenses. 

The  American  loss  was  slight,  and  they  secured  nearly  six  hundred  prisoners, 
with  a  lot  of  valuable  stores.  The  fort  was  destroyed  before  they  left,  the  ruins 
being  occupied  some  days  later  by  a  British  force. 

THE    INFANT    AMERICAN    NAVY. 

Thus  far  we  have  had  nothing  to  tell  about  the  infant  American  navy. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  in  1775,  Washington  sent  several  privateers  to 
cruise  along  the  New  England  coast,  and  Congress  established  a  naval  depart 
ment.  Thirteen  ships  were  fitted  out  and  two  battalions  of  seamen  enlisted. 
The  opportunity  of  capturing  prizes  from  the  enemy  was  very  alluring  to  the 
skillful  American  seamen,  and  so  many  dashing  privateers  started  forth  in  quest 
of  them  that  in  the  course  of  three  years  fully  five  hundred  ships,  sailing  under 
the  English  flag,  were  captured.  Some  of  the  daring  cruisers  did  not  hesitate 
to  enter  British  waters  in  search  of  the  enemy. 

GREAT    NAVAL    VICTORY    OF    PAUL   JONES. 

No  braver  man  than  John  Paul  Jones  ever  trod  the  quarter-deck.  On  the 
first  chance  he  displayed  so  much  courage  and  skill  that  he  was  made  a  captain. 
He  was  cruising  off  Solway  Firth  near  his  birthplace  one  night,  when  he  rowed 


GREAT  NAVAL    VICTORY  OF  PAUL  JONES. 


125 


ashore  on  the  coast  of  Cumberland,  with  only  thirty-one  volunteers,  and  burned 
three  vessels  in  the  harbor  of  Whitehaven  and  spiked  a  number  of  cannon  in 
the  guard-room  of  the  fort.  England  was  alarmed,  declared  him  a  pirate,  and 
put  forth  every  effort  to  capture  him. 

In  1779,  Paul  Jones,  as  he  is  more  generally  known,  put  to  sea  in  com 
mand  of  the  Bon  Homme  Richard,  and  accompanied  by  two  consorts,  the 
Alliance  and  the  Pallas.  The  Richard  was  an  old  East  Indiaman,  given  him 
by  the  king  of  France  and 
named  in  compliment  to 
Franklin,  who  had  published 
"  Poor  Richard's  Almanac " 
for  so  many  years  that  he  was 
often  identified  with  the  publi 
cation. 

When  Jones  was  off  Scar 
borough,  he  sighted  the  Baltic 
fleet  of  merchantmen  home 
ward  bound,  and  escorted  by 
the  frigates  Countess  of  Scar 
borough  and  the  Serapis.  The 
latter  carried  fifty  guns  and  the 
former  twenty-two,  while  Jones 
had  forty-four  guns  and  three 
hundred  and  seventy-five  men, 
two-thirds  of  whom  were  pris 
oners  of  war,  since  he  had 
greatly  weakened  his  crew  in 
order  to  send  home  the  many 
prizes  captured. 

The  moment  Jones  iden 
tified  the  enemy,  he  signaled 
to  his  consorts  to  join  him  in  pursuit.  Night  had  closed  in  and  the  moon  was 
shining,  when  the  captain  of  the  Serapis  hailed  Jones,  who  answered  by  opening 
fire.  The  enemy  was  equally  prompt,  and  thus  one  of  the  most  famous  fights 
in  naval  history  began.  It  is  almost  past  comprehension  how  Jones  fought  so 
terrifically  when  the  disadvantages  under  which  he  labored  are  known.  Firing 
had  scarcely  begun  when  one  of  the  guns  on  the  lower  deck  exploded,  killing 
several  men.  The  survivors  ran  above,  and  the  piece  was  not  used  again  during 
the  fight. 

Jones  tried  to  close  with  the  Serapis,  but,  finding  he  could  not  bring  his 


PAUL  JONES. 


J26 


WAR   IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND    ON  SEA. 


guns  to  bear,  he  allowed  his  ship  to  fall  off.     The  prisoners,  who  outnumbered 
his  crew,  were  kept  busy  extinguishing  the  fires  that  continually  broke  out,  by 
being  told  that  it  was  the  only  way  to  save  themselves  from  death  by  burning. 
In  the  midst  of  the  terrific  fighting,  when  the  Richard  seemed  doomed,  Captain 
Pearson  of  the  Serapis  shouted  : 
"  Have  you  struck  ?  " 
"Struck  !  "  replied  Jones;  "I  am  just  beginning  to  fight." 

While  the  ships 
were  lurching,  one 
of  the  enemy's 
anchors  caught  the 
quarter  of  the  Rich 
ard  and  the  two 
held  fast,  thence 
forward  fighting 
side  by  side.  They 
were  so  close  indeed 
that  the  Serapis 
could  not  open  her 
starboard  ports,  and 
the  cannon  were 
fired  through  the 
port-lids,  which 
were  blown  off;  but 
the  main  deck  of 
the  Richard  was  so 
high  that  the  broad 
sides  of  the  enemy 
injured  no  one, 
though  they  did 
great  damage  to  the 
vessel.  Thistremen- 

TWEEN   BON   HOMME   RICHARD   AND   SERAPIS.  ^      ^^      fc^ 

for  two  hours,  the  muzzles  of  the  guns  scraping  one  another,  and  the  cannon  being 
discharged  as  fast  as  they  could  be  loaded.  The  Richard  was  soon  shattered 
to  that  extent  that  she  began  sinking.  Fire  broke  out  repeatedly  on  both  vessels, 
and  finally  Jones  was  able  to  work  only  three  of  his  guns.  At  this  crisis,  he 
(bund  that  his  consort,  the  Alliance,  Captain  Landais,  was  firing  into  him  as 
well  as  the  Serapis;  but  not  heeding  him,  he  continued  his  battle  with  the 
Serapis,  whose  sailors  fought  as  bravely  as  his  own. 


GREAT  NAVAL    VICTORY  OF  PAUL  JONES. 


127 


The  fearful  struggle  was  decided  by  a  sailor  in  the  rigging  of  the  Richard, 
who  was  engaged  in  throwing  hand-grenades  on  the  deck  of  the  Serapis.  One 
of  these  dropped  into  the  hatchway  and  exploded  a  mass  of  eighteen-pound 
cartridges,  which  killed  twenty  and  wounded  twice  as  many  more.  Captain 
Pearson  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  boarders  and  made  a  rush  for  the 
deck  of  the  Richard.  Jones,  leading  his  own  men,  drove  them  back.  The 

explosion  of  the 
grenades  silenced 
the  main  battery 
of  the  Serapis,  and 
Captain  Pearson 
himself  hauled 
down  his  colors, 
both  crews  in  the 
awful  confusion 
believing  for  some 
minutes  that  it 
was  the  Richard 
that  had  surren 
dered. 

When  day 
dawned,  the  rid 
dled  Richard  was 
settling  fast,  and 
Jones  had  barely 
time  to  remove  his 
crew  to  the  Serapis 
when  his  own  ves 
sel  went  down. 
Four-fifths  of  his 
men  had  been 
killed  or  wounded. 

of  the  conduct  of 

Captain  Landais  in  firing  into  the  Richard  led  to  the  conclusion  that  he  was 
insane,  and  he  was  deprived  of  his  command.  Jones  did  no  more  special  service 
for  the  Americans.  For  his  unsurpassable  achievement  he  received  the  thanks 
of  Congress,  and  the  king  of  France  presented  him  with  a  gold  sword.  After 
the  war  he  became  a  rear-admiral  in  the  Russian  navy,  and  died  in  Paris  in 
1792. 


BRITISH  CAPTAIN  SURRENDERING  HIS  SWORD  TO  PAUL  JONES. 


128  WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND    ON  SEA. 

One  of  the  saddest  and  most  shocking  events  of  the  Revolution  was  the 
treason  of  Benedict  Arnold,  who  had  won  a  brilliant  reputation  for  his  bravery 
and  generalship.  He  was  quick-tempered,  treacherous,  and  extravagant,  and  dis 
liked  by  most  of  his  men,  despite  his  extraordinary  daring.  His  first  resent 
ment  against  Congress  was  the  failure  of  that  body  to  make  him  one  of  the  first 
five  major-generals,  in  the  face,  too,  of  Washington's  urgent  recommendation 
for  such  promotion,  which  was  made  after  Arnold's  splendid  services  at 
Saratoga. 

He  was  placed  in  command  at  Philadelphia,  while  recovering  from  the 
wounds  received  at  Saratoga.  He  married  a  Tory  lady,  and  his  misconduct 
caused  his  trial  by  court-martial,  which  sentenced  him  to  be  reprimanded  by  the 
commander-in-chief.  Washington  performed  the  unpleasant  duty  with  delicacy, 
but  its  memory  rankled  and  was  increased  by  his  anger  against  Congress  for  its 
refusal  to  allow  his  claims  for  expenses  in  the  Canadian  expedition.  Influenced 
also,  no  doubt,  by  the  Tory  sentiments  of  his  wife,  he  determined  to  take  the 
step  which  has  covered  his  name  with  everlasting  infamy. 

On  the  plea  that  his  wounds  were  not  yet  healed,  he  induced  Washington 
to  place  him  in  command  at  West  Point,  the  most  important  post  in  the  country 
and  the  principal  depot  of  supplies.  He  opened  a  correspondence  with  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  at  New  York,  and  agreed  for  a  stated  sum  of  money  and  an 
appointment  in  the  British  army  to  surrender  the  post  to  a  force  which  Clinton 
was  to  send  against  it.  When  a  point  in  the  negotiations  was  reached  where  it 
was  necessary  to  send  a  trusted  agent  to  meet  Arnold,  Clinton  dispatched  Major 
John  Andre,  who  went  up  the  Hudson  in  a  sloop,  and,  September  22,  1780,  met 
Arnold  at  the  foot  of  Long  Clove  Mountain.  Everything  being  agreed  upon, 
Andre  started  to  return  to  the  sloop,  but  found  that,  owing  to  its  having  been 
fired  upon  by  a  party  of  Americans,  it  had  dropped  down  stream.  Obliged  to 
make  his  way  to  New  York  by  land,  he  assumed  the  dress  of  a  civilian,  and, 
furnished  with  a  pass  by  Arnold,  he  set  out  on  horseback. 

When  near  Tarry  town,  he  was  stopped  by  three  Americans,  Isaac  Van 
Wart,  John  Paulding,  and  David  Williams,  who  demanded  his  identity  and 
business.  One  of  the  three  happened  to  be  wearing  a  British  coat,  which  he 
had  exchanged  for  one  of  his  own  while  a  prisoner  of  war,  and  the  fact  led 
Andre  to  think  they  were  friends.  Before  he  discovered  his  mistake,  he  had 
made  known  that  he  was  a  British  officer,  and  he  was  ordered  to  dismount  and 
submit  to  a  search.  The  fatal  papers  were  found  on  him,  and,  seeing  his  busi 
ness  was  known,  he  offered  everything  he  had,  besides  the  promise  of  a  large 
sum  of  money  from  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  to  be  allowed  to  go.  His  captors  re 
fused  and  conducted  him  to  North  Castle,  where  he  was  given  up  to  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Jameson.  That  officer  had  the  proof  before  him  in  the  papers  that 


THE    CAPTURE    OF    MAJOR    ANDRE 

Much  sympathy  was  felt  in  America  for  Andre,  but  the  justice  of  his  being  hung  as  a  spy  was  never  questioned, 
three  captors,  Paulding,  Van  Wart  and  Williams,  were  honored  with  medals  and  $200.00  a  year  each  for  life, 
and  monuments  were    erected  to  their  memories  by  our  Government. 


His 


THE  TREASON  OF  BENEDICT  ARNOLD. 


129 


Arnold  was  the  unspeakable  traitor,  but  with  a  stupidity  difficult  to  understand, 
he  sent  a  letter  to  Arnold  acquainting  him  with  the  capture  of  Andre. 

Arnold  was  eating  breakfast 
at  his  house  near  the  Hudson,  when 
the  note  was  brought  to  him  by  the 
messenger.  Knowing  what  it  meant, 
he  called  his  wife  to  him,  told  her 
of  his  danger, 
kissed  his 


ESCAPE   OF   BENEDICT  ARNOLD. 


sleeping  boy  in  the  cradle,  ran 
out  of  the  house,  mounted  his 
horse  and  galloped  at  headlong 
speed  for  the  river.     There  he  sprang  into  a  boat  and  ordered  the  men  to  row 


130  WAR  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES  AND   ON  SEA. 

with  all  haste  to  the  sloop,  still  at  anchor  a  short  distance  down  stream  and 
waiting  for  Andre.  Since  these  men  had  no  suspicion  of  the  truth  they  obeyed 
orders,  and  Arnold,  by  waving  a  white  handkerchief  over  his  head,  prevented 
the  Americans  on  the  shore  from  firing  at  him.  He  reached  the  sloop  in  safety 
and  was  carried  to  New  York. 

The  fact  that  Andre  was  wearing  a  civilian  suit  at  the  time  of  his  capture 
made  him  a  spy,  according  to  the  laws  of  war,  and  the  court-martial  before 
which  he  was  called  sentenced  him  to  be  hanged.  Clinton  was  greatly  distressed 
by  the  impending  fate  of  his  favorite  officer  and  did  his  utmost  to  secure  his 
release  by  Washington.  It  was  intimated  to  Clinton  that  Washington  might  be 
induced  to  exchange  Andre  for  Arnold,  but  such  an  act  by  the  British  com 
mander  would  have  covered  his  name  with  infamy,  and  he  was  too  honorable 
even  to  consider  it. 

Andre*  accepted  his  fate  bravely,  only  asking  that  he  might  be  shot  instead 
of  hanged,  but  even  that  boon  was  denied  him.  General  Greene,  who  presided 
at  the  court-martial,  insisted  that  such  leniency  would  have  been  an  admission 
of  a  doubt  of  the  justice  of  his  sentence.  Andre  was  hanged  October  2,  1780. 
King  George  III.  caused  a  mural  tablet  to  be  erected  to  his  memory,  and  his  re 
mains  were  removed  to  England  in  1821  and  placed  in  Westminster  Abbey.  A 
pension  was  conferred  upon  his  mother  and  his  brother  was  created  a  baronet. 
Sad  as  was  the  fate  of  Andre,  and  general  as  was  the  sympathy  felt  for  him  in 
this  country,  there  can  be  no  question  of  the  justice  of  his  sentence.  He  was  a 
spy,  and,  had  he  succeeded  in  his  mission,  might  have  caused  the  failure  of  the 
war  for  independence. 

Arnold  received  more  than  $30,000  as.  a  reward  for  his  treason.  He  was 
disliked  by  the  British  officers,  and  Cornwallis  did  not  hesitate  to  show  his  con 
tempt  for  him.  He  engaged  in  several  raids  against  his  countrymen,  but  since 
he  always  fought  "with  a  rope  around  his  neck,"  he  was  never  trusted  with  any 
important  command. 

He  removed  to  England  with  his  family  after  the  war,  and  his  sons  received 
commissions  in  the  British  army.  It  is  worth  noting  that  all  did  creditable  ser 
vice,  and  their  descendants  became  worthy  members  of  the  community,  a  fact 
which  no  one  can  regret,  since  they  could  be  held  in  no  way  responsible  for  the 
horrifying  crime  of  their  ancestor,  who,  despised  by  all  around  him,  died  in 
London  in  1801. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
THE    REVOLUTION    IN    THE    SOUTH    (CONCLUDED). 

Capture  of  Savannah— British  Conquest  of  Georgia— Fall  of  Charleston— Bitter  Warfare  in  South  Caro 
lina — Battle  of  Camden— Of  King's  Mountain— Of  the  Cowpens— Battle  of  Guilford  Court-House— 
Movements  of  Cornwallis — The  Final  Campaign — Peace  and  Independence. 

CONQUEST   OF   GEORGIA. 

THE  wave  of  war  continued  to  roll  southward.  The  British  had  met  with 
such  meagre  success  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States  that  they  turned  their 
efforts  toward  the  conquest  of  the  South.  In  the  latter  part  of  December,  1778, 
an  expedition  from  New  York  compelled  the  small  garrison  at  Savannah  to  sur 
render.  British  troops  from  Florida  then  reinforced  the  expedition,  Augusta 
and  other  towns  were  captured,  and  the  whole  State  was  brought  under  British 
control.  General  Benjamin  Lincoln,  the  American  commander,  had  too  few 
troops  to  offer  successful  resistance,  and  the  Tories  gave  much  trouble. 

In  September,  1779,  Lincoln  crossed  into  Georgia  and,  with  the  aid  of  the 
French  fleet  under  D'Estaing,  made  an  attempt  to  recapture  Savannah.  The 
attack  was  made  with  the  greatest  bravery  by  the  allies,  but  they  suffered  a  dis 
astrous  repulse,  and  D'Estaing  again  sailed  for  the  West  Indies.  Georgia  was 
brought  so  completely  under  British  control  that  a  royal  governor  and  officers 
were  installed.  The  Whigs  were  treated  with  great  cruelty,  and  for  two  years 
the  struggle  in  the  Carolinas  assumed  a  ferocious  character.  It  was  civil  war  in 
its  most  frightful  form.  Neighbor  was  arrayed  against  neighbor.  Every  man 
was  compelled  to  be  a  Whig  or  Tory,  and  when  one  party  captured  another,  it 
generally  executed  the  prisoners  as  traitors.  There  were  many  instances  in 
which  those  of  the  same  family  fought  one  another  with  the  utmost  fury,  and  the 
horrors  of  war  were  displayed  in  all  their  dreadful  colors. 

For  a  long  time  the  British  kept  a  strong  force  at  Newport,  but  they  were 
withdrawn,  and  a  strong  expedition  was  sent  South  to  capture  Charleston. 

BRITISH    CAPTURE    OF    CHARLESTON. 

General  Lincoln  had  a  garrison  of  3,000,  his  forts,  and  a  number  of  vessels, 
with  which  he  was  confident  of  making  a  successful  defense  of  the  city.  The 
ships,  however,  were  so  inferior  to  those  of  the  enemy  that  Commodore  Whipple 

(131) 


132  THE  REVOLUTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

sank  all  except  one  at  the  mouth  of  Cooper  Eiver  to  block  the  channel,  and 
added  his  men  and  guns  to  the  defenses  of  Charleston. 

Clinton's  force  was  about  double  that  of  Lincoln,  and  he  made  his 
approaches  with  care  and  skill.  By  April  10th  he  was  within  a  half-mile  of  the 
city,  and,  Lincoln  having  refused  the  demand  for  surrender,  the  enemy  opened 
fire.  Lieutenant-Colonel  Tarleton,  the  best  cavalry  leader  the  British  had  in  the 
country,  scattered  the  patriot  cavalry  at  the  rear  of  the  city,  which  was  fully  in 
vested.  Reinforcements  arrived  from  New  York,  and  the  siege  was  pushed 
vigorously.  The  garrison  made  a  sortie  which  accomplished  nothing.  Tarleton 
continually  defeated  the  American  cavalry  at  the  rear,  many  guns  were  dis 
mounted,  food  and  supplies  were  exhausted  until  all  hope  was  gone,  and  on  the 
12th  of  May,  1780,  Lincoln  surrendered  his  army  and  the  city. 

This  was  one  of  the  severest  blows  of  the  war.  Clinton  secured  the  city 
and  more  than  400  pieces  of  artillery.  He  treated  his  prisoners  kindly,  but  lost 
no  time  in  following  up  his  success.  Tarleton  destroyed  the  command  of  Col 
onel  Abraham  Btiford,  numbering  400  men,  and  thus  effectually  quenched  all 
organized  resistance  for  a  time  in  South  Carolina. 

Clinton  would  have  completed  the  conquest  of  the  South  by  advancing  into 
North  Carolina,  had  he  not  learned  that  a  French  fleet  was  expected  on  the 
coast.  This  let!  him  to  return  to  New  York  with  the  main  army,  while  Corn- 
wallis  was  left  behind  with  4,000  men  to  complete  the  unfinished  work  as  best 
he  could. 

In  the  spring  of  1780,  Washington  sent  reinforcements  to  the  South,  with 
a  regiment  of  artillery  under  Baron  DeKalb,  a  German  veteran  who  had  come 
to  America  with  Lafayette.  Although  one  of  the  finest  of  officers,  he  could 
scarcely  speak  a  word  of  English,  and  General  Gates,  on  June  13,  1780,  was 
ordered  by  Congress  to  assume  command  of  the  southern  department.  He 
proved  unequal  to  the  difficult  task,  for  not  only  were  the  troops  few  and  miser 
ably  disciplined  and  armed,  but  they  were  in  a  starving  condition.  The  summer 
was  one  of  the  hottest  ever  known,  and,  although  reinforcements  were  expected, 
Gates  decided  not  to  wait  before  putting  his  forces  in  motion.  Reinforcements 
reaching  him  after  a  time,  he  marched  against  Cornwallis,  who  was  eager  to 
meet  him. 

AMERICAN    DEFEAT   AT   CAMDEN. 

The  battle  was  fought  at  Camden,  and  was  conducted  with  such  skill  by 
Cornwallis  that  the  raw  and  untried  patriots  were  utterly  routed.  The  centre 
and  left  wings  were  swept  from  the  field,  but  the  right  under  De  Kalb  fought 
with  splendid  heroism,  and  it  required  the  whole  army  of  Cornwallis  to  drive  it 
from  the  field.  In  the  fight  De  Kalb  received  eleven  wounds,  and  died  the  next 
morning. 


AN  INTERESTING  ANECDOTE.  133 

The  battle  of  Camden  marked  the  complete  destruction  of  Gates'  army. 
The  militia  scattered  to  their  homes,  convinced  that  it  was  useless  to  fight  longer, 
while  Gates  with  a  few  adherents  continued  his  flight  for  nearly  two  hundred 
miles.  Two  days  later,  Colonel  Sumter  with  eight  hundred  men  was  attacked 
on  the  Wateree  by  Tarleton,  who  killed  half  his  force  and  recaptured  his 
prisoners  and  booty. 

PATRIOT    PARTISANS. 

Confident  that  the  complete  conquest  of  the  South  was  close  at  hand,  Corn- 
wallis  gave  every  energy  to  the  work.  This  was  rendered  difficult  by  the  ac 
tivity  of  Francis  Marion,  Thomas  Sumter,  Andrew  Pickens,  and  other  partisan 
leaders,  who  were  acquainted  with  every  mile  of  the  country,  and  on  their 
horses  made  swift  marches,  struck  effective  blows,  and  were  off  again  before  pur 
suit  could  be  made.  The  wonderful  work  of  Marion  in  this  respect  caused  him 
to  be  known  as  the  "  Swamp  Fox  of  the  Carolinas."  Many  of  Tarleton's 
troopers  fell  before  the  fire  of  these  daring  rangers,  who  occasionally  were 
strong  enough  to  capture  important  posts.  It  is  worthy  of  mention  in  this  place 
that  to  Sumter  was  the  distinction  of  attaining  the  greatest  age  of  any  officer  of 
the  Revolution.  At  his  death,  in  1832,  he  was  in  his  ninety-ninth  year. 

AN    INTERESTING    ANECDOTE. 

As  illustrative  of  the  spirit  of  the  Southern  colonists,  we  may  be  pardoned 
for  the  digression  of  the  following  anecdote.  The  fighting  of  Marion  and  his 
men  was  much  like  that  of  the  wild  Apaches  _  the  southwest.  When  hotly 
pursued  by  the  enemy  his  command  would  break  up  into  small  parties,  and  these 
as  they  were  hard  pressed  would  subdivide,  until  nearly  every  patriot  was  fleeing 
alone.  There  could  be  no  successful  pursuit,  therefore,  since  the  subdivision  of 
the  pursuing  party  weakened  it  too  much. 

"  We  will  give  fifty  pounds  to  get  within  reach  of  the  scamp  that  galloped 
by  here,  just  ahead  of  us,"  exclaimed  a  lieutenant  of  Tarleton's  cavalry,  as  he 
and  three  other  troopers  drew  up  before  a  farmer,  who  was  hoeing  in  the  field 
by  the  roadside. 

The  farmer  looked  up,  leaned  on  his  hoe,  took  off  his  old  hat,  and,  mopping 
his  forehead  with  his  handkerchief,  looked  at  the  angry  soldier  and  said  : 

"  Fifty  pounds  is  a  big  lot  of  money." 

"  So  it  is  in  these  times,  but  we'll  give  it  to  you  in  gold,  if  you'll  show  us 
where  we  can  get  a  chance  at  the  rebel ;  did  you  see  him  ?  " 

"  He  was  all  alone,  was  he  ?  And  he  was  mounted  on  a  black  horse  with  a 
white  star  in  his  forehead,  and  he  was  going  like  a  streak  of  lightning,  wasn't  he?" 

"  That's  the  fellow  ! "  exclaimed  the  questioners,  hoping  they  were  about  to 
get  the  knowledge  they  wanted. 


134 


THE   REVOLUTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


"  It  looked  to  me  like  Jack  Davis,  though  he  went  by  so  fast  that  I  couldn't 
get  a  square  look  at  his  face,  but  he  was  one  of  Marion's  men,  and  if  I  ain't 
greatly  mistaken  it 

was  Jack  Davis  him-  ^fliiiii 

self." 

Then     looking 
up    at     the 
four  British 


TARLETON'S   LIEUTENANT   AND   THE   FARMER   (JACK   DAVIS). 


horsemen,  the  farmer  added,  with  a  quizzical   expression  : 

"  I  reckon  that  ere  Jack  Davis  has  hit  you  chaps  pretty  hard,  ain't  he  ?  " 


PATRIOT   VICTORY  AT  KING'S  MOUNTAIN.  135 

"  Never  mind  about  that"  replied  the  lieutenant;  "  what  we  want  to  know 
is  where  we  can  get  a  chance  at  him  for  just  about  five  minutes." 

The  farmer  put  his  cotton  handkerchief  into  his-  hat,  which  he  now  slowly 
replaced,  and  shook  his  head:  "  I  don't  think  he's  hiding  round  here,"  he  said; 
"  when  he  shot  by  Jack  was  going  80  fast  that  it  didn't  look  as  if  he  could  stop 
under  four  or  five  miles.  Strangers,  I'd  like  powerful  well  to  earn  that  fifty 
pounds,  but  I  don't  think  you'll  get  a  chance  to  squander  it  on  me." 

After  some  further  questioning,  the  lieutenant  and  his  men  wheeled  their 
horses  and  trotted  back  toward  the  main  body  of  Tarle ton's  cavalry.  The 
farmer  plied  his  hoe  for  several  minutes,  gradually  working  his  way  toward  the 
stretch  of  woods  some  fifty  yards  from  the  roadside,  where  he  stepped  in  among  the 
trees  and  disappeared.  You  understand,  of  course,  that  the  farmer  that  leaned 
on  his  hoe  by  the  roadside  and  talked  to  Tarleton's  lieutenant  about  Jack  Davis 
and  his  exploits  was  Jack  Davis  himself. 

One  day  a  British  officer  visited  Marion  under  a  flag  of  truce.  When  the 
business  was  finished  Marion  urged  him  to  stay  to  dinner,  and  the  officer  ac 
cepted  the  invitation.  The  meal  consisted  of  only  baked  sweet  potatoes.  Noting 
the  surprise  of  his  guest,  Marion  explained  that  the  fare  was  the  regular  food  of 
himself  and  soldiers,  but,  in  honor  of  the  guest,  the  allowance  had  been  increased 
that  day.  This  anecdote,  which  seems  to  be  authentic,  was  supplemented  by 
the  officer's  return  to  Charleston,  where  he  resigned  his  commission,  declaring 
that  it  was  useless  to  try  to  conquer  such  men.  Marion  led  a  spotless  life,  held 
in  high  esteem  by  friend  and  enemy,  and  his  name  will  always  be  revered 
throughout  this  country,  especially  in  the  South. 

PATRIOT   VICTORY    AT    KING'S    MOUNTAIN. 

The  next  battle  took  place  at  King's  Mountain,  October  8,  1780.  Corn- 
wallis  had  sent  Colonel  Ferguson  with  about  1,100  men  to  rouse  the  Tories  in 
North  Carolina.  He  met  with  slight  success,  and  fortified  himself  on  King's 
Mountain,  between  the  Broad  and  Catawba  Rivers,  and  on  the  border  between 
North  and  South  Carolina.  Aware  of  his  danger,  he  sent  messengers  to  Corn- 
wallis  urging  him  to  forward  reinforcements  without  delay.  The  Americans 
captured  every  one  of  the  messengers,  and  of  course  no  reinforcements  arrived. 

The  patriots  consisted  mainly  of  North  Carolina  and  Kentucky  riflemen, 
numbering  1,500,  all  excellent  marksmen.  They  attacked  in  three  separate 
columns,  each  of  which  was  repulsed  by  Ferguson's  men,  who  fought  with  cool 
ness  and  bravery.  Then  the  Americans  united  and  attacked  again.  Ferguson 
was  mortally  wounded,  and  his  successor  was  so  hard  pressed  that  he  surrendered. 
Four  hundred  of  his  men  fled,  three  hundred  were  killed,  and  eight  hundred 
laid  down  their  arms,  while  the  loss  of  the  Americans  was  no  more  than  twenty. 


136  THE  REVOLUTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

King's  Mountain  was  a  brilliant  victory  for  the  Americans  and  caused 
Coriiwallis  to  retreat  into  North  Carolina,  His  men  suffered  greatly,  and  the 
commander  himself  fallhig  ill,  the  command  was  turned  over  to  Lord  Rawdon, 

then  a  young  man  and  famous  afterward  in  India  as  the  Marquis  of  Hastings. 

t 

GENERAL    GREENERS   SUCCESS   IN    THE    SOUTH. 

The  failure  of  Gates  led  Congress  to  send  the  Quaker  General  Greene  to 
the  South.  Next  to  Washington,  he  was  the  most  skillful  leader  of  the  Revolution, 
and,  despite  his  discouragements  and  difficulties,  he  speedily  demonstrated  the 
wisdom  of  the  step  that  placed  him  where  he  was  so  much  needed. 

DEFEAT    OF   TARLETON. 

Greene  sent  Daniel  Morgan,  the  famous  commander  of  the  Virginia  rifle 
men,  into  South  Carolina  with  a  thousand  men  to  gather  recruits.  Cornwallis 
dispatched  Tarleton  with  the  same  number  after  him.  The  forces  met  at  the 
Cowpens,  near  Spartanburg,  in  January,  1781.  This  time  the  terrible  Tarleton 
found  that  he  had  met  his  master.  Morgan  utterly  routed  him,  as  was  proven 
by  the  fact  that  Tarleton  lost  a  hundred  men  killed,  besides  ten  commissioned 
officers.  A  large  number  were  wounded,  and  six  hundred  prisoners,  his  two 
guns,  his  colors,  eight  hundred  muskets,  a  hundred  horses,  and  most  of  his  bag 
gage  train  were  captured.  Of  the  Americans  only  twelve  were  killed  and 
about  fifty  wounded.  Tarleton  himself  had  a  narrow  escape,  but  got  away  with 
a  handful  of  men. 

GREENE'S  SKILLFUL  RETREAT. 

Determined  to  punish  the  audacious  Morgan,  Cornwallis  started  after  him 
with  his  entire  army.  Greene  and  Morgan,  having  united,  fell  back,  for  their 
troops  were  too  few  to  risk  a  battle.  Their  retreat  across  North  Carolina  into 
Virginia  has  never  been  surpassed  in  this  country.  Three  times  the  British 
army  were  at  the  heels  of  the  Americans,  who  avoided  them  through  the  for 
tunate  rise  of  the  rivers,  immediately  after  they  had  crossed.  Cornwallis  main 
tained  the  pursuit  until  the  Dan  was  reached,  when  he  gave  up  and  returned  to 
Hillboro. 

BATTLE   OF    GUILFORD    COURT-HOUSE. 

Having  obtained  a  number  of  recruits,  Greene  turned  back  into  North 
Carolina,  and  the  two  armies  encountered  at  Guilford  Court-House  (now  Greens 
boro),  in  March,  1781.  Some  o  the  American  militia  gave  way,  but  the  rest 
bravely  held  their  ground,  and,  when  compelled  at  last  to  retreat,  did  so  in  good 
order.  Cornwallis  had  been  handled  so  roughly  that  he  did  not  venture  to 
pursue  the  Americans. 

Cornwallis  now  withdrew  to  Wilmington,  while  Greene  moved  across  North 


MOVEMENTS   OF  CORNWALLIS. 


137 


Carolina  after  the  British  forces  under  Lord  Rawdon.  Several  engagements 
took  place,  the  principal  one  being  at  Hobkirk's  Hill,  near  Camden.  Greene 
inflicted  severe  losses  upon 
the  enemy,  but  was  com 
pelled  to  retreat,  and  spent 
the  summer  among  the  hills 
of  the  Santee,  in  the  neigh 
borhood  of  Camden.  Ad 
vancing  toward  the  coast, 
he  fought  the  last  battle  in 
the  State,  at  Eutaw  Springs, 
near  Charleston,  September 
8,  1781.  The  advantage 
was  with  the  British,  but 
the  victory  was  one  of  those 
that  are  as  disastrous  as  de 
feat.  Their  loss  was  so 
heavy  that  they  retreated 
during  the  night  and  took 
shelter  in  Charleston. 
Greene  had  completed  his 
work  with  admirable  effect 
iveness.  Without  winning 
victories  he  had,  by  his  cau 
tion,  skill,  celerity  of  move 
ment,  and  generalship,  al 
most  cleared  the  South  of 
the  enemy,  for  the  only 
points  held  by  them  were 
Charleston  and  Savannah, 
where  they  were  closely 
hemmed  in  for  the  rest  of 
the  war. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  CORNWALLIS. 

Meanwhile  Cornwallis 
was  at  Wilmington,  where 
he  learned  of  Greene's  move 
ments  too  late  to  intercept  him.     He  was  confident,  however,  that  Rawdon  was 
strong  enough  to  overthrow  Greene,  and  he  moved  northward  into  Virginia 


CoRNWALLfS     =*m 


138  THE  REVOLUTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

to  join  the  forces  already  there,  and  complete  the  conquest  of  the  State.  No  seri 
ous  opposition  was  encountered  by  him,  and  Tarleton  plundered  the  country  as 
he  passed  through  it.  Entering  Virginia,  Cornwallis  found  himself  opposed  by 
Lafayette,  with  4,000  troops,  which  was  hardly  one-half  the  force  under  his  own 
command.  Orders  came  from  Clinton  in  New  York  for  Cornwallis  to  seize 
upon  some  suitable  place  near  the  coast,  easily  reached  by  the  British  vessels. 
Cornwallis  selected  Yorktown,  on  the  peninsula  between  the  James  and  York 
Rivers,  where  he  fixed  the  headquarters  of  the  army,  and  began  throwing  up 
fortifications. 

OUR    FRENCH    ALLIES. 

The  time  had  come  when  the  friendship  of  France  for  America  wras  to 
accomplish  something.  In  the  summer  of  1780  Rochambeau  landed  at  Newport 
with  6,000  troops,  and  later  they  were  marched  to  Washington's  camp,  near 
Peekskill  and  Morristown.  Confident  that  he  now  had  an  army  that  could 
achieve  important  results,  Washington  made  preparations  to  attack  Clinton  in 
New  York.  Rochambeau  gave  him  every  help,  the  allies  working  together 
with  the  utmost  cordiality  and  enthusiasm. 

THE    YORKTOWN    CAMPAIGN. 

Clinton  was  in  a  constant  state  of  apprehension,  for  he  had  good  cause  to 
fear  the  result  of  the  attack  that  impended.  Washington's  plan,  however,  was 
changed,  in  the  summer  of  1781,  by  the  news  that  a  French  fleet  and  a  strong  force 
would  soon  arrive  in  Chesapeake  Bay  and  shut  off  Cornwallis  from  all  assistance 
from  Clinton.  Washington  decided  to  march  southward  and  capture  Yorktown 
and  Cornwallis,  meanwhile  keeping  Clinton  under  the  belief  that  he  meant  to 
attack  him.  So  well  was  the  secret  kept  that  Clinton's  suspicions  were  not 
aroused  until  several  days  after  the  departure  of  the  allied  armies. 

De  Grasse,  the  commander  of  the  French  fleet,  arrived  in  Chesapeake  Bay 
August  30th.  Thus  Cornwallis  was  blocked  off  from  the  sea,  and  enough  soldiers 
were  landed  to  prevent  the  British  commander's  escape  by  land.  On  the  same 
day  Washington  and  Rochambeau,  after  making  a  feint  toward  Staten  Island, 
began  a  rapid  march  through  New  Jersey  to  Philadelphia,  and  thence  to  Elkton, 
Maryland.  Officers  and  men  were  in  high  spirits,  for  they  knew  they  were  on 
the  eve  of  great  events.  The  citizens  of  Philadelphia  shared  the  feeling,  and 
cheered  the  men  as  they  marched  through  the  streets.  On  the  way  southward 
Washington  made  a  hurried  visit  to  Mount  Vernon,  which  he  had  not  seen 
since  the  opening  of  the  war. 

Aware  of  the  grave  danger  threatening  Cornwallis,  a  British  fleet  made  an 
effort  to  relieve  him,  but  the  more  powerful  French  fleet  easily  beat  it  off.  The 


THE  SURRENDER  AT  YQRKTQWN 


THE  SURRENDER. 

allied  armies  boarded  the  waiting  ships  at  Elkton,  and,  sailing  down  the  Chesa 
peake  to  James  River,  joined  Lafayette's  force  in  front  of  Yorktown. 

The  historical  siege  of  Yorktown  opened  September  30, 1781.  The  French 
and  American  armies  were  ranged  in  a  half-circle  in  front  of  Yorktown.  Corn- 
wallis  was  indignant  at  the  apparent  desertion  by  Clinton,  and  wrote  to  him  in 
the  middle  of  September  :  "  This  place  is  in  no  state  of  defense.  If  you  cannot 
relieve  me  very  soon,  you  must  expect  to  hear  the  worst."  Word  came  from 
Clinton  that  a  fleet  of  twenty -three  ships  and  more  than  5,000  troops  would  sail 
to  his  relief  about  the  5th  of  October. 

The  French  soldiers  in  their  gay  uniforms  and  the  Continentals  in  their 
rags  maintained  an  ardent  but  friendly  rivalry  in  pressing  the  siege.  Wash 
ington  aimed  and  applied  the  match  to  the  first  gun  that  was  fired  into  Yorktown. 
Governor  Nelson,  being  asked  to  direct  the  bombardment,  selected  the  house 
which  he  believed  to  be  the  headquarters  of  Cornwallis,  and  calmly  saw  it  bat 
tered  to  ruins.  It  was  his  own  home. 

The  condition  of  the  defenders  hourly  grew  worse.  The  lack  of  forage 
compelled  them  to  kill  most  of  their  horses,  whose  bodies  drifted  down  the  river. 
As  is  generally  the  case  at  such  times,  sickness  broke  out  among  the  British 
troops,  and  2,000  of  the  7,000  were  in  the  hospital.  The  allies  steadily  worked 
their  way  forward  by  means  of  parallels,  and  finally  the  guns  along  the  entire 
front  of  Cornwallis  were  dismounted  and  his  shells  expended. 

His  situation  had  become  so  desperate  that  no  one  could  have  condemned 
him  for  surrendering,  but,  before  doing  so,  he  resolved  to  make  a  determined 
effort  to  extricate  himself  from  the  trap  in  which  he  was  caught,  His  plan  was 
to  abandon  his  sick,  baggage,  and  all  incumbrances,  cross  the  river  in  the  dark 
ness  to  Gloucester,  attack  and  scatter  the  French  force  stationed  there,  and  then 
hasten  northward  through  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  to  New  York. 

This  attempt  would  have  been  made,  but,  after  a  part  of  the  army  had 
crossed,  a  violent  storm  scattered  the  boats  and  compelled  their  return.  The 
result  quenched  the  last  spark  of  hope  in  the  breast  of  Cornwallis.  He  opened 
negotiations  with  Washington,  and  the  terms  of  surrender  were  signed 
October  18th. 

THE   SURRENDER. 

At  two  o'clock  the  next  afternoon,  the  British  troops  marched  slowly  out 
of  Yorktown,  drums  beating,  muskets  shouldered,  and  colors  cased.  The 
American  line  was  drawn  up  on  the  right  of  the  road  and  the  French  on  the 
left,  its  extent  being  fully  a  mile.  Washington  allowed  no  idle  spectators  present, 
and  repressed  every  sign  of  exultation  on  the  part  of  the  captors. 

General  O'Hara,  riding  at  the  head  of  the  troops,  saluted  when  he  came 
opposite  Washington,  and  apologized  for  the  absence  of  Cornwallis,  who  was 


140  THE  REVOLUTION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

suffering  from  illness.  When  O'Hara's  sword  was  offered  to  Washington,  he 
replied  that  General  Lincoln  had  been  designated  to  receive  it.  There  was 
poetical  justice  in  this,  since  it  was  Lincoln  who  had  been  obliged  to  surrender 
Charleston  to  Clinton  the  previous  year. 

The  prisoners  numbered  7,247  English  and  Hessian  soldiers  and  840 
sailors.  Seventy-five  brass  and  thirty-one  iron  guns  were  also  secured,  including 
the  accoutrements  of  the  army.  Clinton  with  the  promised  relief  arrived  off  the 
Chesapeake  on  the  24th,  and  learned  to  his  consternation  that  every  British  sol 
dier  in  Virginia  was  a  prisoner  of  war.  With  indescribable  sadness  he  sailed 
back  to  New  York,  feeling,  as  did  everyone  else,  that  English  rule  in  America 
was  ended  and  American  independence  won. 

Washington  dispatched  a  courier  with  the  glorious  news  to  Philadelphia. 
Hiding  at  headlong  speed  and  changing  his  horse  frequently,  he  reached  the 
national  capital  on  the  evening  of  the  23d.  In  those  days  the  city  was  provided 
with  watchmen,  who  made  the  tour  of  the  streets  crying  the  hour.  That  night 
the  cry  rang  out — 

"  PAST  TWO  O'CLOCK  AND  CORNWALLIS  is  TAKEN." 

Windows  flew  up,  lights  twinkled  from  every  house,  men  rushed  out  half- 
clothed,  cheering,  flinging  their  hats  in  air  and  embracing  one  another  in  their  joy. 
All  the  bells  were  set  ringing,  and  the  whole  city  gave  itself  over  to  rejoicing. 
It  was  stirred  to  its  profoundest  depths  by  the  thrilling  tidings,  for  even  the 
dullest  knew  it  meant  the  independence  for  which  the  patriots  had  struggled 
throughout  more  than  six  suffering  years. 

Congress  assembled  at  an  early  hour  and  marched  to  the  Dutch  Lutheran 
Church,  where  all  united  in  giving  thanks  to  God  for  His  great  mercy  and  blessing. 
The  aged  doorkeeper  of  Congress  was  so  overcome  with  joy  that  he  dropped 
dead.  Washington  directed  that  divine  service  be  held  at  the  heads  of  the 
regiments,  in  gratitude  for  the  "  particular  interposition  of  Providence  in  their 
behalf." 

THE   NEWS    IN    ENGLAND. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  describe  the  dismay  caused  in  England  when  the 
news  crossed  the  ocean.  Lord  North  strode  up  and  down  his  room,  flinging 
his  arms  above  his  head  and  moaning,  "  My  God!  it  is  all  over!  "  While  others 
were  equally  stricken  by  the  tidings,  America  had  many  friends  in  that  country 
who  had  opposed  from  the  beginning  the  attempt  to  subjugate  the  colonies. 
Even  those  who  voted  for  the  war  measures  were  now  loud  in  insisting  that  no 
more  blood  and  treasure  should  be  wasted  in  continuing  hostilities.  They  de 
manded  the  removal  of  the  ministers  who  advised  the  contrary,  and  the  House 
of  Commons  declared  by  vote  that  anyone  who  favored  the  continuance  of  the 
war  was  a  public  enemy. 


TREATY  OF  PEACE  AND  ITS  TERMS.  141 

While  the  surrender  at  Yorktown  virtually  ended  the  struggle,  Washington 
was  too  wise  to  disband  the  army.  No  more  battles  took  place,  but  the  country 
remained  in  an  unsettled  condition  for  a  long  time,  and  the  embers  of  hate  often 
broke  into  flame.  It  is  claimed  that  the  last  blood  shed  in  the  Revolution  was 
that  of  Captain  Wilmot,  shot  in  a  skirmish  in  September,  1782,  at  Stone  Ferry. 

TREATY    OF    PEACE    AND    ITS    TERMS. 

It  had  been  agreed  by  both  parties  that  hostilities  should  stop,  and  com 
missioners  were  appointed  to  arrange  the  terms  of  peace.  The  preliminary 
articles  were  signed  at  Versailles,  November  30,  1782,  but  the  final  treaty  was 
not  executed  until  September  3d  of  the  following  year.  On  April  19,  1783, 
the  eighth  anniversary  of  Lexington,  Washington  at  the  headquarters  of  the 
army  officially  declared  the  war  at  an  end. 

By  the  final  treaty,  England  acknowledged  the  United  States  to  be  free 
and  independent,  with  Canada  as  a  boundary  on  the  north,  the  Mississippi 
River  on  the  west,  and  Florida,  extending  westward  to  the  Mississippi,  on  the 
south.  Spain,  which  still  owned  Louisiana  west  of  the  Mississippi,  now  received 
Florida  from  Great  Britain. 

The  American  army  was  disbanded,  and  officers  and  men  went  to  their 
homes  dissatisfied  because  they  had  not  been  paid  for  years.  Washington  pre 
sented  himself  before  Congress  at  Annapolis  and  resigned  his  commission.  The 
British  evacuated  Savannah  in  July,  1782,  Charleston  in  December,  and  New 
York  City,  their  last  post,  November  25,  1783.  The  forts  north  of  the  Ohio, 
however,  were  held  by  English  garrisons  for  about  twelve  years  longer. 


142 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ORGANIZATION  OK   THE  UNITED   STATES. 

The  Method  of  Government  During  the  Revolution — Impending  Anarchy — The  State  Boundaries^ 
State  Cessions  of  Land — Shays'  Rebellion — Adoption  of  the  Constitution — Its  Leading  Features — 
The  Ordinance  of  1787 — Formation  of  Parties — Election  of  the  First  President  and  Vice-President. 


WAR  is  not  only  a  blight  to  mankindj 
but  it  inflicts  wounds  that  can  never  heal 
and  brings  a  train  of  woe  and  suffering 
which  lasts  for  years.  The  social  system 
is  disorganized,  industry  checked,  resources 
exhausted,  and  a  debt  entailed  whose 
burden  is  felt  for  generations.  The  United 
States  had  won  the  priceless  boon  of  in 
dependence,  but  the  States  were  exhausted 
and  in  the  lowest  depths  of  poverty.  They 
were  like  those  who,  having  lost  every 
thing,  are  compelled  to  begin  life  anew. 

WEAKNESS   OF    THE   GOVERNMENT. 

While  the  war  was  under  way,  the 
States  were  held  together  by  the  one  com 
mon  danger,  and  the  Continental  Con 
gress  managed  the  affairs  of  the  Union, 
but  the  body  was  without  any  authority 
to  govern,  and  whatever  it  did  in  that  di 
rection  was  only  what  the  people  permit 
ted.  The  State  governments  were  tangible, 
for  State  constitutions  had  been  formed 
and  the  Legislatures  received  direct  au 
thority  from  the  people.  When  they 
chose  to  disobey  Congress  they  did  so, 
and  no  penalty  could  be  visited  upon  them.  As  the  end  of  the  war  approached, 
the  authority  \)f  the  respective  States  increased  and  that  of  Congress  dwindled 
until  it  was  but  a  mere  name  and  shadow. 


A   PLANTATION    GATEWAY. 
(Entrance  to  the  Estate  of  William  Byrd,  at  Westover,  Va  ) 


144  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES. 

The  Articles  of  Confederation  were  agreed  upon  by  Congress  in  1777. 
They  defined  the  respective  powers  of  Congress  and  were  not  to  go  into  effect 
until  a  majority  of  the  States  should  agree  to  them.  Within  the  following  two 
years  all  yielded  their  assent  except  Maryland,  which  did  so  March  1,  1781. 

DISPUTE   OVER    STATE    BOUNDARIES. 

The  cause  of  this  prolonged  delay  was  the  dispute  over  western  territory. 
Few  pei-sons  suspect  the  extent  of  the  wrangling  over  the  respective  boundaries 
of  the  States.  When  the  charters  were  granted  by  England,  the  western  bound 
aries  of  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware, 
and  Maryland  were  defined,  and  consequently  they  could  not  ask  for  an  exten 
sion  of  them.  New  York  insisted  that  she  had  no  western  boundary.  The 
remaining  six  States  had  their  western  boundaries  named  as  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
which  was  at  a  distance  that  no  one  dreamed  of  at  the  time.  They  asserted 
that  the  transfer  of  Louisiana  to  Spain  fixed  the  Mississippi  River  as  the  limit 
in  that  direction. 

Among  these  claims  none  was  so  remarkable  as  that  of  Virginia.  The 
most  that  her  sister  States  asked  was  that  their  northern  and  southern  bound 
aries  should  run  parallel  to  the  westward,  but  Virginia  insisted  that  her  northern 
boundary  extended  northwest,  which,  if  allowed,  would  have  given  her  all  of  the 
present  States  of  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin. 
Her  claim  was  crossed  by  those  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 

The  States  whose  western  boundaries  had  been  settled  were  indignant  over 
the  injustice  of  the  claims  of  the  others,  for,  since  the  whole  thirteen  assisted  in 
wresting  the  territory  from  Great  Britain,  they  asserted  that  all  should  share  it. 
Some  of  the  States  sold  lands  in  the  west,  whose  ownership  was  disputed  by 
other  States,  and  Maryland,  as  intimated,  refused  her  assent  to  the  Articles  of 
Confederation  until  assured  that  these  western  claims  would  be  abandoned. 

HOW    THE    DISPUTE    WAS    SETTLED. 

It  was  evident  that  the  only  way  out  of  the  confusion  was  by  the  surrender 
of  these  claims,  and  New  York  set  the  example  in  1780.  In  response  to  the 
earnest  request  of  Congress,  Virginia  did  the  same  in  1784,  Massachusetts  in 
1785,  Connecticut  in  1786,  South  Carolina  in  1787,  North  Carolina  in  1790, 
and  Georgia  in  1802.  The  result  was  that  the  western  boundaries  of  the  States 
named  were  fixed  as  they  are  to-day,  and  the  United  States  came  into  the  pos 
session  of  a  large  territory.  Connecticut  held  fast  to  a  large  strip  of  land  in 
northeastern  Ohio,  which  is  still  known  as  the  Western  Reserve.  The  same 
State,  which  had  settled  Wyoming  in  Pennsylvania,  claimed  it  for  a  time,  but 
finally  gave  it  up. 


SHAYS'   INSURRECTION.  145 

It  took  but  a  short  time  to  demonstrate  the  utter  worthlessness  of  the  Ar 
ticles  of  Confederation.  Congress,  the  central  governing  power,  had  no  author 
ity  to  lay  taxes,  punish  crimes,  or  regulate  foreign  or  domestic  commerce.  Its 
whole  function  was  to  give  advice  to  the  respective  States,  which,  as  might  be 
supposed,  paid  little  or  no  heed  to  it.  Furthermore,  the  stronger  States  made 
laws  inimical  to  the  smaller  ones,  and  Congress  was  powerless  to  remedy  it. 
Naturally  Great  Britain  oppressed  American  commerce,  and  there  was  no  way 
of  checking  it. 

The  prosperity  which  most  of  the  people  expected  to  follow  peace  did  not 
appear.  The  Continental  currency  was  not  worth  the  paper  it  was  printed  on. 
Even  at  this  late  day,  when  a  man  uses  the  expression  that  an  article  is  "not 
worth  a  Continental,"  it  is  understood  to  mean  that  it  has  no  value  at  all. 


WASHINGTON'S  PATRIOTISM. 


The  condition  of  no  one  was  more  pitiful  than  that  of  the  heroes  who  had 
fought  through  the  Revolution  and  won  our  independence.  They  went  to  their 
poverty-smitten  homes  in  rags.  While  Washington  was  at  his  headquarters  at 
Newburgh,  in  1783,  an  anonymous  paper  was  distributed  among  the  troops 
calling  upon  them  to  overthrow  the  civil  governments  and  obtain  their  rights 
by  force.  They  even  dared  to  ask  Washington  to  become  their  king,  but  that 
great  man  spurned  the  offer  in  a  manner  that  prevented  it  ever  being  repeated. 
But  his  sympathy  was  aroused,  and  he  finally  secured  five  years'  full  pay  for 
the  officers,  and  thus  averted  the  danger. 

At  that  time  the  Northern  and  Middle  States  contained  about  a  million  and 
a  half  of  people  and  the  Southern  a  million.  Virginia  had  400,000  inhabit 
ants,  and  was  the  most  populous,  with  Pennsylvania  and  Massachusetts  next, 
each  having  350,000.  The  present  Empire  State  of  New  York  was  one  of  the 
weak  States,  the  city  containing  about  14,000,  Boston  20,000,  and  Philadelphia 
40,000.  It  was  estimated  that  the  debt  of  the  respective  States  was  $20,000,000 
and  of  the  country  $42,000,000. 

SHAYS'  INSURRECTION. 

Rioting  and  disorder  are  always  sure  to  follow  so  deplorable  a  condition  of 
affairs.  Daniel  Shays,  formerly  a  captain  in  the  Continental  army,  headed  a  mob 
of  2,000  men  in  Massachusetts,  who  demanded  the  stoppage  of  the  collection  of 
taxes  and  the  issuance  of  a  large  amount  of  paper  money  for  general  use.  When 
they  had  dispersed  the  Supreme  Court,  sitting  at  Springfield,  General  Lincoln 
was  sent  with  4,000  troops  to  put  down  the  rebellion.  Lincoln  placed  the 
judges  in  their  seats,  and  then,  when  the  rioters  were  about  to  attack  him,  he 

10 


146  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

gave  them  a  volley.  The  rioters  scattered  and  the  rebellion  ended.  Fourteen 
of  the  ringleaders  were  afterward  sentenced  to  death,  but  were  reprieved  and 
finally  pardoned. 

THE    MEETING    AT   ANNAPOLIS. 

Shays'  rebellion  was  one  of  the  best  things  that  could  have  happened,  for  it 
showed  the  country  more  clearly  than  before  that  it  was  on  the  verge  of  anarchy, 
and  that  the  remedy  must  not  be  delayed.  Long  before  this,  Washington  com 
prehended  the  serious  peril  of  the  country,  and  he  was  in  continual  consultation 
with  men  whose  worth  and  counsel  he  valued.  The  result  was  that  a  meeting  of 
commissioners  from  Maryland,  Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  New 
York  met  at  Annapolis  in  September,  1786.  They  held  an  earnest  discussion, 
but  as  only  a  minority  of  the  States  were  represented,  nothing  positive  could  be 
done,  and  an  adjournment  was  had  with  a  recommendation  that  each  State  should 
send  delegates  to  meet  in  Philadelphia  in  May,  1787.  The  prestige  of  Wash 
ington's  name  gave  so  much  weight  to  the  recommendation  that  at  the  appointed 
date  all  the  States  were  represented  except  Rhode  Island. 

The  wisdom  of  Washington  was  again  manifest  in  a  letter  which  he  wrote 
some  months  before  the  meeting  of  the  Constitutional  Convention,  and  which 
contained  the  following: 

"We  have  errors  to  correct.  We  have  probably  had  too  good  an  opinion 
of  human  nature  in  forming  our  confederation.  Experience  has  taught  us  that 
without  the  intervention  of  a  coercive  power,  men  will  not  adopt  and  carry  into 
execution  measures  best  calculated  for  their  own  good.  I  do  not  conceive  we  can 
exist  long  as  a  nation  without  having  lodged  somewhere  a  power  that  will  per 
vade  the  whole  Union  in  as  energetic  a  manner  as  the  authority  of  the  State 
governments  extend  over  the  several  States.  ...  I  am  told  that  even  respect 
able  characters  speak  of  a  monarchical  form  of  government  without  horror. 
From  thinking  proceeds  speaking  ;  thence  acting  is  but  a  single  step.  But  how 
irrevocable  and  tremendous !  What  a  triumph  for  our  enemies  to  verify  their 
predictions !  What  a  triumph  for  the  advocates  of  despotism  to  find  that  we 
are  incapable  of  governing  ourselves,  and  that  systems  founded  on  the  basis  of 
equal  liberty  are  merely  ideal  and  fallacious! " 

When  the  news  reached  Washington  of  the  disorders  in  New  England,  he 
was  greatly  troubled.  "What  stronger  evidence  can  be  given,"  he  asked,  'of 
the  want  of  energy  in  our  government  than  these  disorders?  If  there  is  not  a 
power  in  it  to  check  them,  what  security  has  a  man  for  his  life,  liberty,  or  prop 
erty?  The  consequences  of  a  bad  or  inefficient  government  are  too  obvious  to 
be  dwelt  upon.  Thirteen  sovereigns  pulling  against  one  another,  and  all  tugging 
at  the  federal  head,  will  soon  bring  ruin  on  the  whole;  whereas,  a  liberal  and 
energetic  constitution,  well  checked  and  well  watched  to  prevent  encroach- 


THE   CONSTITUTIONAL    CONVENTION  OF  1787. 


147 


meats,  might  restore  us  to  that  degree  of  respectability  and  consequence  to  which 
we  had  the  fairest  prospect  of  attaining." 

THE    CONSTITUTIONAL    CONVENTION    OF    1787. 

Washington  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  delegation  from  Virginia.  Al 
though  he  hoped  that  he  would  be  permitted  to  spend  the  rest  of  his  days  in  the 
domestic  quiet  of  Mount  Vernon,  his  patriotism  would  not  permit  him  to  decline, 
even  though  he  saw  the  certainty  that  the  action  would  bring  him  forward  once 


SENATE    CHAMBER. 


more  into  public  affairs.  Only  a  part  of  the  delegates  met  in  Philadelphia, 
May  14,  1787,  and  an  adjournment  was  had  from  day  to  day  until  the  25th, 
when,  a  majority  being  present,  the  convention  organized  and  unanimously  chose 
Washington  as  chairman.  For  four  months  it  sat  with  closed  doors,  meeting  in 
the  same  room  in  Independence  Hall  where  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
was  signed,  and  where  the  chair  is  still  preserved  in  which  Washington  sat. 

What  an  assemblage  of  great  and  noble  men,  all  of  whose  names  have  be 
come  historical !     With  the  peerless  Washington  at  the  head,  there  were  James 


148  ORGANIZATION  <  .7  THE    UNITED  STATES. 

Madison,  afterward  President  of  tie  United  States ;  Benjamin  Franklin,  Alex 
ander  Hamilton,  Benjamin  West,  i<,dmund  Randolph,  Robert  Morris,  Gouv- 
erneur  Morris,  Sherman,  Clymer,  Road,  and  Dickinson.  It  may  well  be 
imagined  that  among  those  men  the  discussions,  which  were  continued  several 
hours  daily,  were  of  the  most  interesting  nature.  Inevitably  there  was  a  diversity 
of  views,  and  the  arguments  at  times  grew  warm,  but  with  such  an  aggregation 
of  statesmanship  and  wisdom,  the  best  results  were  certain.  Steadily  the 
wonderful  Constitution  was  moulded  into  shape,  and  on  the  17th  of  September 
was  signed  by  all  the  delegates  except  Randolph  and  Mason,  of  Virginia,  and 
Gerry,  of  Massachusetts.  It  was  then  submitted  to  Congress,  which  forwarded 
it  to  the  respective  States  for  acceptance  or  rejection — the  assent  of  nine  being 
necessary  to  make  it  operative. 

So  important  a  document  was  sure  to  elicit  earnest  discussion  and  many  able 
men  opposed  its  adoption.  At  that  early  day  appeared  the  germs  of  the  pres 
ent  political  parties.  The  problem  was  as  to  the  right  division  of  power  between 
the  national  or  central  government  and  the  respective  States.  Those  who 
favored  the  widest  latitude  to  the  States  were  called  Republicans,  while  their 
opponents  were  given  the  name  of  Federalists.  The  views  of  the  latter  pre 
dominated  in  the  main,  though  the  Constitution  was  really  a  compromise 
between  its  supporters  and  opponents. 

The  beneficent  features  of  the  instrument  were  so  manifest  that  its  adop 
tion  soon  followed.  On  June  21,  1788,  New  Hampshire  ratified  it,  and, 
being  the  ninth  State,  its  provisions  became  operative  throughout  the  Union. 
North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island  did  not  assent,  and  the  Constitution  went 
into  effect  without  their  vote.  These  two  States  had  issued  a  good  deal  of  paper 
money,  and  disliked  the  Constitution  because  it  forbade  such  action.  The  oppo 
sition  of  the  other  States  was  caused  by  the  fear  that  too  much  power  was  con 
ferred  npon  the  central  government.  To  remove  this  not  wholly  unreasonable 
objection,  the  first  ten  amendments  were  adopted  and  ratified  in  1791. 

FEATURES   OF   THE   CONSTITUTION. 

The  Constitution  supplied  the  great  requirement  without  which  the  gov 
ernment  itself  would  have  been  a  nullity :  the  power  to  act  supplanted  the 
power  simply  to  advise.  The  government  consists  of  three  departments  :  a  leg 
islative  or  Congress,  which  makes  the  laws;  an  executive  department,  consisting 
of  the  President  and  his  officers,  to  execute  the  laws  made  by  Congress  ;  and  a 
judiciary  department  (the  Federal  courts),  which  decides  disputed  questions 
under  the  laws.  The  Constitution  is  our  supreme  law  and  must  be  obeyed  by 
the  general  government,  the  State  governments,  and  the  people ;  if  not,  the  gen 
eral  government  punishes  the  offender. 


FEATURES   OF   THE  CONSTITUTION. 


149 


Congress,  or  the  legislative  department,  consists  of  two  branches,  the  Sen 
ate  and  House  of  Representatives.  Each  State,  no  matter  what  its  population, 
is  entitled  to  two  Senators,  who  serve  for  six  years  and  are  elected  by  the  respec 
tive  State  Legislatures ;  the  Representatives  are  apportioned  according  to  the 
population,  are  voted  for  directly  by  the  people,  and  serve  for  two  years.  In 
this  admirable  manner,  each  State  is  protected  by  its  Senators  against  any 
encroachment  upon  its  rights,  while  the  populous  States  receive  the  recognition 
to  which  they  are  entitled  through  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Congress,  the  two  branches  acting  together,  lay  taxes,  borrow  money,  regu- 


HOUSE    OF    REPRESENTATIVES. 

late  commerce,  coin  money,  establish  postoffices,  declare  war,  raise  and  support 
armies  and  navies,  and  employ  militia  to  suppress  insurrections.  All  States  are 
forbidden  to  do  any  of  these  things,  except  to  impose  their  own  taxes,  borrow 
for  themselves,  and"  employ  their  own  militia.  A  majority  of  each  house  is 
enough  to  pass  any  bill,  unless  the  President  within  ten  days  thereafter  vetoes 
the  act  (that  is,  objects  to  it),  when  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  branch  is  necessary 
to  make  it  a  law.  Treaties  made  by  the  President  do  not  go  into  effect  until 
approved  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  Senate. 

The  executive  department  is  vested  in  the  President,  chosen  every  four 
years  by  electors,  who  are  voted  for  by  the  people.  The  President  is  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  and  appoints  the  majority  of  officers,  it 


150  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES. 

being  necessary  that  most  of  the  appointments  shall  be  confirmed  by  the  Senate. 
In  case  of  misconduct,  the  President  is  to  be  impeached  (charged  with  miscon 
duct)  by  the  House  of  Representatives  and  tried  by  the  Senate.  If  convicted 
and  removed,  or  if  he  should  die  or  resign  or  be  unable  to  perform  the  duties 
of  his  office,  the  Vice-President  takes  his  place  and  becomes  President.  With 
this  exception,  the  Vice-President  presides  over  the  Senate,  with  no  power  to 
vote  except  in  case  of  a  tie.  No  provision  was  made  for  a  successor  in  the 
event  of  the  death  of  the  Vice-President,  but  in  1886  the  Presidential  Succes 
sion  Law  was  passed,  which  provides  that,  in  case  of  the  death  or  disability  of 
the  President  and  Vice-President,  the  order  of  succession  shall  be  the  secretaries 
of  State,  of  the  treasury,  of  war,  the  attorney-general,  the  postmaster-general, 
and  the  secretaries  of  the  navy  and  of  the  interior. 

The  judiciary  department,  or  power  to  decide  upon  the  constitutionality  of 
laws,  was  given  to  one  supreme  court  and  such  inferior  courts  as  Congress  should 
establish.  The  judges  are  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate  and  hold 
office  during  life  or  good  behavior.  The  State  courts  have  the  power  of  appeal 
to  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  whose  decision  is  final,  the  questions 
being  necessarily  based  upon  offenses  against  any  law  of  Congress,  or  upon  the 
doubtful  meaning  of  a  law,  or  the  doubt  of  the  constitutional  power  of  Congress 
to  pass  a  law. 

At  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution,  three-fifths  of  the  slaves 
were  to  be  counted  in  calculating  the  population  for  the  Representatives. 
Fugitive  slaves  were  to  be  arrested  in  the  States  to  which  they  had  fled.  New 
Territories  were  to  be  governed  by  Congress,  which  body  admits  the  new  States 
as  they  are  formed.  Each  State  is  guaranteed  a  republican  form  of  government, 
and  the  vote  of  three-fourths  of  the  States  can  change  the  Constitution  through 
the  means  of  amendments.  The  provisions  regarding  slavery,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  lost  their  effect  upon  the  abolishment  of  the  institution  at  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War. 

THE   ORDINANCE    OF    1787. 

Congress  remained  in  session  in  New  York,  while  the  Philadelphia  conven 
tion  was  at  work  upon  the  Constitution,  and  during  that  period  organized  a  ter- 
ritorial  government  for  the  immense  region  northwest  of  the  Ohio,  which  belonged 
to  the  United  States.  The  enterprising  nature  of  the  American  people  asserted 
itself,  and  hundreds  of  emigrants  began  making  their  way  into  that  fertile  sec 
tion,  where  the  best  of  land  could  be  had  for  the  asking.  But  the  Indians  were 
fierce  and  warred  continually  against  the  settlers.  Most  of  these  had  been 
soldiers  in  the  Revolution,  and  they  generally  united  for  mutual  protection. 
The  Ohio  Company  was  formed  in  1787,  and,  in  order  to  assist  it,  Congress 
passed  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  of  which  mention  has  been  made. 


THE  FIRST  PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION.  151 

Slavery  was  forever  forbidden  in  the  Territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio,  and 
the  inhabitants  were  guaranteed  full  religious  freedom,  trial  by  jury,  and  equal 
political  and  civil  privileges.  The  governors  of  the  Territory  were  to  be 
appointed  by  Congress  until  the  population  was  sufficient  to  permit  the  organi 
zation  of  five  separate  States,  which  States  should  be  the  equal  in  every  respect 
of  the  original  thirteen.  From  the  Territory  named  the  powerful  and  prosper 
ous  States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin  were  afterward 
formed. 

SETTLEMENT    OF    THE    WEST. 

The  Indian  titles  to  17,000,000  acres  of  land  in  the  Territory  had  been  ex 
tinguished  by  treaties  with  the  leading  tribes,  despite  which  the  red  men  con 
tested  the  advancing  settlers  with  untiring  ferocity.  Flatboats  were  attacked  on 
their  way  down  the  Ohio,  and  the  families  massacred;  block-houses  were 
assailed,  and  the  smoke  of  the  settlers'  burning  cabins  lit  the  skies  at  night.  The 
pioneer  path  to  the  fertile  region  was  crimsoned  by  the  blood  of  those  who  hewed 
their  way  through  the  western  wilderness. 

Until  formed  into  States,  the  region  was  known  as  The  Northwestern  Ter 
ritory.  In  1788,  Rufus  Putnam,  of  Massachusetts,  at  the  head  of  forty  pioneers, 
founded  the  settlement  of  Marietta,  and  within  the  same  year  20,000  people 
erected  their  homes  in  the  region  that  had  been  visited  by  Daniel  Boone  and 
others  nearly  twenty  years  before. 

No  sooner  had  the  ninth  State  ratified  the  Constitution  than  the  Congress  of 
the  Confederation  named  March  4,  1789,  as  the  day  on  which,  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  the  new  government  should  go  into  effect. 

The  time  had  come  for  the  selection  of  the  first  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  it  need  not  be  said  that  the  name  of  only  one  man — WASHINGTON — 
was  in  people's  thoughts.  So  overmastering  was  the  personality  of  that  great 
man  that  he  was  the  only  one  mentioned,  and  what  is  most  significant  of  all,  not 
a  politician  or  leader  in  the  country  had  the  effrontery  to  hint  that  he  had 
placed  himself  "in  the  hands  of  his  friends"  in  the  race  for  the  presidency. 
Had  he  done  so,  he  would  have  been  buffeted  into  eternal  obscurity. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  ingratitude  of  republics,  it  can  never  be 
charged  that  the  United  States  was  ungrateful  to  Washington.  The  people  ap 
preciated  his  worth  from  the  first,  and  there  was  no  honor  they  would  not  have 
gladly  paid  him. 

THE   FIRST    PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION. 

The  date  of  the  4th  of  March  was  fixed  without  special  reason  for  launching 
the  new  government,  and  it  has  been  the  rule  ever  since,  though  it  often  falls 
upon  the  most  stormy  and  unpleasant  day  of  the  whole  year.  Some  of  the 
States  were  so  slow  in  sending  their  representatives  to  New  York,  that  more  than 


152 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES. 


a  month  passed  before  a  quorum  of  both  houses  appeared.  When  the  electoral 
vote  for  the  President  was  counted,  it  was  found  that  every  one  of  the  sixty-nine 
had  been  cast  for  Washington.  The  law  was  that  the  person  receiving  the  next 
highest  number  became  Vice-President.  This  vote  was:  John  Adams,  of  Mas 
sachusetts,  34;  John  Jay,  of  New  York,  9;  K.  H.  Harrison,  of  Maryland,  6; 
John  llutledge,  of  South  Carolina,  6;  John  Hancock,  of  Massachusetts,  4; 
George  Clinton,  of  New  York,  3 ;  Samuel  Huntington,  of  Connecticut,  2 ;  John 
Milton,  of  Georgia,  2;  James  Armstrong,  of  Georgia,  Benjamin  Lincoln,  of 
Massachusetts,  and  Edward  Telfair,  of  Georgia,  1  vote  each.  Vacancies  (votes 
not  cast). 

John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  therefore,  became  the  first  Vice-President. 


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AN  OLD  INDIAN  FARM-HOUSE. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


ADMINISTRATIONS    OK    W ASHINQTON,  JOHN 
ADAMS,    AND  JKKKERSON— 1789-18O9. 

Washington — His  Inauguration  as  First  President  of  the  United  States — Alexander  Hamilton — His  Suc 
cess  at  the  Head  of  the  Treasury  Department — The  Obduracy  of  Rhode  Island — Establishment 
of  the  United  States  Bank— Passage  of  a  Tariff  Bill— Establishment  of  a  Mint— The  Plan  of  a 
Federal  Judiciary — Admission  of  Vermont,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee — Benjamin  Franklin — Troubles 
with  the  Western  Indians— Their  Defeat  by  General  Wayne— Removal  of  the  National  Capital  Pro 
vided  for— The  Whiskey  Insurrection — The  Course  of  "Citizen  Genet"— Jay's  Treaty— lie-election 
of  Washington — Resignation  of  Jefferson  and  Hamilton— Washington's  Farewell  Address — Estab 
lishment  of  the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point— The  Presidential  Election  of  1796 — 
John  Adams — Prosperity  of  the  Country — Population  of  the  Country  in  1790 — Invention  of  the 
Cotton  Gin — Troubles  with  France — War  on  the  Ocean — Washington  Appointed  Commander-in- 
Chief — Peace  Secured — The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws — The  Census  of  1800 — The  Presidential  Elec 
tion  of  1800 — The  Twelfth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution — Thomas  Jefferson — Admission  of  Ohio 
— The  Indiana  Territory — The  Purchase  of  Louisiana — Its  Immense  Area — Abolishment  of  the 
Slave  Trade — War  with  Tripoli — The  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition — Alexander  Hamilton  Killed  in  a 
Duel  by  Aaron  Burr— The  First  Steamboat  on  the  Hudson— The  First  Steamer  to  Cross  the  Atlantic 
—England's  Oppressive  Course  Toward  the  United  States— Outrage  by  the  British  Ship  Leander— 
The  Affair  of  the  Leopard  and  Chesapeake— Passage  of  the  Embargo  Act— The  Presidential  Elec 
tion  of  1808. 


MARY   BALL,   AFTERWARD   THE 
MOTHER  OF  GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 


THE  name  of  Washington  will  always 
stand  peerless  and  unapproachable  on  the 
pages  of  human  history.  In  great  crises, 
Heaven  raises  up  men  for  its  appointed 
work.  As  soldier,  statesman,  and  patriot, 
he  combined  in  his  own  personality  the  full 
requirements  of  the  prodigious  task  than 
which  no  greater  was  ever  laid  upon  the 
shoulders  of  man.  Through  trials,  suffer 
ings,  discouragements,  disappointments, 

ill    frPfltmPnt    nrmr^itirm    fliirl 

,  ill  treatment,  oppo,      m,  an 

(153) 


154 


WASHINGTON,   ADAMS,   AND  JEFFERSON. 


derstandings,  he  never  lost  heart ;  his  lofty  patriotism  was  never  quenched  ;  his 
Bublime  faith  in  God  and  the  destiny  of  his  country  never  wavered,  and,  seeing 
with  the  eye  of  un dimmed  faith  the  end  from  the  beginning,  he  advanced  with 
serene  majesty  and  unconquerable  resolve  to  the  conclusion  and  perfection  of  his 
mighty  work. 

It  has  been  said  of  Washington  that  he  embodied  within  himself  the  genius 
of  sanity  and  the  sanity  of  genius.  We  can  conceive  of  Lincoln,  Grant,  or  any 
other  great  man  losing  his  mind,  but  like  the  snowy  crest  of  a  mountain,  rising 
fur  above  the  plain,  he  stood  by  himself,  and  it  is  impossible  to  think  of  him  as 

losing  even   in  the  slightest  degree 
the    magnificent    attributes    of    his 
personality.     As  has  been  stated,  his 
was  the  single  example  in  our  his 
tory  in  which  the  fate  of  our  coun 
try  rested  with  one  man.     Had  he 
fallen  in  battle  at  any  time  between 
Lexington  and  Yorktown,  the  Revo 
lution  would  have  stopped  and  inde 
pendence  been  postponed  indefinite 
ly.      But   when    Heaven  selects  its 
agent,  it  shields  him  in  impenetrable 
armor,  and,  though  Washington  was 
exposed    to     innumerable    personal 
perils  in  the  wilderness  and  in  battle, 
when  his  comrades  were  smitten  with 
death  around  him,  he  never  received 
the  slightest  wound,  and  lived  to  see 
his  work  finished,  when,  in  the  quiet 
J      of  his  own  home  at  Mount  Vernon, 
he  lay  down,  folded  his  arms,  and 
passed  to  his  reward. 
George  Washington  was  born  in  Westmoreland  County,  Virginia,  Febru 
ary  22,  1732.     There  is  a  general  misunderstanding  as  to  his  family.     He  had 
three  half-brothers,  one  half-sister,  and  three  brothers  and  two  sisters.    His  half- 
brothers  and  sister,  children  of  Augustine  Washington  and  Jane  Butler,  were: 
Butler  (died  in  infancy),  Lawrence,  Augustine,  and  Jane.     His  brothers  and 
isters,   children    of    Augustine   Washington    and    Mary    Ball,    were:    Betty, 
Samuel,  John  Augustine,  Charles,  and  Mildred  (died  in  infancy). 

Washington's  father  died  when  the  son  was  eleven  years  old,  and  his  train 
ing  devolved  upon  his  mother,  a  woman  of  rare  force  of  character.     He  re- 


GEORQE   WASHINGTON. 

(1732-1799.)    Two  terms,  17N9-1797. 


WASHINGTON. 


155 


ceived  a  common  school  education,  but  never  became  learned  in  books.  He 
early  showed  a  liking  lor  military  matters,  was  fond  of  the  sports  of  boyhood, 
and  was  manly,  truthful,  and  so  eminently  fair  in  everything,  that  his  playmates 
generally  selected  him  as  umpire  and  cheerfully  accepted  his  decisions.  He 
became  an  expert  surveyor,  and,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  was  employed  by  Lord 
Fairfax  to  survey  his  immense  estate.  The  work,  which  continued  for  three 
years  and  was  of  the  most  difficult  nature,  attended  by  much  hardship  and 
danger,  was  performed  to  the  full  satisfaction  of  his  employer. 


INAUGURATION  OF  WASHINGTON. 

Washington  grew  to  be  a  magnificent  specimen  of  physical  manhood.  He 
six  feet  two  inches  tall,  with  a  large  frame  and  a  strength  surpassing  that  of 
two  ordinary  men.  No  one  in  the  neighborhood  was  his  equal  in  horseman 
ship,  running,  leaping,  throwing,  swimming,  and  all  manner  of  athletic  sports. 
He  was  of  the  highest  social  rank,  wealthy,  and  a  vestryman  and  member  of 
the  Episcopal  Church.  He  was  rather  fond  of  pomp  and  ceremony,  somewhat 
reserved  in  manner,  and  ai,  times  seemed  cold  and  distant,  but  with  a  character 
that  was  without  flaw  or  stain.  It  has  already  been  said  that  he  served  through- 


156  WASHINGTON,  ADAMS,  AND  JEFFERSON. 

out  the  Revolution  without  accepting  a  penny  for  his  services.  He  kept  an 
account  of  all  he  received  from  the  government,  but  sometimes  forgot  to  note 
what  he  paid  out.  In  such  cases  he  balanced  his  books  by  paying  the  deficit 
from  his  own  pocket,  so  that  it  may  be  truthfully  said  he  not  only  won  inde 
pendence  for  his  country,  but  paid  for  the  privilege  of  doing  so. 

Washington  from  his  first  services  in  the  French  and  Indian  War  was 
so  identified  with  the  history  of  his  country  that  the  account  of  one  includes 
that  of  the  other.  Having  told  of  his  election  to  the  presidency,  it,  therefore, 
remains  to  give  the  principal  incidents  of  his  administration. 

WASHINGTON'S  INAUGURATION. 

A  special  messenger  reached  Mount  Vernon  with  news  of  Washington's 
election  on  the  14th  of  April,  and  two  days  later  he  set  out  for  New  York. 
The  journey  was  one  continual  ovation,  special  honors  being  shown  him  at  Bal 
timore,  Philadelphia,  Trenton,  and  New  York,  where  they  attained  their  cul 
mination.  He  arrived  on  the  23d  of  April,  and  the  inauguration  took  place  a 
week  later.  Amid  impressive  ceremonies,  the  oath  was  administered  by  Robert 
R.  Livingston,  the  chancellor  of  the  State  of  New  York,  in  Federal  Hal],  on 
the  present  site  of  the  sub-treasury  building.  Washington  stood  in  a  balcony 
of  the  senate  chamber,  in  full  view  of  the  great  multitude  on  the  outside.  He 
showed  considerable  embarrassment,  but  was  cheered  to  the  echo  .and  was  greatly 
touched  by  the  manifestations  of  the  love  of  his  fellow-countrymen. 

At  the  opening  of  his  administration,  Washington  became  ill  and  no  im 
portant  business  was  done  until  September.  On  the  10th  of  that  month,  Con 
gress  created  a  department  of  foreign  affairs,  a  treasury  department,  and  a 
department  of  war.  Thomas  Jefferson  was  nominated  to  the  first,  Alexander 
Hamilton  to  the  second,  and  General  Henry  Knox  to  the  third.  All  were  admi 
rable  appointments. 

ALEXANDER    HAMILTON. 

Hamilton,  the  secretary  of  the  treasury,  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
men  identified  with  the  history  of  our  country.  He  was  born  in  the  West 
Indies  in  1757,  and,  while  a  child,  displayed  extraordinary  ability.  When 
fifteen  yonrs  old,  he  was  sent  to  New  York  City  and  entered  King's  (now  Colum 
bia)  College.  A  patriotic  speech  made  when  he  was  only  seventeen  years  old 
held  his  hearers  spellbound  by  its  eloquence.  At  twenty,  he  organized  a  com 
pany  of  cavalry  and  performed  excellent  service  on  Long  Island  and  at  White 
Plains.  Washington  was  so  impressed  by  his  brilliancy  that  he  placed  him  on 
his  staff  and  made  him  his  military  secretary.  Many  of  the  best  papers  of  the 
commander-in-chief  received  their  finishing  touches  from  the  master  hand  of 
Hamilton.  He  was  in  Congress  in  1782-1783,  and  helped  to  frame  the  Consti- 


HAMILTON'S    WISE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FINANCES.          157 


tution.  When  the  New  York  Convention  assembled  to  ratify  the  new  Consti 
tution,  three-fourths  of  its  members  were  strongly  opposed  to  it,  but  Hamilton 
by  the  sheer  force  of  his  eloquent  logic  won  them  over  and  secured  the  assent 
of  the  State  to  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  He  was  one  of  our  most 
brilliant  statesmen  and  the  foremost  Federalist  of  his  time. 


HAMILTON'S  WISE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FINANCES. 

The  greatest  problem  which  confronted  the  country  was  that  of  finance, 
and  Hamilton  grasped  it  with  the  skill  of  a  master.  Hardly  had  he  received 
his  commission,  when  Congress  called 
upon  him  for  a  plan  to  provide  for 
the  public  debt  and  to  revive  the 
dead  national  credit.  Hamilton's 
first  answer  was  that  the  country 
would  begin  by  being  honest,  and 
that  every  dollar  of  the  confedera 
tion,  then  amounting  almost  to  $80,- 
000,000,  should  be  paid,  the  United 
States  assuming  all  debts  due  to 
American  citizens,  as  well  as  the 
war  debt  of  each  State.  This  bold 
and  creditable  ground  greatly  im 
proved  public  credit,  before  any  pro 
vision  was  made  for  the  payment  of 
the  vast  debt. 

Hamilton's  plan  was  to  fund 
the  entire  debt  and  issue  new  certifi 
cates.  It  was  vehemently  opposed, 
especially  the  provision  that  the 
State  debts  should  be  assumed  by  the 
general  government;  but  solely  by 
his  wonderful  ability  he  carried  the  measure  through  Congress.  The  debate 
sharpened  the  lines  between  the  Federalists  and  Anti-Federalists  or  Republi- 
cans. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  at  that  time  neither  North  Carolina  nor  Rhode 
Island  had  adopted  the  Constitution.  The  former  called  a  convention,  and,  on 
the  13th  of  November,  1789,  ratified  it,  but  Rhode  Island  continued  to  sulk  until 
Providence  and  Newport  withdrew  from  the  State,  and  Massachusetts  and  Con 
necticut  made  ready  to  parcel  the  State  between  them.  This  frightened  her, 
and,  on  May  29,  1790,  she  joined  her  sisters, 


ALEXANDER   HAMILTON. 
(1757-1^04). 


158  WASHINGTON,   ADAMS,  AND  JEFFERSON, 

The  following  year  Hamilton  gave  another  proof  of  his  power  by  carrying 
through  Congress,  in  the  face  of  the  strongest  opposition,  a  measure  for  the 
relief  of  the  financial  straits  of  the  government.  The  only  banks  in  the 
country  were  one  each  in  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston,  all  of  which 
were  State  institutions.  He  advocated  the  establishment  of  a  bank  in  which  the 
government  should  be  one-fifth  owner  of  the  capital  stock  of  $10,000,000  and  a 
preferred  borrower  to  the  same  amount.  It  was  to  be  under  private  manage 
ment.  In  the  face  of  the  strong  opposition,  the  act  creating  it  was  passed,  and 
it  was  chartered  for  twenty  years.  The  subscriptions  required  that  one-fourth 
should  be  paid  in  specie  and  the  rest  in  six  per  cent,  certificates  of  the  bank. 
Within  two  hours  after  the  subscription  books  were  opened  the  entire  amount  of 
stock  was  subscribed.  The  United  States  Bank  was  destined  to  play  an  im 
portant  part  in  national  affairs  in  after  years. 

PASSAGE   OF    A    TARIFF    BILL. 

Having  provided  the  means  for  funding  the  debt  and  for  borrowing  money, 
it  yet  remained  to  find  some  way  of  earning  the  money.  The  method  was  so 
apparent  that  Congress  lost  no  time  in  passing  a  tariff  bill.  A  law  placed  a  duty 
on  imported  and  domestic  spirits,  and,  in  February,  1792,  a  protective  tariff  bill 
was  enacted.  This  provided  that  the  materials  from  which  goods  are  manufac 
tured  should  not  be  taxed,  while  articles  competing  witli  those  made  in  this 
country  were  prohibited.  A  mint  was  also  established  in  Philadelphia  for  coin 
ing  money. 

THE    FEDERAL    JUDICIARY    ORGANIZED. 

The  plan  for  the  Federal  judiciary  was  perfected  on  the  lines  proposed  by 
Ellsworth,  of  Connecticut.  The  national  judiciary  consisted  of  a  supreme  court, 
having  a  chief  justice  and  five  associate  justices,  who  were  to  hold  two  sessions 
annually  at  the  seat  of  the  Federal  government.  Specified  jurisdiction  was  given 
to  the  circuit  and  district  courts,  and  each  State  was  made  a  district ;  the  Terri 
tories  of  Maine  and  Kentucky  were  provided  for  in  the  same  manner,  and  the 
remaining  Territories  were  grouped  into  three  circuits.  When  the  matter  in  dis 
pute  amounted  to  $2,000,  an  appeal  could  be  taken  from  the  lower  courts  to  the 
supreme  court.  The  President  was  to  appoint  a  marshal  in  each  district, 
possessing  the  general  powers  of  a  sheriff,  and  the  interests  of  the  government 
were  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  district  attorney. 

The  first  chief  justice  of  the  United  States  was  John  Jay,  of  New  York, 
while  Edmund  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  was  made  attorney-general.  The  asso 
ciate  judges  were  John  Rutledge,  of  South  Carolina  ;  James  Wilson,  of  Penn 
sylvania ;  William  Gushing,  of  Massachusetts;  Robert  H,  Harrison,  of  Mary 
land;  and  John  Blair,  of  Virginia. 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 


159 


Vermont  was  admitted  to  the  Union  on  March  4,  1791 ;  Kentucky,  June  1, 
1792  ;  and  Ten  BnBB^^BBHHHHHBE]    nessee     ('X:I(<1  Lv      two 
years      later, 
were     all     that 
the    presidency 

Benjamin 
Philadelphia, 
age  of  eighty- 
was  one  of  the 


These  three  States 
were  formed  during 
of  Washington. 
Franklin  died  in 
April  17,  1790,  at  the 
four  years.  Since  he 
greatest  of  all  Ameri 


; 


**    «>    £ 


cans,  he  is  entitled 
to    fitting    notice. 
He   was   born  in 
Boston   in    1706, 
and  was  the  young- 
est  of  seventeen 
children.     His  father  was  a  tallow 
chandler  and  soap  boiler,  a  trade 
which    Benjamin    detested.      He 
was   apprenticed  to  his    brother, 
who  was  a  printer,  and  while  a 
boy  gave  evidence  of  his  remarka 
ble  keenness  and  brilliant  common 
sense.     Rebelling  against  the  discipline  of  his  brother,  he  ran  away,  tramping 


BEN   FRANKLIN   MOULDING  CANDLES   IN  HIS 
FATHER'S   SHOP. 


160 


WASHINGTON,   ADAMS,   AND  JEFFERSON. 


most  of  the  distance  to  Philadelphia.  There  he  secured  a  situation  and 
showed  himself  so  skillful  and  tasteful  a  printer  that  he  never  lacked  for 
work.  He  established  a  paper  in  Philadelphia  in  1729,  and  began  the  publica 
tion  of  Poor  Richard's  Almanac  in  1732,  the  year  in  which  Washington  was 
born.  The  wit,  homely  philosophy,  and  keen  penetration  shown  by  Franklin 
attracted  wide  attention  and  gave  the  almanac  an  enormous  circulation,  which 
lasted  as  long  as  it  was  published.  Many  of  his  proverbs  are  still  popular  and 
widely  quoted. 

In  1753,  he  was  appointed  deputy  postmaster  of  the  British  colonies,  and, 
as  a  delegate  to  the  Albany  Convention  in  1754,  proposed  an  important  plan  for 
colonial  union.  From  1757  to  1762,  and  again  from  1764  to  the  Revolution,  he 

was  agent  of  Pennsylvania  in  England ; 
part  of  the  time  also  for  Massachusetts, 
New  Jersey,  and  Georgia.  .  Returning 
to  Philadelphia  in  1775,  he  was  at  once 
chosen  a  delegate  to  the  Continental 
Congress.  Few  persons,  in  looking  at 
his  handsome  signature  on  the  Declara 
tion  of  Independence,  would  suspect  that 
it  was  written  when  he  was  seventy  years 
old.  It  has  been  shown  that  he  was  one 
of  the  committee  of  five  who  drew  up 
the  Declaration,  and  in  the  following 
autumn  was  sent  to  Paris  to  join  Arthur 
Lee  and  Silas  Deane.  His  services 
there  were  of  the  highest  importance. 
He  had  a  leading  part  in  the  negotia 
tions  of  the  treaty  of  peace  in  1783, 
after  which  he  negotiated  a  favorable 

treaty  with  Russia.  He  returned  to  America  in  1785,  and  was  chosen  president 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  again  in  1786  and  1787.  He  was  an  influential  member 
of  the  Constitutional  convention,  and  probably  was  second  to  Washington  in 
popularity.  His  funeral  in  Philadelphia  was  attended  by  more  than  20,000 
persons. 

Franklin's  researches  in  electricity,  though  slight  as  compared  with  the 
discoveries  since  made  by  Edison,  Tesla,  and  others,  extended  his  fame  to  Europe. 
By  means  of  the  kite  which  he  sent  aloft  in  a  thunderstorm,  he  proved  that  the 
lightning  in  the  atmosphere  is  identical  with  that  developed  by  frictional 
electricity.  This  discovery  led  to  the  invention  of  the  lightning-rod  for  build 
ings,  which  has  been  the  means  of  saving  property  beyond  estimate.  He  was 


FRANKLIN'S    GRAVE. 


WAYNE'S   VICTORY  OVER    THE  INDIANS.  161 

the  inventor  also  of  an  economical  stove  and  other  useful  contrivances.  He 
made  himself  wealthy,  and  the  fortune  which  he  left  at  his  death  was  the  foun 
dation  of  the  splendid  institution  of  learning  known  as  the  University  of  Penn 
sylvania. 

DISASTROUS    EXPEDITION    AGAINST    THE    WESTERN    INDIANS. 

Returning  to  the  history  of  Washington's  presidency,  mention  must  be 
made  of  the  troubles  with  the  western  Indians,  who,  as  has  been  stated,  fought 
relentlessly  against  the  advance  of  civilization  into  their  hunting  grounds. 
Between  1783  and  1790,  1,500  persons  were  killed  by  the  red  men  near  the 
Ohio.  It  being  clear  that  peace  could  not  be  secured  except  by  a  thorough 
chastisement  of  the  Indians,  Congress  gave  General  Arthur  St.  Clair,  governor 
of  the  Northwest  Territory,  authority  to  call  for  500  militia  from  Pennsyl 
vania  and  a  thousand  from  Kentucky,  to  which  were  added  400  regulars. 
Under  General  Harmar  they  marched  against  the  Indian  villages. 

In  the  campaign  the  Indians  outgeneraled  Harmar,  who,  after  inflicting 
some  damage,  was  defeated  and  lost  200  men  in  killed  and  wounded.  The  defeat 
encouraged  the  savages,  who  became  more  aggressive  than  ever.  General  St. 
Clair  organized  a  second  expedition  consisting  of  2,000  men,  including  cavalry 
and  artillery,  with  which  in  October,  1793,  he  entered  the  Indian  country,  only 
to  suffer  a  more  disastrous  defeat  than  General  Harmar,  and  in  which  the  losses 
were  so  dreadful  that  the  news  caused  consternation  in  Philadelphia.  Washing 
ton  had  cautioned  St.  Clair  against  the  very  mistakes  he  made,  and  he  com 
pletely  lost  his  temper.  He  paced  up  and  down  his  room,  giving  such  expres 
sions  to  his  feelings  that  those  around  him  were  awed  into  silence.  By-and-bv, 
he  seemed  to  regret  the  outburst,  and,  when  the  trembling  St.  Clair  some  time 
later  presented  himself,  the  President  received  him  without  reproach  ;  but  St. 
Clair  was  overwhelmed  by  his  disgrace  and  resigned  his  command. 

WAYNE'S  VICTORY  OVER  THE  INDIANS. 

Washington  determined  that  no  more  blunders  should  be  made,  an^  ap 
pointed  Anthony  Wayne  to  the  command  of  the  next  expedition.  He  raised  a 
large  force,  moved  cautiously,  and  took  every  precaution  against  surprise,  as 
Washington  had  told  him  to  do.  He  had  4,000  men  under  his  command,  and  the 
consummate  woodcraft  and  tricks  of  the  red  men  failed  to  deceive  him.  At 
Fallen  Timbers,  near  the  present  city  of  Toledo,  he  met  a  large  force,  August 
20,  1794,  of  Canadians  and  Indians,  completely  routed  them,  killed  a  great 
many,  with  slight  loss  to  himself,  and  so  crushed  the  confederation  of  tribes 
that  they  gave  no  more  trouble  for  a  long  time.  A  year  later,  1,100  chiefs  and 
warriors  met  the  United  States  commissioners  at  Fort  Greenville  and  signed  a 
treaty  of  peace,  by  which  they  ceded  to  the  government  an  immense  tract  of 

n 


162  WASHINGTON,   A^AMS,   AND  JEFFERSON. 

land  lying  in  the  present  States  01  Michigan  and  Indiana.     An  impetus  was 
given  to  western  emigration,  which  suffered  no  interruption  for  many  years. 

THE    WHISKEY    INSURRECTION    IN    PENNSYLVANIA. 

One  of  the  acts  of  Congress  was  to  declare  that  Philadelphia  was  to  be  the 
national  capital  for  ten  years,  from  1790,  when  it  was  to  be  removed  to  a  point 
on  the  Potomac  River,  where  the  city  of  Washington  now  stands.  One  meas 
ure  which  Hamilton  induced  Congress  to  pass  caused  trouble.  It  doubled  the 
duty  on  imported  spirits  and  taxed  those  distilled  in  this  country.  So  much 
dissatisfaction  appeared  in  North  Carolina  and  Pennsylvania  that  the  law  was 
modified,  but  it  did  not  end  the  discontent.  The  officers  sent  to  Pennsylvania 
to  collect  the  taxes  were  resisted  and  the  militia  sympathized  with  the  rioters, 
whose  numbers  swelled  to  7,000  under  arms.  When  they  began  to  talk  of  ap 
pealing  to  England,  Washington  lost  patience  and  sent  a  large  body  of  Virginia, 
Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  Jersey  militia  to  the  section.  They  were 
under  the  command  of  General  Henry  Lee,  governor  of  Virginia,  and  arrived 
on  the  scene  in  October,  1704.  Order  was  soon  restored,  and  the  ringleaders, 
expressing  sorrow  for  their  acts,  were  not  punished.  This  seems  to  be  the  rule 
in  our  country,  except  that  repentance  on  the  part  of  criminals  is  not  required. 


CITIZEN    GENET." 


The  action  of  "Citizen  Genet"  caused  a  flurry  during  Washington's  presi 
dency.  The  "Reign  of  Terror"  had  begun  in  France,  where  the  most  appalling 
revolution  in  history  had  taken  place.  The  tyranny  of  the  rulers  had  driven 
the  people  to  frenzied  desperation,  and,  overthrowing  the  government,  their 
massacres  were  not  checked  until  literally  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  were 
killed.  Since  their  rebellion  was  begun  against  tyranny,  and  France  had 
helped  us  in  our  war  for  independence,  there  was  general  sympathy  for  the 
people  in  our  own  country,  though  everyone  was  shocked  by  the  deeds  that 
soon  horrified  the  civilized  world. 

Having  established  a  government,  the  revolutionists  sent  Edward  Charles 
Genet  to  this  country  as  its  representative.  He  was  warmly  welcomed  at  Charles 
ton,  where  he  landed  in  April,  1793.  He  was  too  discourteous  to  go  to  Phila 
delphia  to  present  his  credentials,  and  began  enlisting  recruits  for  France  and 
intriguing  for  an  alliance  with  us.  Since  France  was  fighting  England,  Aus 
tria,  Prussia,  Sardinia,  and  Holland,  it  can  be  understood  how  desirable  such  an 
alliance  would  have  been  to  her. 

Washington  was  too  wise  to  be  misled,  and  he  issued  a  proclamation  of 
neutrality,  forbidding  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  equip  vessels  to  carry  on 
hostilities  against  the  belligerent  powers^  Genet  paid  no  attention  to  this,  but 


JAY'S    rJT''ATY. 


163 


kept  on  enlisting  men  and  fitting  out  crui  ;rs  in  American  waters.  His  course 
became  so  intolerable  that  Washington  demanded  his  recall.  This  demand  was 
complied  with,  and  he  was  ordered  to  return  home.  No  one  knew  better  than 
he  that  if  he  showed  himself  in  Frai  ce  he  would  lose  his  head.  So  he  stayed 
in  this  country  until  his  death  in  1834. 

JAY'S  TREATY. 

The  course  of  England  became  so  unjust  toward  the  commerce,  because  of 
her  war  with  France,  that  Chief  Justice  John  Jay,  in  May,  1794,  was  sent  as 
envoy  extraordinary  to  that  country 
to  demand  redress.  A  treaty  was 
agreed  upon  and  ratified  by  the  Sen 
ate  in  June,  1795,  which  provided 
that  the  British  garrisons  should  be 
withdrawn  from  the  western  posts 
by  June  1,  1796;  free  inland  navi 
gation  upon  lakes  and  rivers  was 
guaranteed  to  both  nations,  except 
that  the  United  States  was  excluded 
from  the  territory  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company  ;  British  vessels  were 
admitted  to  the  rivers  and  harbors 
on  our  sea-coast,  but  our  shipping 
was  shut  out  from  the  rivers  and 
harbors  of  the  British  provinces,  with 
the  exception  of  small  vessels  trading 
between  Montreal  and  Quebec;  our 
northeastern  boundary  was  to  be 
fixed  by  a  commission  ;  the  payments 

of  debts  incurred  before  the  war  were  CHIEF  JUSTICE  JOHN  JAY. 

guaranteed  to  British  creditors,  if  such 

debts  were  collectible  by  an  American  creditor ;  Great  Britain  was  to  pay  for  losses 
resulting  from  irregular  captures  by  her  cruisers;  citizens  of  either  country  were 
allowed  to  hold  landed  possessions  in  the  territory  of  the  other;  private  property 
was  not  to  be  confiscated  in  time  of  war;  trade  between  the  United  States  and 
the  West  Indies  was  free  to  the  vessels  of  both  nations,  but  American  vessels 
were  forbidden  to  carry  West  Indian  products  from  the  islands  or  from  the 
States  to  any  other  part  of  the  world.  The  last  clause  was  to  be  in  force  only 
two  years  when  further  negotiation  was  to  take  place.  In  addition,  the  two 
years'1  limit  was  applicable  to  the  right  of  American  vessels  to  trade  between  the 


164  WASHINGTON,   ADAMS,  AND  JEFFERSON. 

East  Indies  and  the  United  States,  but  in  time  of  war  they  were  not  to  take 
thither  any  rice  or  military  stores  ;  free  commerce  was  established  between  the 
British  dominions  in  Europe  and  the  United  {States;  the  regulation  of  duties  was 
provided  for,  as  well  as  the  appointment  of  consuls  and  the  rules  of  blockade ; 
privateering  was  regulated;  what  was  contraband  of  war  was  defined,  and  it  was 
agreed  that  piracy  should  be  punished ;  ships  of  war  could  enter  the  ports  of 
either  country;  criminals  escaping  from  one  country  to  the  other  were  to  be  sur 
rendered  ;  and,  in  the  event  of  war  between  the  two  countries,  citizens  in 
hostile  territory  were  not  to  be  molested. 

Although  this  treaty  possessed  many  good  points,  and  was  the  best  obtain 
able  by  our  envoy,  it  gave  so  many  advantages  to  Great  Britain  that  it  roused 
bitter  enmity  in  this  country.  Public  meetings  were  held  in  the  leading  cities, 
where  it  was  denounced  as  cowardly  and  made  for  the  express  purpose  of  avoid 
ing  a  war  with  England.  The  feeling  rose  so  high  that  Jay  was  burned  in 
effigy,  Hamilton  was  assaulted  at  a  public  meeting,  the  British  minister  in 
sulted,  and  even  Washington  himself  treated  with  disrespect.  Better  judgment 
prevailed,  when  the  passions  cooled,  and  it  is  now  admitted  that  Jay's  treaty, 
when  all  the  circumstances  are  considered,  was  a  commendable  one. 

SECOND    ELECTION    OF    WASHINGTON. 

It  was  Washington's  wish  to  retire  to  private  life  on  conclusion  of  his  first 
term,  but  he  could  not  disregard  the  demand  from  all  quarters.  No  competitor 
appeared  in  the  field  against  him,  and  for  a  second  time  he  was  unanimously 
elected.  His  vote  was  132;  that  cast  for  the  candidates  for  the  minor  office 
being,  John  Adams,  Federalist,  77 ;  George  Clinton,  of  New  York,  Eepublican, 
50;  Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia,  Republican,  4;  Aaron  Burr,  of  New  York, 
Republican,  1 ;  vacancies,  3.  This  vote  made  John  Adams  again  Vice-Presi- 
dent. 

Since  Jefferson  was  the  leader  of  the  Republicans  (or  as  now  called  the 
Democrats),  and  Hamilton  of  the  Federalists  (afterward  the  Whigs),  and  the 
two,  as  members  of  Washington's  cabinet,  were  able  and  aggressive,  they  were 
continually  disputing.  Sometimes  they  sorely  tried  Washington's  patience,  who, 
appreciating  the  ability  of  both,  often  had  hard  work  to  prevent  an  open  rup 
ture.  On  the  last  clay  in  1793,  Jefferson  resigned  his  office  as  secretary  of 
foreign  affairs  and  retired  to  private  life  at  Monticello,  Virginia.  A  year  later 
Hamilton  resigned  as  minister  of  finance.  Through  his  efforts  public  credit  had 
been  restored,  and  industry  and  trade  had  revived.  He  well  deserved  the 
eloquent  tribute  of  Daniel  Webster:  "He  smote  the  rock  of  the  national 
resources,  and  abundant  streams  of  revenues  burst  forth.  He  touched  the  dead 
corpse  of  public  credit,  and  it  sprung  upon  its  feet." 


RETIREMENT  OF   WASHINGTON. 


165 


As  Washington's  second  term  drew  to  a  close,  a  universal  demand  was 
made  that  he  should  serve  again.  Despite  the  fact  that  the  two  great  political 
parties  were  fairly  organized,  and  each  contained  many  able  men,  no  one  would  have 
had  the  temerity  to  offer  himself  as  a  competitor ;  but  he  was  growing  old,  his 
strength  had  been  worn  out  in  the  service  of  his  country,  and  the  rest  he 
yearned  for  could  no  longer  be  denied  him.  He,  therefore,  issued  his  immortal 
Farewell  Address  to  his  countrymen  and  withdrew  to  Mount  Vernon,  where  he 
peacefully  passed  away  December  14,  1799,  mourned  by  the  whole  country  and 
revered  by  the  civilized  world. 

The  Farewell  Address  contains  counsel  that  can  never  lose  its  value  to 
America.  After  thanking  his  fellow-countrymen  for  the  confidence  they  had 
always  shown  in 
him,  and  the  sup 
port  he  had  re 
ceived  from  them, 
he  said  that  the 
love  of  liberty  was 
so  interwoven  with 
every  ligament  of 
their  hearts  that 
no  recommendation 
of  his  was  necessary 
to  fortify  that  at 
tachment.  The 
unity  of  govern 
ment,  by  which 
they  were  made  one 
people,  had  also  become  very  dear  to  them. 

"It  is  justly  so,'7  he  said,  "for  it  is  a  main  pillar  in  the  edifice  of  your  real 
independence— the  support  of  your  tranquillity  at  home,  your  peace  abroad ;  of 
your  safety,  of  your  prosperity  ;  of  that  very  liberty  which  you  so  highly  prize. 
But,  as  it  is  easy  to  foresee  that,  from  different  causes  and  from  different  quar 
ters,  much  pains  will  be  taken,  many  artifices  be  employed  to  weaken  in  your 
minds  the  conviction  of  this  truth— as  this  is  the  point  in  your  political  fortress 
against  which  the  batteries  of  internal  and  external  enemies  will  be  most  con 
stantly  and  actively  (though  often  covertly  and  insidiously)  directed— it  is  of 
infinite  moment  that  you  should  properly  estimate  the  immense  value  of  your 
national  union  to  your  collective  and  individual  happiness;  that  you  should 
cherish  a  cordial,  habitual,  and  immovable  attachment  to  it;  accustoming  your 
selves  to  think  and  speak  of  it  as  the  palladium  of  your  political  safety  and 


WASHINGTON'S   BEDROOM,  MT.  VERNON,  IN    WHICH   HE   DIED. 


166 


WASHINGTON,   ADAMS,   AND  JEFFERSON. 


prosperity;  watching  for  its  preservation  with  jealous  anxiety;  discountenancing 
whatever  may  suggest  even  a  suspicion  that  it  can  in  any  event  be  abandoned, 
and  indignantly  frowning  upon  the  first  dawning  of  every  attempt  to  alienate 
any  portion  of  our  country  from  the  rest,  or  to  enfeeble  the  sacred  ties  which 
now  link  together  the  various  parts.  For  this  you  have  every  inducement  of 
sy  in  pa  thy 
and  interest. 
Citizens,  by 
birth  or 
choice,  of 
a  common 
country,  that 


THE  MOTHER  OF  WASHINGTON    RE 
CEIVING  MARQUIS  LAFAYETTE. 

Previous  to  his  departure  for  Europe,  in  the  fall  of  1784,  the  Marquis  de  La 
fayette  repaired  to  Fredericksburg  to  pay  his  parting  respects  to  Washington's 
mother  and  to  ask  her  blessing 

Conducted  by  one  of  her  grandsons  he  approached  the  house,  when, 
the  young  gentleman  observing,  "There,  sir,  is  my  grandmother,"  the  Marquis 

rking  in  her  garden,  clad  in  domestic-made  clothes  and  her  gray    COlintry    lias    a   ri^llt    to 
head  covered  by  a  plain  straw  hat.  the  mother  of  "his  hero,  his  friend,  and  a  &  . 

The  Imly  saluted  him  kindly,  observing,  "Ah,  Marquis,  you    Centrate  yOUr  atteCtlOnS. 
see  an  old  woman:  but  come.  I  cnn  make  you  welcome  to  my  poor  dwelling    ,  ^f      \  , 

trithout  the  parade  of  changing  my  dress."  name    01      AMERICAN, 

belongs  to  you  in  your  na 
tional  capacity,  must  also  exalt  the  just  pride  of  patriotism  more  than  any 
appellation  derived  from  local  discriminations.  With  slight  shades  of  differ 
ence,  you  have  the  same  religion,  manners,  habits,  and  political  principles. 
You  have  in  a  common  cause  fought  and  triumphed  together;  the  independence 


PRESIDENTIAL   ELECTION  OF  1796.  167 

and  liberty  you  possess  are  the  work  of  joint  counsels  and  joints  efforts;  of 
common  dangers,  sufferings,  and  successes." 

Washington  next  pointed  out  the  mutual  advantages  derived  from  one 
another  in  the  different  sections  of  the  Union,  and  impressively  warned  his 
countrymen  against  the  danger  of  sectional  parties  and  the  baneful  effects  of 
party  spirit.  He  commended  the  Constitution,  which  could  be  amended,  when 
ever  the  necessity  arose,  as  beneficent  in  its  provisions  and  obligatory  upon  all. 
Other  wholesome  counsel,  which  he  added,  made  the  Farewell  Address  a  price 
less  heritage  to  the  generations  that  came  after  him. 

The  immediate  effect  of  the  paper  was  excellent.  The  various  State  Legis 
latures  voted  thanks  to  Washington,  and  were  warm  in  their  praises  of  his 
wise  and  patriotic  services  as  President.  The  regret  was  universal  that  the 
country  was  so  soon  to  lose  his  valuable  counsel  and  guidance. 

WEST    POINT    MILITARY    ACADEMY    ESTABLISHED. 

During  the  Revolution  Washington  recommended  the  excellent  location  of 
West  Point  as  the  proper  one  for  a  military  school  of  instruction.  An  act 
establishing  the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  that  place  was  passed  March 
16,  1802.  It  provided  that  fifty  students  or  cadets  should  be  given  instruction 
under  the  senior  engineer  or  officer,  assisted  by  the  corps  of  engineers  of  the 
army.  As  the  institution  grew,  professorships  of  mathematics,  engineering, 
philosophy,  etc.,  were  added,  and  the  academy  was  made  a  military  body  subject 
to  the  rules  and  articles  of  war.  A  superintendent  was  designated  in  1815,  and 
the  present  system  of  appointing  cadets  was  instituted  in  1843.  The  rigid 
course,  steadily  elevated,  probably  prevents  fully  one-half  of  those  entering  from 
graduating,  and  a  comparison  of  the  West  Point  Military  Academy  with  simi 
lar  institutions  establishes  the  fact  that  it  is  the  finest  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 

PKESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1796. 

The  presidential  election  of  1796  was  a  close  one,  the  result  being :  John 
Adams,  Federalist,  71 ;  Thomas  Jefferson,  Republican,  68 ;  Thomas  Pinckney, 
of  South  Carolina,  Federalist,  59  ;  Aaron  Burr,  of  New  York,  Republican,  30  ; 
Samuel  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  Republican,  15 ;  Oliver  Ellsworth,  of  Con 
necticut,  Independent,  11  ;  George  Clinton,  of  New  York,  Republican,  7  ;  John 
Jay,  of  New  York,  Federalist,  5;  James  Iredell,  of  North  Carolina,  Federalist, 
3  ;  George  Washington,  of  Virginia,  John  Henry,  of  Maryland,  and  S.  John 
son,  of  North  Carolina,  all  Federalists,  2  votes  each  ;  Charles  Cotesworth  Pinck 
ney,  of  South  Carolina,  Federalist,  1  vote.  Since  it  required  70  votes  to  elect, 
it  will  be  seen  that  John  Adams  was  barely  successful,  with  Jefferson  close  to 
him. 


168 


WASHINGTON,   ADAMS,   AND  JEFFERSON. 


John  Adams,  the  second  President,  was  born  at  Braintree,  Massachusetts, 
October  19,  1735.     He  graduated  at  Harvard,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  three  years  later.     He  was  one  of  the  most  active  and  influ 
ential  members  of  the  First  and  Second  Continental  Congresses.     It  was  he  who 
by  his  eloquent  logic  persuaded  Congress  to  adopt  the  Declaration  of  Independ 
ence.     Jefferson,  his  strenuous  political  opponent,  declared  that  Adams  was  the 
pillar  of  its  support  and  its  ablest  advocate  and  defender.     It  was  Adams  who 
suggested  the  appointment  of  General  Washington  as  commander-in^chief  of 
the  Continental  army.     During  the  progress  of  the  war,  he  criticised  the  man 
agement  of  Washington,    but,    long 
1     before  the   death   of  the   Father  of 
his     Country,     candidly     acknowl 
edged    the   injustice   of  such  criti 
cism. 

The  services  of  Adams  were  not 
confined  to  his  early  efforts  in  Con 
gress  nor  to  his  term  as  President. 
He  did  important  work  as  commis 
sioner  to  France  and  Holland,  and 
as  minister  plenipotentiary  to  nego 
tiate  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain.  He  obtained  large  loans 
and  induced  leading  European  powers 
to  make  excellent  treaties  with  his 
country.  Adams  and  Franklin 
framed  the  preliminary  treaty  of 
Versailles,  and,  as  the  first  American 
minister  to  England,  he  served  until 
1788.  He  received  the  thanks  of 
J  Congress  for  the  "  patriotism,  perse 
verance,  integrity,  and  diligence " 

displayed  while  representing  his  country  abroad.  When  John  Adams  assumed 
the  duties  of  the  presidency,  he  found  the  country  comparatively  prosperous 
and  well  governed. 

The  South  was  the  most  prosperous.  Until  1793,  its  principal  productions 
were  rice,  indigo,  tar,  and  tobacco.  The  soil  and  climate  were  highly  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  cotton,  but  its  culture  was  unprofitable,  for  its  seeds  were  so 
closely  interwoven  in  its  texture  that  only  by  hard  work  could  a  slave  clean  five 
pounds  a  day.  In  the  year  named,  Eli  Whitney,  a  New  England  school 
teacher,  living  in  Georgia,  invented  the  cotton  gin,  with  which  a  man  can  clean 


: 


JOHN   ADAMS. 

UT:r,-is26.)    One  term,  1797-1*01. 


TROUBLES    WITH  FRANCE 


169 


a  thousand  pounds  of  cotton  a  day.  This  rendered  its  cultivation  highly  profit 
able,  gave  an  importance  to  the  institution  of  slavery,  and,  in  its  far-reaching 
effects,  was  the  greatest  invention  ever  made  in  this  country. 

TROUBLES    WITH    FRANCE. 

The  matter  which  chiefly  occupied  public  attention  during  the  adminis 
tration  of  the  elder  Adams  was  our  difficulties  with  France.  That  country  had 
hardly  emerged  from  the  awful  Eeign  of  Terror  in  which  a  million  of  people 
were  massacred,  and  it  was  under  the  control  of  a  set  of  bloody  minded  mis 
creants,  who 
warred  against 
mankind  and 
believed  they 
could  compel 
the  United 
States  to  pay  a 
large  sum  of 
money  for  the 
privilege  of 
being  let  alone. 
They  turned 
our  represen 
tatives  out  of 
the  country, 
enacted  laws 
aimed  to  de 
stroy  our  com 
merce,  and  in 
structed  their 
naval  officers 
to  capture  and  sell  American  vessels  and  cargoes. 

President  Adams,  who  abhorred  war,  sent  special  ministers  to  protest  against 
the  course  of  France.  The  impudent  reply  was  there  would  be  no  stoppage 
until  the  men  who  controlled  the  French  government  were  paid  large  sums  of 
money.  This  exasperating  notice  brought  the  answer  from  Charles  Cotesworth 
Pinckney  which  has  become  historical :  "  Millions  for  defense,  but  not  one  cent 
for  tribute." 

Although  war  was  not  declared,  it  prevailed  on  the  ocean  during  the  latter 
half  of  1798.  Congress  convened,  abolished  the  treaties  with  France, 
strengthened  the  navy,  and  ordered  it  to  attack  French  vessels  wherever  found. 


THE  COTTON   GIN,  INVENTED   IN   1793. 
A  machine  which  does  the  work  of  more  than  1,000  men 


170  WASHINGTON,   ADAMS,   AND  JEFFERSON. 

Several  engagements  took  place,  in  all  of  which  the  French  inen-of-war  were 
whipped  "  to  a  standstill."  The  most  important  of  the  naval  battles  was  between 
the  Constitution,  under  Commodore  Truxton,  and  the  French  frigate  L'lnsur- 
gente,  in  which  the  latter  was  captured.  A  messenger  was  sent  to  Mount  Vernon, 
carrying  the  appointment  of  Washington  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  American 
army.  He  found  the  great  man  in  the  harvest  field ;  but  when  Washington  donned 
his  spectacles  and  read  the  paper,  he  replied  that  he  was  then  as  always  ready 
to  serve  his  country  in  whatever  capacity  he  could.  He  accepted  with  the 
understanding  that  he  was  not  to  be  called  into  the  field  until  actual  hostilities 
took  place  on  the  land,  and  that  Alexander  Hamilton  should  until  then  be  the 
com  mander-i  n-ch  ief. 

Doubtless  a  destructive  war  would  have  resulted,  but  for  the  fact  that 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  as  a  stepping-stone  to  his  marvelous  career,  overturned  the 
French  government  and  installed  himself  as  emperor.  He  saw  the  folly  of  a 
war  with  the  United  States,  when  he  was  certain  soon  to  be  embroiled  with  more 
powerful  neighbors  near  home.  He  offered  fair  terms  of  peace  to  our  country 
in  1799,  and  they  were  accepted. 

THE    ALIEN    AND    SEDITION    LAWS. 

One  of  the  gravest  mistakes  made  by  the  Federalists  in  Congress  was  the 
passage  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws.  Irritated  by  the  mischief-making  of 
foreigners,  a  law  was  enacted  which  permitted  the  President  to  arrest  any  alien 
in  the  country  whose  presence  he  considered  dangerous.  The  acts  under  which 
this  was  to  be  done  were  known  as  the  Alien  Laws.  The  most  detested  measure, 
however,  was  that  which  authorized  the  arrest  of  any  person  who  should  speak 
evil  of  the  government,  and  was  known  as  the  Sedition  Law.  There  were  arrests 
and  punishments  under  its  provisions,  and  the  majority  of  the  people  were  bitterly 
hostile  to  it.  It  was  unquestionably  a  direct  invasion  of  the  liberty  of  speech. 
The  claim  that  no  editor,  public  speaker,  or  private  citizen  should  be  allowed  to 
condemn  an  action  of  the  government  which  he  disproved  was  unbearable,  but 
it  was  in  direct  line  with  the  Federal  policy  of  a  powerful  central  government, 
and  as  directly  opposed  to  Republican  principles.  The  feeling  became  so  intense 
that  at  the  next  presidential  election  the  Federal  party  was  defeated  and  never 
afterward  gained  control  of  the  government. 

REMOVAL    OF    THE    NATIONAL    CAPITAL    TO    WASHINGTON. 

The  census  of  1800  showed  that  the  population  of  the  country  had 
increased  to  5,308,483.  In  that  year,  the  national  capital  was  removed  from 
Philadelphia  to  the  straggling,  partly  built  village  of  Washington,  standing  in 
the  woods,  and  without  any  of  the  structures  that  have  made  it  one  of  the  most 
attractive  cities  in  the  world. 


THOMAS  JEFFEKSON. 


171 


The  presidential  election  of  1800  was  an  exciting  one.  Thomas  Jefferson 
and  Aaron  Burr,  both  Republicans,  received  73  electoral  votes,  while  John 
Adams,  Federalist  had  65 ;  Charles  C.  Pinckney,  Federalist,  64 ;  John  Jay, 
Federalist  1.  The  vote  between  the  leaders  being  a  tie,  the  election  was  thrown 
into  the  House  of  Representatives,  where,  after  thirty-eight  ballots,  Jefferson 
was  elected,  with  Burr,  the  next  highest  candidate,  Vice-President.  The  pre 
ceding  election,  as  will  be  remembered,  gave  a  President  and  Vice-President  of 
different  political  parties,  always  an  undesirable  thing,  and  this  fact,  added  to 
the  difficulties  of  the  election  just  over,  led  to  the  adoption  in  1804  of  the 
Twelfth  Amendment  to  the  Consti- 
tution,  which  requires  the  electors 
to  vote  separately  for  the  President 
and  Vice-President.  ^flmt.  .! 

THOMAS    JEFFERSON. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  third  Presi 
dent  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
at  Shad  well,  Albemarle  County, 
Virginia,  April  2, 1743.  His  father, 
a  wealthy  planter,  died  when  his  son  ( 
was  fourteen  years  old,  and  he  en 
tered  William  and  Mary  College, 
where  he  was  the  most  assiduous 
student  in  the  institution.  Jefferson 
was  as  fond  as  Washington  of  ath 
letic  sports,  and,  though  he  was  of 
less  massive  build,  he  attained  the 
same  stature,  six  feet  two  inches. 
In  college,  he  was  an  awkward,  \ 
freckle-faced,  sandy  haired  youth, 
who,  but  for  his  superior  mental 
attainments,  would  have  commanded  little  respect.  Except  for  his  fondness  fot 
hunting  and  horseback  riding,  he  never  could  have  acquired  the  physique  which 
allowed  him  to  spend  ten,  twelve,  and  sixteen  hours  of  every  twenty- four  in 
hard  study. 

Jefferson  was  undoubtedly  the  most  learned  of  all  our  Presidents.  He  was 
not  only  a  fine  mathematician,  but  a  master  of  Latin,  Greek,  French,  Spanish, 
and  Italian.  He  was  an  exquisite  performer  on  the  violin,  and  it  was  said  of 
him,  by  one  of  the  most  noted  European  musicians,  that  he  never  heard  an 
amateur  play  the  king  of  instruments  as  well  as  the  slim  Virginian. 


THOMAS    JEFFERSON. 
(17-13-1826.1    Two  terms,  1801-1809. 


172  WASHINGTON,  ADAMS,   AND  JEFFERSON. 

Jefferson  married  a  wealthy  lady  and  named  his  attractive  home  Monti- 
cello.  His  great  ability  caused  his  election  to  the  Virginia  Legislature  while  a 
young  man,  and  he  was  soon  afterward  sent  to  Congress.  Lacking  the  gifts  of 
oratory,  he  had  no  superior  as  a  writer  of  line,  classical,  forceful  English. 
Among  the  many  excellent  laws  he  secured  for  Virginia  was  the  separation  of 
Church  and  State.  He  was  the  author  of  a  parliamentary  manual  for  the  gov 
ernment  of  the  United  States  Senate,  which  is  still  an  authority,  and  of  our 
present  system  of  decimal  currency ;  but  the  reader  does  not  need  to  be  re 
minded  that  his  fame  will  go  down  to  posterity  chiefly  as  the  writer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence ;  but  Jefferson  felt  almost  equally  proud  of  the 
fact  that  he  was  founder  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  which,  abandoning  the 
old  system,  introduced  the  "free  system  of  independent  schools."  He  also  pro 
posed  for  his  State  a  comprehensive  system  of  free  public  schools. 

Although  wealthy,  he  went  almost  to  the  extreme  of  simplicity.  His  dress 
was  as  plain  as  that  of  the  Quakers ;  he  wore  leathern  shoestrings  instead  of  the 
fashionable  silver  buckles;  and  strove  to  keep  his  birthday  a  secret,  because  some 
of  his  friends  wished  to  celebrate  it.  He  was  opposed  to  all  pomp,  ceremony, 
and  titles.  He  is  universally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Democracy  of  the 
present  day,  and  was  undeniably  one  of  the  greatest  Presidents  we  have  had. 

WELCOME    LEGISLATION. 

The  administration  of  Jefferson  proved  among  the  most  important  in  the 
history  of  our  country.  Congress  promptly  abolished  the  tax  on  distilled 
spirits  and  a  number  of  other  manufactures,  a  step  which  enabled  the  President 
to  dismiss  a  large  number  of  revenue  collectors,  whose  unwelcome  duties  had  en- 
toiled  considerable  expense  upon  the  country.  The  obnoxious  Sedition  Law 
was  repealed,  and  the  Alien  Law  so  modified  that  it  was  shorn  of  its  disagree 
able  features. 

ADMISSION    OF   OHIO. 

In  the  year  1800,  a  line  was  run  through  the  Northwest  Territory  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Great  Miami  to  Fort  Recovery  and  thence  to  Canada.  Three 
years  afterward,  the  territory  thus  defined  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  the 
State  of  Ohio.  The  Indiana  Territory  included  the  portion  west  of  the  line 
named,  with  Vincennes  as  the  capital.  The  Mississippi  Territory  was  organized 
so  as  to  extend  from  the  western  boundaries  of  Georgia  to  the  Mississippi. 

The  punishment  administered  to  France  in  1798  naturally  gave  that  coun 
try  a  respect  for  the  United  States,  and  in  1802  our  relations  with  her  became 
quite  friendly.  Bonaparte,  having  established  a  truce  with  the  nations  around 
him,  found  time  to  give  some  attention  to  the  American  republic.  He  seemed  to 
believe  he  could  establish  a  French  colonial  empire,  not  only  in  the  West  Indies, 


SLAVE  TRADE  ABOLISHED.  173 

but  in  the  immense  province  of  Louisiana.  Had  Bonaparte  succeeded,  he  would 
have  acquired  control  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Nothing 
would  have  pleased  England  more  than  to  see  so  serious  a  check  placed  upon  our 
growth,  and  nothing  would  have  displeased  our  countrymen  more  than  to  be 
shut  off  from  the  Father  of  Waters  and  the  right  to  emigrate  westward.  They 
were  ready  to  go  to  war  before  submitting  to  such  deprivation. 

PURCHASE    OF    LOUISIANA. 

No  one  was  more  keenly  alive  to  the  situation  than  Jefferson.  He  carefully 
instructed  our  envoy  at  Paris  to  make  the  strongest  possible  representations  to 
the  French  ruler  of  the  grave  mistake  of  the  course  he  had  in  mind,  which 
must  inevitably  result  in  an  alliance  with  Great  Britain  in  sweeping  France 
from  the  seas  and  driving  her  from  the  West  Indies.  Bonaparte  was  too  wise 
not  to  perceive  that  this  was  no  empty  threat,  and  that  his  visionary  French 
empire  in  the  West  would  prove  an  element  of  weakness  rather  than  strength. 
Nothing  was  plainer  than  the  truth  that  the  stronger  the  United  States  became, 
the  more  dangerous  would  it  be  for  his  traditional  enemy,  England.  He,  there 
fore,  proposed  to  sell  Louisiana  to  the  United  States. 

This  was  the  very  thing  for  which  Jefferson  had  been  skillfully  working 
from  the  first.  The  bargain  was  speedily  completed.  On  April  30,  1803, 
Louisiana  came  into  our  possession  for  the  sum  of  $11,250,000,  we  agreeing  at 
the  same  time  to  pay  certain  debts  due  from  France  to  American  citizens, 
amounting  to  $3,750,000,  so  that  the  total  cost  of  Louisiana  was  $15,000,000. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  Territory  of  Louisiana,  as  purchased  by 
us,  was  vastly  more  extensive  than  is  the  present  State  of  that  name.  It  in 
cluded  the  area  from  which  have  been  carved  the  States  of  Louisiana,  Arkansas, 
Missouri,  Nebraska,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  the  Dakotas,  Montana,  part  of  Kansas, 
Wyoming  and  Colorado,  and  the  Territory  of  Oklahoma,  the  whole  area 
being  1,171,931  square  miles,  as  against  827,844,  which  was  all  the  territory  oc 
cupied  previous  to  1803.  Peaceable  possession  was  taken  on  the  20th  of  Decem 
ber  following.  The  governorship  of  the  Territory  was  offered  to  Lafayette,  and 
declined  by  him,  but  he  received  a  grant  of  12,000  acres  within  its  limits. 

SLAVE    TRADE    ABOLISHED. 

At  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution,  it  was  agreed  that  the  slave 
trade  should  be  permitted  for  twenty  years.  It  was  abolished,  therefore,  in  1808, 
and  the  penalty  for  engaging  in  it  was  made  punishable  with  death.  At  the 
time  of  the  purchase  of  Louisiana,  it  was  believed  that  it  included  Texas,  but 
the  United  States  gave  up  this  claim  in  1819  to  Spain  in  return  for  the  cession 
of  Florida. 


174  WASHINGTON,   ADAMS,   AND  JEFFERSON. 

It  seems  incredible,  but  it  was  true,  that  for  twenty  years  we  had  been  pay 
ing  a  large  tribute  to  Algiers  on  condition  that  she  would  not  molest  our  com 
merce.  Other  nations  did  the  same,  because  it  was  more  convenient  than 
keeping  a  navy  in  those  far-off  waters.  A  treaty  with  Morocco  had  been  signed, 
in  1787,  under  which  we  also  paid  her  tribute.  The  people  of  the  Barbary 
States  naturally  waxed  insolent,  and  when  we  were  slow  in  sending  our  tribute 
they  imposed  a  heavy  penalty,  which  we  meekly  paid. 

WAR    WITH    TRIPOLI. 

One  of  the  most  disgusted  men  was  Captain  William  Bainbridge,  when 
obliged  to  carry  the  tribute  in  1800  to  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  who  informed  him 
that  the  Americans  were  his  slaves,  and  must  do  as  he  ordered.  The  indignant 
officer  expressed  the  hope  that  the  next  tribute  he  delivered  would  be  from  the 
mouths  of  his  cannon.  The  following  year  the  ruler  of  Tripoli  became  ruffled 
because  we  did  not  send  him  as  much  tribute  as  he  thought  he  was  entitled  to, 
and  actually  declared  war  against  us. 

The  flurry  of  1798  with  France  had  caused  a  considerable  increase  in  our 
navy,  which  was  furnished  with  plenty  of  daring  officers,  who  afterward  made 
names  for  themselves.  They  eagerly  welcomed  a  war  of  that  nature  which  of 
necessity  was  a  naval  one.  The  operations  were  confined  to  the  Mediterranean, 
on  whose  shore  are  the  Barbary  States. 

The  first  real  fight  took  place  in  August,  1801,  between  the  Enterprise,  a 
vessel  of  twelve  guns,  and  a  Tripoli  tan  vessel  of  fourteen  guns.  It  occurred  off 
Malta,  and  lasted  for  two  hours,  when  the  Tripolitan  hauled  down  his  flag. 
Thereupon  the  Americans  left  their  guns  and  were  cheering,  when  the  enemy 
treacherously  fired  a  broadside  into  the  Enterprise.  Nothing  loth,  Lieutenant 
Sterrett  renewed  the  battle  with  such  vigor  that  in  a  few  minutes  the  flag  was 
lowered  a  second  time,  only  to  renew  the  fighting  when  the  enemy  saw  an  ad 
vantage. 

Thoroughly  exasperated,  Lieutenant  Sterrett  now  determined  to  complete 
the  business.  The  vessel  was  raked  fore  and  aft,  the  mizzen-mast  torn  away, 
the  hull  knocked  to  splinters,  and  fifty  men  killed  and  wounded.  Then  the 
American  officer  caught  sight  of  the  captain  leaping  up  and  down  on  the  deck, 
shrieking  and  flinging  his  arms  about,  as  evidence  that  he  was  ready  to  surrender 
in  earnest  He  threw  his  own  flag  overboard,  but  Lieutenant  Sterrett  demanded 
that  his  arms  and  ammunition  should  follow,  the  remainder  of  the  masts  cut 
away,  and  the  ship  dismantled.  That  being  done,  Sterrett  allowed  him  to  rig  a 
jury  mast  and  told  him  to  carry  his  compliments  to  the  Dey. 

The  war  against  the  Tripolitans  was  very  similar  to  that  against  the  Span 
iards  in  1898.  The  Enterprise  had  not  lost  a  man,  although  the  Americans 


THE  BOMB  KETCH.  175 

inflicted  severe  loss  on  the  enemy.  In  July,  1802,  the  Constellation,  in  a  fight 
with  nine  Tripolitan  gunboats,  drove  five  ashore,  the  rest  escaping  by  fleeing  into 
the  harbor.  More  than  once  a  Tripolitan  vessel  was  destroyed,  with  all  on 
board,  without  the  loss  of  a  man  on  our  side. 

But  the  war  was  not  to  be  brought  to  a  close  without  an  American  disaster. 
In  1803  the  fine  frigate  Philadelphia,  while  chasing  a  blockade-runner,  ran 
upon  a  reef  in  the  harbor  of  Tripoli,  and,  being  helpless,  a  fleet  of  the  enemy's 
gunboats  swarmed  around  her  and  compelled  Captain  Bainbridge  and  his  crew  to 
surrender.  The  frigate  was  floated  off  at  high  tide  and  the  enemy  refitted  her. 

A    GALLANT    EXPLOIT. 

One  night  in  February,  1804,  the  Intrepid,  a  small  vessel  under  the  command 
of  Lieutenant  Stephen  Decatur,  one  of  the  bravest  of  American  naval  officers, 
approached  the  Philadelphia,  as  she  lay  at  anchor,  and,  being  hailed,  replied, 
through  a  native  whom  he  had  impressed  into  service,  that  he  was  a  merchant 
man  who  had  lost  his  anchors.  The  Tripolitans  allowed  the  vessel  to  come 
alongside  without  any  suspicion  on  their  part.  Suddenly  a  score  of  Americans 
sprang  up  and  leaped  through  the  portholes  of  the  frigate.  It  took  them  but 
a  few  minutes  to  clear  the  deck,  when  the  vessel  was  fired  in  several  places  and 
the  men  safely  withdrew.  The  Philadelphia  burned  to  the  water's  edge. 

Early  in  August,  Commodore  Preble  bombarded  the  town  of  Tripoli  from 
his  mortar  boats.  During  a  fight  with  the  gunboats  James  Decatur,  a  brother 
of  Stephen,  received  the  surrender  of  one  he  was  fighting,  and  stepped  on  the 
deck  to  take  possession.  As  he  did  so,  the  captain  shot  him  dead.  Stephen  had 
just  destroyed  a  gunboat  when  he  learned  of  this  treacherous  occurrence  and 
dashed  after  the  craft,  which  he  boarded.  Recognizing  the  captain  from  his 
immense  size,  he  attacked  him,  and,  in  a  desperate  personal  encounter,  in  which 
he  narrowly  escaped  death  himself,  killed  the  Moor. 

THE    BOMB    KETCH. 

The  Americans  fixed  up  the  Intrepid  as  a  bomb  ketch,  storing  a  hundred 
barrels  of  powder  and  missiles  and  a  hundred  and  fifty  shells  on  deck.  Under 
command  of  Captain  Richard  Somers,  and  accompanied  by  twelve  men,  the 
vessel  ran  slowly  into  the  harbor  one  dark  night.  The  intention  was  to  fire 
a  slow-match  and  then  for  the  officer  and  men  to  withdraw  in  boats.  Captain 
Somers  was  discovered  by  the  enemy,  and  in  some  unknown  way  the  ketch  was 
blown  up  with  all  on  board,  and  without  doing  any  material  harm  to  the  ship 
ping  and  fortifications  in  the  harbor. 

Commodore  Preble  was  superseded  in  November  by  Commodore  Barron, 
who  arrived  with  the  President  and  Constellation.  This  gave  the  Americans 


176  WASHINGTON,   ADAMS,   AND  JEFFERSON. 

ten  vessels,  carrying  264  guns.  Hostilities  were  pressed  with  so  much  vigor 
that  the  Dey  of  Tripoli  became  anxious  to  make  peace  before  the  terrible  fleet 
from  the  West  destroyed  him  and  his  people.  Accordingly,  a  treaty  was  signed 
on  the  3d  of  June  by  which  the  Tripolitans  were  given  $60,000  for  the  prison 
ers  in  their  hands,  and  the  payment  of  tribute  to  them  was  ended. 

EXPEDITION    OF    LEWIS    AND    CLARK. 

In  those  comparatively  modern  days  the  vast  region  west  of  the  Mis 
sissippi  was  almost  unknown.  President  Jefferson  recommended  a  congressional 
appropriation  for  the  exploration  of  the  country.  The  appropriation  being 
made,  a  party  of  thirty  men  left  the  Mississippi,  May  14,  1804,  under  command 
of  Captains  Meriwether  Lewis  and  William  Clark.  Both  had  had  a  good  deal 
of  experience  in  the  Indian  country,  and  they  ascended  the  Missouri  in  a  flo 
tilla  for  2,600  miles.  To  the  three  streams  which  form  the  Missouri  they  gave 
the  names  of  Jefferson,  Gallatin,  and  Madison.  A  detachment  was  then  left  in 
charge  of  the  boats,  and  the  remainder,  riding  the  horses  they  had  captured 
and  tamed,  made  their  way  across  the  mountains.  They  discovered  the  two 
streams  which  bear  their  names,  and  traced  the  Columbia  to  its  outlet  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

The  expedition  was  absent  for  two  years,  and  its  report  on  returning  added 
much  to  our  geographical  knowledge  of  the  section.  They  were  the  first  party 
of  white  men  to  cross  the  continent  north  of  Mexico.  Captain  Lewis  was 
appointed  governor  of  Missouri  Territory  in  1806,  and  was  acting  as  such 
when  he  committed  suicide  in  1809.  Captain  Clark  was  also  governor  of  Mis 
souri  Territory,  and  afterward  superintendent  of  Indian  affairs.  He  died  in 
St.  Louis  in  1838. 

THE    BURR    AND    HAMILTON    DUEL. 

No  one  read  the  wicked  character  of  Aaron  Burr  more  unerringly  than 
Alexander  Hamilton.  Pie  saw  that  he  was  ready  to  ruin  his  country  for  the 
sake  of  gratifying  an  insatiate  ambition.  Hamilton  was  always  outspoken  in 
expressing  his  opinions,  and  the  hostility  between  the  two  became  so  bitter 
that  Burr  challenged  Hamilton  to  a  duel.  Although  the  latter  had  had  a  son 
killed  through  the  barbarous  code  within  the  preceding  year,  he  was  foolish 
enough  to  accept  the  challenge,  and  the  duel  was  fought  at  Weehawken,  New 
Jersey,  July  12,  1804.  Hamilton  fired  in  the  air,  but  Burr  aimed  straight  for 
his  antagonist  and  inflicted  a  wound  from  which  he  died  the  next  day. 

Although  Burr  presided  in  the  Senate  after  the  duel,  the  whole  country 
was  shocked  by  the  occurrence,  and  his  friends  fell  away  from  him.  In  1804, 
when  Jefferson  was  re-elected  to  the  presidency,  George  Clinton  took  the 
place  of  Burr  as  Vice-President.  Burr  then  engaged  in  a  plot  to  form  a 


THE  BURR  AND  HAMILTON  DUEL. 


177 


A    FLOATING     PALACE 

FROM    NEW  YORK  TO  BOSTON 


ftffc 


f 

r?r-. 


GREAT  BATTLE. SHIP  "KEARSARGE" 
LARGEST  IN  THE  NAVY 


PINE    STEAMBOAT 
ON  THE  MISSISSIPPI 


|*0  NT 

FULTON  S   FIRST  STEAM  BOAT 
ftN  FROM   NEW  YORK  TO  ALBANY  iSO7 


/ 

y 


FITCH'S    STEAMBOAT 
N  BETWEEN  PHILADELPHIA  AND  BURLINGTON, N.J.  1788 

' 


new  empire  in  the  southwest,  the  precise 
nature   of  which  is    uncertain.      He  found 
a  few  to  join  with   him,  but  it  came  to 
\      naught,    and  in  1807    he   was    tried  at 
1  f    Richmond,   Virginia,   on  the    charge  of 
treason,    but    acquitted.      He  spent  some 
years  in  wandering   over   Europe,  and  then 
returned  to  resume  the  practice   of  law  in 
New  York.     He  died  in  obscurity  and  pov- 
1    erty  on  Staten  Island  in  1836. 

A    notable    event    of  Jefferson's    ad 
ministrations    was    the     first  voyage    of    a 
steamboat  up  the  Hudson.    This  was  the  Cler- 
mont,  the  invention  of  Robert  Fulton,  who 
was  born  in  Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1765.    This  boat  was  slightly  over  one  hun 
dred    feet   in    length    and   about    twenty   feet 
broad,  with  side  paddle-wheels  and  a  sheet-iron 
/  boiler  brought  from  England.     There  was  general 

X^um3°s,«™«I  FLATSOAT.  ridicule  of  the  idea  of  moving  boats  by  steam  against 

a  current,  and  the  craft  was  called  "  Fulton's  Folly." 
The  crowd  which  gathered  on  the  wharf  in  New  York, 
August  1,  1807,  indulged  in  jests  which  were  not 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  STEAM  hushed  until  the  craft  moved  slowly  but  smoothly  up 
^^^o^^co^^   stream.     Heading  against  the  current,  she  made  the 

12 


178 


WASHINGTON,   ADAMS,  AND  JEFFERSON. 


voyage  to  Albany  in  thirty-two  hours.  She  met  with  some  mishaps,  but 
after  a  time  made  regular  trips  between  that  city  and  New  York,  at  the  rate  of 
five  miles  an  hour. 

OCEAN     STEAMERS. 

This  incident  marked  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  West,  where  the  first 
steamboat  was  built  in  1811.  Within  a  few  years,  they  were  plying  on  all  the 
important  rivers,  greatly  assisting  emigration  and  the  development  of  the 
country.  The  first  steamer  to  cross  the  Atlantic  was  the  Savannah  in  1819. 
The  screw  propeller  was  introduced  by  the  great  Swedish  inventor,  John  Erics 
son,  in  1836.  Really  successful  ocean  navigation  began  in  1838,  when  the 

Sirius  and  Great  Western  made  the 
voyage  from  England  to  the  United 
States. 

OPPRESSIVE    COURSE   OF    ENGLAND. 

The  devastating  war  raging  be 
tween  England  and  France  was  de 
structive  to  American  commerce  and 
interests.  The  star  of  the  wonder 
ful  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  rapidly 
in  the  ascendant,  and  his  marvelous 
military  genius  seemed  to  threaten  the 
"  equilibrium  of  the  world."  England 
had  no  love  for  the  United  States  and 
played  havoc  with  our  shipping. 
Her  privateers  infested  our  coasts,  like 
swarms  of  locusts.  Because  of  her 
immense  naval  superiority,  she  pes 
tered  us  almost  beyond  bearing.  She 
stopped  our  vessels  off-shore,  followed 
them  into  rivers  and  harbors,  overhauled  the  crews,  and  in  many  cases  took 
sailors  away  under  the  plea  that  they  were  English  deserters.  Her  claim  was 
that  "once  a  British  subject,  always  a  British  subject;"  no  sworn  allegiance 
to  any  other  government  could  release  the  claim  of  England  upon  him. 

Our  vessels  were  prohibited  from  carrying  imports  from  the  West  Indies 
to  France,  but  evaded  the  law  by  bringing  imports  to  this  country  and  then 
reshipping  them  to  France.  England  peremptorily  ordered  the  practice  to  stop 
and  declared  that  all  vessels  thus  engaged  should  be  lawful  prizes  to  her  ships. 
This  action  caused  general  indignation  in  this  country  and  thousands  of  citizens 
clamored  for  war. 


ROBERT  FULTON. 


THE  AFFAIR    OF  THE  LEOPARD  AND   CHESAPEAKE.  179 

Jefferson  never  lost  his  self-poise.  While  a  thorough  patriot,  he  knew  the 
weaning  of  war.  He  sent  a  message  to  Congress  on  the  subject  in  January, 
1806,  and  the  question  was  one  of  earnest  and  prolonged  discussion,  ending 
in  the  adoption  of  a  resolution  to  prohibit  certain  articles  of  British  manufac 
ture. 

But  matters  rapidly  grew  worse.  In  Msiy  following  England  declared  the 
coast  of  Europe,  from  the  Elbe  in  Germany  to  Brest  in  France,  in  a  state  of 
blockade.  Bonaparte  retaliated  with  the  famous  Berlin  Decree,  which  block 
aded  the  British  Islands.  In  the  spring  of  1807  the  British  ship  Leander  fired 
into  a  coasting  vessel  and  killed  one  of  the  men.  The  President  issued  a  proc 
lamation  forbidding  the  Leander  and  the  two  ships  in  her  company  from 
entering  any  of  the  waters  of  the  United  States;  calling  upon  all  officers  to 
apprehend  the  captain  of  the  Leander  on  a  charge  of  murder;  prohibiting  all 
communication  between  the  shore  and  the  ships,  and  warning  all  citizens  from 
giving  them  aid  under  penalty  of  the  law.  Envoys  were  sent  to  England  to 
adjust  the  trouble,  but  their  efforts  came  to  naught. 

THE    AFFAIR    OF    THE    LEOPARD    ANTD    CHESAPEAKE. 

Matters  were  in  this  tense  state  when  the  most  glaring  outrage  of  all  was 
perpetrated.  The  British  ship-of-war  Leopard,  of  fifty  guns,  was  cruising  off 
the  capes  of  Virginia,  hunting  for  the  American  frigate  Chesapeake,  which  she 
claimed  had  a  number  of  English  deserters  on  board.  The  Chesapeake  was 
hailed,  and  the  English  captain  asked  permission  to  send  dispatches  on  board. 
Such  courtesies  were  common,  and  Captain  James  Barron,  the  American  com 
mander,  willingly  complied  with  the  request,  When  the  boat  arrived,  a  letter 
was  presented  to  Captain  Barron,  containing  the  orders  of  the  British  admiral 
to  search  the  Chesapeake  for  a  number  of  deserters,  who  were  mentioned  by 
name.  Captain  Barron  sent  word  that  he  had  no  knowledge  of  any  deserters, 
and  refused  to  submit.  Thereupon  the  Leopard  fired  several  broadsides  into  the 
Chesapeake,  which,  being  entirely  unprepared  for  battle,  was  obliged  to  strike 
her  flag,  three  men  having  been  killed  and  eighteen  wounded.  Four  men  were 
then  selected  from  the  crew  of  the  Chesapeake,  three  of  whom  were  negroes,  all 
declared  to  be  deserters,  and  taken  on  board  the  Leopard. 

The  country  was  thrown  into  a  tumult  of  excitement,  and  the  President, 
by  proclamation,  closed  all  American  harbors  and  waters  against  the  British 
navy,  prohibited  any  intercourse  witli  such  vessels,  and  sent  a  special  minister 
to  England  to  demand  satisfaction.  Congress  was  called  together,  and  a  hundred 
thousand  men  in  7he  different  States  were  ordered  to  hold  themselves  in  readi 
ness  for  service.  The  action  of  the  captain  of  the  Leander  was  disavowed, 
reparation  offered,  and  the  offending  admiral  was  recalled,  but  the  reparation 


180  WASHINGTON,   ADAMS,   AND  JEFFERSON. 

promised  was  never  made,  and  Great  Britain   refused  to  give  up  the  right  of 
search. 

THE   EMBARGO   ACT. 

Although  the  action  of  England  was  anything  but  satisfactory,  it  averted 
war  for  the  time.  In  December,  Congress  passed  the  Embargo  Act,  which  for 
bade  all  American  vessels  to  leave  the  coast  of  the  United  States.  The  belief 
was  that  by  thus  suspending  commerce  with  England  and  France,  the  two  countries 
would  be  forced  to  respect  our  neutrality.  The  real  sufferers,  however,  were 
ourselves ;  New  England  and  New  York,  whose  shipping  business  was  ruined, 
denounced  the  act  in  unmeasured  terms.  Thus  the  administration  of  Jefferson, 
which  had  brought  so  much  material  prosperity  to  the  country  and  was  so  pro 
lific  in  beneficent  events,  closed  amid  clouds  and  threatened  disaster. 

PRESIDENTIAL   ELECTION    OF    1808. 

Iii  the  presidential  election  of  1808,  the  electoral  vote  was  as  follows: 
James  Madison,  of  Virginia,  Republican,  122  ;  Charles  C.  Pinckney,  of  South 
Carolina,  Federalist,  47  ;  George  Clinton,  of  New  York,  Republican,  6.  For 
Vice-President,  George  Clinton,  Republican,  113;  Rufus  King,  of  New  York, 
Federalist,  47;  John  Langdon,  of  New  Hampshire,  9;  James  Madison,  3; 
James  Monroe,  3.  Vacancy,  1.  Thus  Madison  and  Clinton  became  respectively 
President  and  Vice-President. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
ADMINISTRATIONS    OK     IVLADISON,    18O9— 1817 

THE    WAR   OF    1812. 

James  Madison — The  Embargo  and  the  Non-Intercourse  Acts — Revival  of  the  Latter  Against  England— 
The  Little  Belt  and  the  President— Population  of  the  United  States  in  1810— Battle  of  Tippecanoe— 
Declaration  of  War  Against  England— Comparative  Strength  of  the  Two  Nations  on  the  Ocean — 
Unpopularity  of  the  War  in  New  England— Preparations  Made  by  the  Government— Cowardly  Sur 
render  of  Detroit— Presidential  Election  of  1812— Admission  of  Louisiana  and  Indiana— New 
National  Bank  Chartered — Second  Attempt  to  Invade  Canada— Battle  of  Queenstown  Heights- 
Inefficiency  of  the  American  Forces  in  1812— Brilliant  Work  of  the  Navy — The  Constitution  and  the 
Guerriere — The  Wasp  and  the  Frolic — The  United  States  and  the  Macedonian — The  Constitution  and 
the  Java — Reorganization  and  Strengthening  of  the  Army — Operations  in  the  West — Gallant  Defense 
of  Fort  Stephenson — American  Invasion  of  Ohio  and  Victory  of  the  Thames — Indian  Massacre  at 
Fort  Minims — Capture  of  York  (Toronto) — Defeat  of  the  Enemy  at  Sackett's  Harbor — Failure  of  the 
American  Invasion  of  Canada — The  Hornet  and  Peacock — Capture  of  the  Chesapeake — "Don't  Give 
Up  the  Ship" — Captain  Decatur  Blockaded  at  New  London — Capture  of  the  Argus  by  the  Enemy — 
Cruise  of  the  Essex — The  Glorious  Victory  of  Commodore  Perry  on  Lake  Erie — Success  of  the 
American  Arms  in  Canada — Battle  of  the  Chippewa — Of  Lundy's  Lane — Decisive  Defeat  of  the 
Enemy's  Attack  on  Plattsburg — Punishment  of  the  Creek  Indians  for  the  Massacre  at  Fort  Mimms 
— Vigorous  Action  by  the  National  Government — Burning  of  Washington  by  the  British — The 
Hartford  Convention. 

JAMES    MADISON. 

JAMES  MADISON,  the  fourth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Port 
Conway,  Virginia,  March  16,  1751,  and  died  June  28,  1836.  He  received 
the  best  educational  facilities  and  graduated  from  Princeton  College  at  the 
age  of  twenty.  He  devoted  himself  so  closely  to  study  that  he  permanently 
injured  his  health.  In  1776,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Legis 
lature,  and  was  offered  the  mission  to  France,  after  the  return  of  Jefferson,  but 
declined  it.  Again  he  had  the  chance  of  becoming  Jefferson's  successor,  when 
the  1  utter  resigned  as  secretary  of  State,  but  refused  through  fear  of  causing 
differences  in  Washington's  'cabinet.  He  was  a  Federalist  at  first,  but  changed 
his  views  and  became  an  earnest  Republican.  Jefferson  made  him  his  secretary 
of  State,  and  he  served  throughout  both  administrations.  He  was  a  cultured 
gentleman,  an  ardent  friend  of  Jefferson,  and  carried  out  his  policy  when  he 
became  President. 

THE    NON-INTERCOURSE    ACT. 

Just  before  the  close  of  Jefferson's  last  term,  Congress  repealed  the  Embargo 
Act  and  passed  the  Non-Intercourse  Act,  which  forbade  all  trade  with  England. 

(181) 


182 


ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MADISON. 


This  was  in  1809,  and  the  law  was  abrogated  in  the  following  year.  Our  rela 
tions  with  England,  however,  continued  to  grow  more  irritating,  until  it  became 
clear  that  war  was  at  hand.  Congress  gave  notice  that  if  either  Great  Britain  or 
France  would  repeal  their  offensive  decrees,  the  Non-Intercourse  Act  would  be 
revived  against  the  other.  Bonaparte  immediately  announced  that  he  revoked 
bis  decrees,  but  instead  of  doing  so,  he  enforced  them  more  rigidly  than  before, 
thus  accomplishing  what  he  sought,  that  of  arraying  the  United  States  against 
Great  Britain.  The  Non-Intercourse  Law  was  revived  against  Great  Britain, 
whose  conduct  became  more  exasperating  than  ever.  Our  whole  coast  was  under 

surveillance,  and  many  of  our  mer 
chant  vessels  were  captured  without 
any  excuse  whatever. 

In  the  dusk  of  early  evening, 
May  16,  1811,  the  British  sloop  Lit 
tle  Belt,  while  occupied  in  holding 
up  American  vessels,  hailed  the  frig 
ate  President  off  the  coast  of  Vir 
ginia.  Deeming  the  reply  of  the 
American  not  sufficiently  respectful, 
the  Little  Belt  fired  a  shot  at  the 
•President,  which  instantly  let  fly 
with  a  broadside,  followed  by  several 
others,  that  killed  eleven  men  and 
wounded  twenty-one.  The  incident 
added  to  the  angry  excitement  in 
both  countries  and  brought  war 
nearer. 

BATTLE    OF    TIPPECANOE. 

The  population  of  the  United 
States  in  1810  was  7,239,881,  some 
what   more  than  a  third    of  Great 
itain  and  Ireland.     Our  growth  in  the  West  was  rapid.     There  was  a  con- 
stream  of  emigration  thither,  and  the  Indians,  seeing  how  rapidly  their 
hunting  grounds  were  passing  from  them,  combined  to  resist  the  invasion.'   This 
done  under  the  leadership  of  Tecumseh,  the  ablest  Indian  that  ever  lived. 
In  this  course  he  was  incited  by   British  agents,  who,  knowing  that  war   was 
were  anxious  to  do  the  Americans  all  the  harm  they  could.     The  out 
rages  of  the  red  men  became  so  numerous  that  General  William  Henry  Harri- 
>n,  governor  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  gathered  a  large  force  and  marched 
Near  the  present  city  of  Lafayette,  while  encamped  at  a  place 


JAMES   MADISON. 

0751-ia36.)    Two  terms,  1809-1817. 


ENGLAND'S   OVERWHELMING   NAVAL  STRENGTH.  183 

called  Tippecanoe,  lie  was  furiously  assailed  (Nov.  7,  1811)  by  the  Indians. 
Tecumseh  was  absent  at  the  time,  and  the  battle  was  brought  on,  against  his 
orders,  by  his  brother,  called  "  The  Prophet."  The  loss  was  severe  on  both 
sides,  but  the  Indians  were  decisively  defeated. 

By  this  time  the  American  people  were  clamoring  more  loudly  than  ever 
for  war  with  England.  The  congressional  candidates  were  obliged  to  declare 
whether  they  favored  or  opposed  the  war.  Those  who  opposed  it  were  beaten  at 
the  polls.  Congress,  which  had  been  making  preparations  for  some  time  for 
hostilities,  declared  war  against  England,  June  18,  1812.  It  is  a  regrettable  fact 
that  we  could  not  know  that  almost  on  the  same  day  England  suspended  the 
Orders  of  Council,  so  far  as  they  affected  this  country.  Had  the  Atlantic  cable 
been  in  existence  at  the  time,  there  would  have  been  no  war. 

ENGLAND'S  OVERWHELMING  NAVAL  STRENGTH. 

England  had  been  fighting  so  continuously  with  her  neighbors  that  her 
strength  on  the  ocean  was  overwhelming  when  compared  with  ours.  She  had 
1,036  vessels,  of  which  254  were  ships-of-the-line,  not  one  of  which  carried  less 
than  seventy-four  guns.  This  immense  navy  was  manned  by  144,000  men. 
The  American  navy  numbered  12  vessels,  besides  a  few  gunboats  of  little  value. 
Indeed,  the  relative  strength  of  the  warring  nations  was  so  disproportionate 
that  the  intention  of  the  United  States  at  first  was  not  to  attempt  a  conflict  on 
the  ocean.  Captains  Bainbridge  and  Stewart,  however,  persuaded  the  govern 
ment  to  allow  our  little  navy  to  try  its  hand. 

Despite  the  seeming  hopelessness  of  such  a  struggle,  it  had  some  advantages 
for  the  Americans.  In  the  first  place,  it  was  easier  for  them  to  find  the  enemy 
than  for  the  latter  to  find  them,  because  of  the  disproportion  between  the  num 
ber  of  their  vessels.  More  important,  however,  than  all  was  the  fact  that  our 
navy  contained  no  politicians.  The  men  were  brave  sailors,  and  marvelously 
skillful  in  handling  guns.  With  these  conditions  they  were  sure  to  win  glory 
on  the  ocean. 

Still  another  fact  must  be  mentioned,  for  it  will  explain  many  of  the  inci 
dents  recorded  in  the  following  pages.  England  had  been  triumphant  so  long 
on  the  ocean  that  she  had  become  unduly  confident  and  careless.  She  held  the 
surrounding  nations  in  light  esteem,  and  had  good  warrant  for  doing  so. 
Naturally  this  led  her  greatly  to  underestimate  the  insignificant  American  navy. 
When  such  a  mistake  is  made  the  consequences  are  sure  to  be  disastrous  to  the 
one  committing  the  blunder. 

Truth  compels  the  statement  that  in  every  war  in  which  our  country  has 
been  engaged  since  the  Revolution,  the  disasters  have  been  mainly  due  to  the 
politicians.  They  have  the  "  pull,"  as  it  is  called,  with  the  government,  and 


184  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MADISON. 

secure  the  appointment  of  men  as  leaders  who  are  totally  lacking  in  military  skill. 
When  defeat  has  followed  defeat,  with  exasperating  regularity,  the  government 
gradually  awakes  to  the  fact  that  the  most  criminal  thing  it  can  do  is  to  place  a 
politician  in  charge  of  a  body  of  brave  men,  or  to  appoint  a  callow  youth  to  the 
same  position,  merely  because  his  father  was  a  good  soldier  and  has  become  a 
politician. 

THE    WAR    UNPOPULAR    IN    SOME    SECTIONS. 

Moreover,  it  must  be  remembered  that  our  country  was  by  no  means  a  unit 
in  favoring  the  second  war  with  England.  It  was  popular  in  most  of  the  Middle 
States  and  the  South,  but  bitterly  opposed  in  New  England.  When  the  news 
reached  Boston  of  the  declaration  of  war,  the  shipping  hung  their  flags  at  half- 
mast.  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  New  Jersey,  through  their  Legislatures, 
protested  against  it,  but,  as  in  the  Revolution,  the  general  enthusiasm  swept 
away  all  opposition. 

An  increase  of  the  regular  army  was  ordered  to  25,000  men,  in  addition  to 
the  call  for  50,000  volunteers,  while  the  States  were  asked  to  summon  100,000 
militia,  to  be  used  in  defense  of  the  coast  and  harbors.  The  government 
authorized  a  loan  of  $11,000,000,  and  Henry  Dearborn,  of  Massachusetts,  was 
made  the  first  major-general  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  while  the 
principal  brigadiers  were  James  Wilkinson,  William  Hull,  Joseph  Bloomfield, 
and  Wade  Hampton,  the  last  being  father  of  the  general  of  the  same  name 
who  became  famous  as  a  Confederate  leader  in  the  War  for  the  Union. 

A    SHAMEFUL    SURRENDER. 

The  opening  battle  of  the  war  was  one  of  the  most  shameful  affairs  that 
ever  befell  the  American  arms.  General  William  Hull,  who  had  made  a 
creditable  record  in  the  Revolution,  was  governor  of  Michigan  Territory.  He 
was  ordered  to  cross  the  river  from  Detroit,  which  was  his  home,  and  invade 
Canada.  He  showed  great  timidity,  and  learning  that  a  British  force,  under 
General  Brock,  was  advancing  against  him,  he  recrossed  the  river  and  returned 
to  Detroit,  before  which  General  Brock  appeared,  on  the  12th  of  August,  at  the 
head  of  700  British  soldiers  and  600  Indians.  In  demanding  the  surrender  of 
the  post,  he  frightened  Hull,  whose  daughter  and  her  children  were  with  him 
by  telling  him  he  would  be  unab1,^  to  restrain  the  ferocity  of  his  Indians,  if  the 
Americans  made  a  defense. 

The  soldiers  were  brave  and  eager  to  fight,  but,  to  their  inexpressible  dis 
gust,  the  siege  had  been  pressed  but  a  short  time  when  Hull  ran  up  a  white 
flag  and  surrendered,  August  16th.  With  the  submission  of  Detroit  went  the 
whole  territory  northwest  of  Ohio. 

The  country  was  angered  and  humiliated  by  the  act.    Twenty-five  men  were 


BATTLE  OF  QUEENSTOWN  HEIGHTS.  185 

given  in  exchange  for  Hull,  and  he  was  placed  on  trial,  charged  with  treason, 
cowardice,  and  conduct  unbecoming  an  officer.  He  was  convicted  on  the  last 
two  charges  and  sentenced  to  be  shot.  In  recognition  of  his  services  in  the 
Revolution,  however,  the  President  pardoned  him,  and  he  died,  without  ever 
having  gained  the  respect  of  his  countrymen,  in  1825. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1812. 

Before  proceeding  with  the  history  of  the  war,  a  few  incidents  not  con 
nected  with  it  should  be  recorded.  In  the  presidential  election  of  1812,  the 
electoral  vote  was :  for  President,  James  Madison,  Republican,  128 ;  De  Witt 
Clinton,  of  New  York,  Federalist,  89.  For  Vice-President,  Elbridge  Gerry,  of 
Massachusetts,  Republican,  131  ;  Jared  Ingersoll,  of  Pennsylvania,  Federalist, 
86.  Vacancy,  1.  Thus  Madison  and  Gerry  were  elected. 

Louisiana  was  admitted  as  a  State  in  1812,  being  a  part  of  the  immense 
territory  of  that  name  purchased  from  France  in  1803.  Indiana  was  admitted 
in  1816,  and  was  the  second  of  the  five  States  carved  out  of  the  old  Northwest 
Territory.  It  will  be  recalled  that  the  United  States  Bank  was  chartered  in 
1791  for  twenty  years.  Its  charter,  therefore,  expired  in  1811.  In  1816, 
Congress  chartered  a  new  bank,  on  the  same  plan  and  for  the  same  length  of 
time.  The  public  money  was  to  be  deposited  in  it  or  its  branches,  except  when 
the  secretary  of  the  treasury  choose  to  order  its  deposit  elsewhere. 

BATTLE    OF    QUEENSTOWN    HEIGHTS. 

Returning  to  the  history  of  the  war,  it  has  to  be  said  that  the  second 
attempt  to  invade  Canada  was  more  disastrous  if  possible  than  the  first,  and 
more  disgraceful  to  American  arms.  The  troops  on  the  Niagara  frontier  were 
mainly  New  York  militia,  with  a  few  regulars  and  recruits  from  other  States,  all 
under  the  command  of  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer.  Resolved  to  capture  the 
Heights  of  Queenstown,  he  sent  two  columns  across  the  river  on  the  morning 
of  October  13,  1812.  They  were  led  by  Colone4  Solomon  Van  Rensselaer, 
cousin  of  the  general  and  a  brave  officer.  The  engagement  was  a  brisk  one, 
the  colonel  being  wounded  early  in  the  fight,  but  his  troops  gallantly  charged 
the  Heights  and  captured  the  fortress.  General  Brock  was  reinforced  and 
attacked  the  Americans,  but  was  repulsed,  Brock  being  killed.  The  fierceness 
of  the  battle  is  shown  by  that  fact  that  the  three  commanders  who  succeeded 
Brock  were  either  killed  or  severely  wounded. 

Under  the  attack  of  superior  forces,  the  Americans  had  managed  to  hold 
their  ground  and  they  now  began  to  intrench.  Meanwhile,  the  1,200  New 
York  militia  on  the  other  side  of  the  river  had  become  frightened  by  the 
sounds  of  battle,  and  when  called  upon  to  cross  refused  to  do  so,  on  the  cowardly 


186  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MADISON. 

plea  that  they  had  enlisted  to  defend  only  their  State.  Lieutenant-Colonel  Winfield 
Scott  had  taken  command  of  the  brigade  and  was  engaged  in  intrenching,  when 
the  enemy,  again  reinforced,  drove  his  troops,  after  two  attacks,  to  the  river, 
where  they  were  hemmed  in  and  compelled  to  surrender.  The  American  loss 
in  killed  and  wounded  was  fully  a  thousand.  General  Van  Rensselaer  was  so 
disgusted  with  the  conduct  of  his  militia  that  he  resigned  his  command,  and 
was  succeeded  hy  General  Alexander  Smyth,  of  Virginia,  whose  conduct  led  to 
the  general  conviction  that  he  was  mentally  about  as  near  to  being  an  idiot  as 
it  is  possible  for  a  man  to  be  and  still  retain  a  little  ground  for  being  thought 
otherwise. 

The  first  thing  General  Smyth  did  was  to  issue  a  proclamation  of  so  bom 
bastic  a  character  that  his  friends  were  humiliated.  He  made  several  starts 
toward  Canada,  but  in  each  instance  recalled  his  troops,  and  acted  so  inexplic 
ably  that  the  militia  were  on  the  point  of  revolting,  when  he  was  deprived  of  his 
command.  This  closed  the  military  operations  for  the  year  1812,  and  the  story 
is  enough  to  crimson  the  cheek  of  every  American  with  shame. 

BRILLIANT    WORK   OF    THE    AMERICAN    NAVY. 

On  the  ocean,  however,  the  record  was  brilliant  and  as  astonishing  to 
friends  as  to  enemies.  Hardly  had  the  news  of  the  declaration  of  war  reached 
New  York,  when  Commodore  John  Rodgers  put  to  sea  in  the  President,  the 
same  vessel  that  had  taught  the  Little  Belt  her  severe  lesson.  Some  time  later 
Rodgers  sighted  the  frigate  Belvidera  and  gave  chase.  He  killed  a  number 
of  the  crew,  but  the  vessel  managed  to  escape.  Continuing  his  cruise,  he  cap 
tured  a  number  of  merchantmen  and  retook  an  American  prize.  The  luckiest 
ship  in  the  American  navy  was  said  to  be  the  Constitution,  afterward  popu 
larly  known  as  "Old  Ironsides."  Under  command  of  Captain  Isaac  Hull, 
nephew  of  the  disgraced  general  of  Detroit,  she  engaged  the  sloop-of-war  Guer- 
riere  off  the  coast  of  Massachusetts.  The  battle  was  a  desperate  one,  but 
extraordinary  markmanship  prevailed,  and  the  enemy  were  compelled  to  strike 
their  flag  after  a  loss  of  79  killed  and  wounded,  while  that  of  the  Americans 
was  7  killed  and  7  wounded. 

The  victory  caused  deep  chagrin  in  England  and  corresponding  rejoicing 
in  the  United  States.  Congress  gave  Captain  Hull  a  gold  medal  and  distributed 
$50,000  among  his  crew. 

In  October,  the  sloop-of-war  Wasp,  Captain  Jacob  Jones,  met  the  British 
brig  Frolic  off  Cape  Hatteras.  Since  the  vessels  were  of  precisely  the  same 
strength,  the  contest  could  not  have  been  a  more  perfect  test  of  the  bravery  and 
efficiency  of  the  ships  of  England  and  our  own  country.  As  respects  bravery, 
vt  was  equal,  for  the  men  on  both  sides  fought  with  a  courage  that  could  not 


BRILLIANT   WORK   OF  THE  AMERICAN  NAVY. 


187 


^ 


been  surpassed.  When  the  crew  of  the 
Wasp  boarded  the  Frolic,  they  found  no 
one  on  deck  except  the  man  at  the  wheel 
and  two  wounded  officers.  The  vessels  were 
so  damaged  that  on  the  same  day  the 
British  ship  Poicters  captured  both. 

During  the  same  month  (Octo 
ber  2oth),  Commodore  Stephen  De- 
catur,    in    command   of   the    frigate 
United   States,    encountered 
ilie    British    frigate    Macedo 
nian  off  the  Island  of  Madeira, 
tured  her  after  a  battle  of  two 
which    he    lost   twelve 
of   the  enemy   was 
a    hundred.        The 
ian  was  so  shattered 
with    the     greatest 
was      she 


THE  ARTS  OF  PEACE  AND  THE  AKT  OF  WAR. 


and     cap- 
hours,    in 
while  that 
more  than 
Macedon- 
that    only 
difficulty 
New  London. 
The        com 
mand  of  the    Con 
stitution   was    now 
turned     over    to 
Bainbridge,     who 
sighted  the  frigate 
Java  off  the  coast 
of  Brazil,   December  29th. 
In   the   terrific  battle   that 
followed    he   lost   34   men, 
but  killed  120  of  the  enemy, 
tore   out    every    mast,    and 
burst  her  hull  with   round 
.  -    shot.     The  Java  was  blown 
up,  and   the   prisoners  and 
wounded    were      taken     to 
Boston,    where    Bainbridge 
received  a  right  royal  wel 
come. 

This    ends  the  history 
of  the  first  half-year  of  the 


188  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MADISON. 

war  of  1812.  While  everything  went  wrong  on  land,  the  ocean  showed  only 
a  succession  of  brilliant  victories.  England,  chagrined  and  humiliated,  declared 
that  her  flag  had  been  disgraced  "by  a  piece  of  striped  bunting  flying  at  the 
mast-heads  of  a  few  fir-built  frigates,  manned  by  a  handful  of  outlaws." 

REORGANIZATION    OF    THE    ARMY. 

Congress  took  measures  for  strengthening  and  reorganizing  the  army. 
The  pay  and  bounty  of  the  soldiers  were  increased;  the  President  was  em 
powered  to  raise  twenty  additional  regiments  of  infantry,  to  borrow  money, 
and  to  issue  treasury  i.otes,  and  provisions  were  made  for  adding  four  ships-of- 
the-line,  six  frigates,  and  as  many  vessels  of  war  on  the  Great  Lakes  as  might  be 
needed.  The  army  was  organized  into  three  divisions:  the  Army  of  the  North, 
under  General  Wade  Hampton,  to  act  in  the  country  about  Lake  Champlain ; 
the  Army  of  the  Centre,  under  the  eommander-in-chief,  General  Henry  Dear 
born,  to  act  on  the  Niagara  frontier  and  Lake  Ontario;  and  the  Army  of  the 
East,  under  General  Winchester,  who  soon  after  was  superseded  by  General 
William  Henry  Harrison. 

IN    THE    WEST. 

The  last-named  officer  did  his  utmost  to  drive  the  British  out  of  Detroit. 
His  troops  were  volunteers,  brave  but  undisciplined,  and  displayed  their  most 
effective  work  in  scattered  fighting  and  against  the  Indians;  but  their  success 
was  not  decisive.  When  the  swamps  and  lakes  of  the  Northwest  were  suffi 
ciently  frozen  to  bear  their  weight,  Harrison  repeated  his  attempts  to  expel  the 
British  from  Detroit.  His  advance,  under  General  Winchester,  was  attacked 
on  the  River  Raisin  by  the  British,  led  by  General  Proctor.  Winchester  was 
as  prompt  as  General  Hull  in  surrendering.  Proctor  allowed  his  Indians  to 
massacre  the  wounded  prisoners,  most  of  whom  were  Kentuckians.  Thereafter, 
when  the  Kentucky  troops  rushed  into  battle  they  raised  the  war-cry,  "Re 
member  the  Raisin  !" 

The  disaster  to  Winchester  caused  Harrison  to  fall  back  to  Fort  Meigs, 
which  stood  near  the  site  of  the  present  town  of  Defiance.  There,  in  the  spring 
of  1813,  he  was  besieged  by  Proctor.  A  force  of  Kentuckians  relieved  him, 
after  severe  loss,  and  Proctor  retreated.  Some  months  later  he  again  advanced 
against  Fort  Meigs,  but  was  repulsed,  and  marched  to  Fort  Stephenson,  where 
Fremont  now  stands. 

The  besiegers  consisted  of  3,000  British  and  Indians,  while  the  garrison 
numbered  only  160,  under  the  command  of  Major  George  Croghan,  only  twenty 
years  of  age.  When  Proctor  ordered  the  youth  to  surrender  he  threatened 
that,  in  case  of  resistance,  every  prisoner  would  be  tomahawked.  Major 
Croghan  replied  that  when  the  surrender  took  place  there  would  not  be  a  single 


CAPTURE  OF  TORONTO  (YORK).  189 

man  left  to  tomahawk.  Although  Croghaii  had  but  a  single  cauiion,  he  made 
so  gallant  a  defense  that  his  assailants  were  repulsed,  and  Proctor,  fearing  the 
approach  of  Harrison,  withdrew  from  the  neighborhood. 

BATTLE    OF    THE    THAMES. 

Perry's  great  victory  on  Lake  Erie  in  September,  1813,  as  related  further 
on,  gave  the  Americans  command  of  that  body  of  water.  Harrison's  troops 
were  placed  on  board  of  Perry's  vessels  and  carried  across  from  Ohio  to  Canada. 
They  landed  near  Maiden  and  Proctor  fell  back  to  Sandwich,  with  the  Ameri 
cans  following.  He  continued  his  retreat  to  the  Thames,  where,  with  the  help 
of  Tecumseh,  lie  selected  a  good  battle-ground  and  awaited  the  Americans,  who 
attacked  him  on  the  5th  of  October.  Proctor  fled  early  in  the  battle,  but  his 
regulars  fought  bravely.  The  1,500  Indians,  under  the  lead  of  Tecumseh, 
displayed  unusual  heroism,  but,  when  the  great  Tecumseh  fell,  they  fled  in  a 
panic.  The  American  victory  was  overwhelming  and  complete. 

Tecumseh's  irresistible  eloquence  had  roused  the  Creeks  to  take  the  war 
path  in  the  South.  The  danger  became  so  imminent  that  500  of  the  inhabitants 
took  refuge  in  a  stockade  known  as  Fort  Mimms,  Alabama,  thirty-five  miles 
above  Mobile.  The  sentinels,  believing  there  was  no  danger,  were  careless,  and 
on  August  21,  1813,  nearly  a  thousand  Creeks  attacked  the  place,  which  was 
surprised  and  captured  after  feeble  resistance.  More  than  200  were  tomahawked, 
the  negroes  being  spared  to  become  slaves  of  the  Indians. 

CAPTURE    OF    TORONTO    (YORK). 

In  April  of  this  year,  General  Dearborn  crossed  Lake  Ontario  from 
Sackett's  Harbor  to  Toronto  (then  known  as  York),  which  was  the  capital  of 
Upper  Canada  and  the  chief  depot  for  the  supply  of  the  western  garrisons. 
Under  a  sharp  fire,  General  Zebulon  Pike  drove  the  enemy  from  the  works. 
The  explosion  of  a  magazine  in  the  fort  caused  the  death  of  General  Pike  in 
the  moment  of  victory. 

The  operations  left  Sackett's  Harbor  almost  unprotected,  and  led  to  an 
attack  by  the  British  admiral,  Sir  James  Yeo,  and  General  Prevost.  The  com 
mander  of  the  garrison  appealed  to  General  Jacob  Brown,  a  militia  officer  of 
the  neighborhood,  who  hurriedly  gathered  a  small  force  and  added  it  to  the 
defenders.  In  the  attack  which  followed  Brown  showed  great  skill,  and 
General  Prevost,  believing  his  retreat  was  about  to  be  cut  off,  fled  in  a  panic, 
leaving  300  dead  and  wounded.  In  the  engagements  in  that  section  during  the 
remainder  of  the  year,  General  Brown  was  about  the  only  officer  who  displayed 
any  military  ability,  his  skill  eventually  placing  him  at  the  head  of  the  United 
States  army. 


190  ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  MADISON. 

The  fighting  that  followed  was  mainly  in  favor  of  the  British,  who  recap 
tured  York.  Eight  hundred  Americans  were  made  prisoners  at  Beaver  Dams, 
and,  as  the  autumn  approached,  the  enemy  found  themselves  in  command  of  a 
powerful  squadron. 

INCOMPETENT    COMMANDERS. 

There  was  much  dissatisfaction  with  General  Dearborn,  the  head  of  the 
army.  He  was  in  ill-health,  never  led  his  troops  in  person,  and  missed  a  good 
opportunity  of  capturing  Montreal.  He  was  relieved  in  June  and  succeeded  by 
General  Wilkinson,  who  arrived  at  Sackett's  Harbor  in  August.  He  began 
preparations  for  invading  Canada,  but  was  so  laggard  in  his  movements  that  the 
enemy  had  abundance  of  time  in  which  to  make  ready.  The  St.  Lawrence 
seemed  to  be  fortified  at  every  point,  but  General  Brown,  by  brave  fighting, 
opened  the  way  for  the  flotilla. 

General  Wilkinson  reached  St.  Regis,  November  llth,  at  which  point 
General  Wade  Hampton  was  to  co-operate  with  him.  But  that  officer,  owing  to 
a  lack  of  provisions,  had  fallen  back  to  Plattsburg,  hoping  to  keep  open  his 
communications  with  the  St.  Lawrence.  This  obliged  General  Wilkinson  to 
retreat,  and  Wilkinson,  Hampton,  and  other  officers  quarreled  like  so  many 
children. 

Disaster  and  disgrace  seemed  to  follow  the  American  land  forces  during  the 
first  two  years  of  the  war,  but  the  fault  lay  wholly  with  the  officers,  who  were 
incompetent,  and  many  times  lacking  in  patriotism.     The  soldiers  were  brave 
but  were  comparatively  powerless  with  such  poor  commanders. 

Once  again  the  American  navy  performed  brilliant  work,  though,  unfor 
tunately,  the  record  was  marred  by  a  sad  disaster.  On  February  24th,  Captain 
James  Lawrence,  who  had  made  several  minor  captures  from  the  enemy,  riddled 
the  English  brig-of-war  Peacock,  while  in  command  of  the  Hornet,  and,  in  a 
fierce  engagement  of  fifteen  minutes,  compelled  her  to  surrender  and  hoist  a 
signal  of  distress.  She  went  down  so  quickly  that  several  of  the  Hornet's  crew, 
who  were  giving  aid,  sank  with  her,  besides  thirteen  of  the  enemy.  Captain 
Lawrence  treated  his  prisoners  so  kindly  that,  upon  reaching  New  York,  they 
gave  him  a  letter  of  thanks. 

CAPTURE    OF    THE    CHESAPEAKE    BY    THE    SHANNON. 

Captain  Lawrence's  fine  work  caused  him  to  be  promoted  to  the  command 
of  the  Chesapeake,  then  refitting  at  Boston.  Captain  Broke  (afterward  Sir 
Philip,  B.  V.),  commander  of  the  Shannon,  cruising  off  Boston,  challenged 
Lawrence  to  come  out  and  fight  him.  The  American  promptly  accepted  the  chal 
lenge.  It  was  a  piece  of  unwarrantable  recklessness,  for  the  Chesapeake  was 
not  yet  ready  for  the  sea,  and  his  crew  was  undisciplined  and  in  a  surly  mood, 


CAPTAIN  DECATUR   CHECKED. 


191 


because  some  promised  prize  money  had  not  been  paid  them.     Moreover,  it  is 
said  that  most  of  the  sailors  were  under  the  influence  of  liquor. 

The  Chesapeake  sailed  gaily  out  of  the  harbor  on  the  1st  of  June,  followed 
by  a  number  of  pleasure  boats  and  barges  crowded  with  spectators,  while  the  hills 
swarmed  with  people,  many  with  glasses,  all  anxious  to  witness  the  triumph  of 
the  gallant  young  captain.  A  woeful  disappointment  awaited  them. 

The  battle  was  a  terrific  one.  In  a  short  time  the  rigging  of  the  Chesa 
peake  was  so  mangled  that  she  became  unmanageable,  and  could  not  escape  a 
raking  fire  which  did  frightful 
execution.  Captain  Lawrence  was 
twice  wounded,  the  last  time  mor 
tally,  and  was  carried  below  at  the 
time  the  enemy  were  preparing  to 
board.  He  ordered  that  the  colors 
should  not  be  struck.  "  Tell  the 
men  to  fire  faster,"  he  cried  ;  "  don't 
give  up  the  ship  !  " 

Boarders  swarmed  over  the 
Chesapeake  and  a  few  minutes  later 
she  was  captured,  the  loss  of  the 
Americans  being  48  killed  and  98 
wounded,  that  of  the  enemy  being 
about  half  as  great.  Lawrence  lived 
four  days,  most  of  the  time  delirious, 
during  which  he  continually  re 
peated  the  appeal,  "Don't  give  up 
the  ship  !  "  The  impressiveness  of 
the  circumstances  and  the  words 
themselves  made  them  the  motto  of 
the  American  navy  in  many  a  sub 
sequent  engagement. 

Lawrence  was  one  of  the  brav- 
est  of  men,  and  entered  the  navy  when  only  seventeen  years  old.  He  helped 
Captain  Decatur  in  burning  the  Philadelphia,  in  the  harbor  of  Tripoli,  dur 
ing  the  war  with  that  country.  His  body  was  taken  to  Halifax  and  buried 
with  the  honors  of  war,  several  of  the  oldest  captains  in  the  British  navy 
acting  as  pall-bearers. 

CAPTAIN  DECATUK  CHECKED. 

An  exasperating  experience  befell  Captain  Decatur.  On  the  day  of  the 
capture  of  the  Chesapeake,  he  was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the  harbor  of 


MRS.  JAMES    MADISON 

iDOLLY  PAYNE). 

During  the  burning  of  Washington  in  1812  by  the  British,  Dolly 
Madison's  heroism  saved  the  Declaration  of  Independence  from  de- 
She  broke  the  glass  case  containing  it  and  fled. 


192  ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  MADISON. 

New  London,  to  escape  a  powerful  squadron.  He  was  in  command  of  tla- 
United  States,  the  Macedonian,  and  the  Hornet.  Chafing  with  impatience,  he 
made  repeated  attempts  to  get  to  sea,  but  he  declared  that  in  every  instance  the 
blockading  squadron  were  notified  by  means  of  blue  lights  displayed  by  Tories 
on  shore.  He  was  thus  held  helpless  until  the  close  of  hostilities.  This 
betrayal  by  his  own  countrymen  caused  much  resentment  throughout  the  coun 
try,  and  the  enemies  of  the  Federal  party  gave  it  the  name  of  "  Blue  Lights," 
and  Connecticut  was  often  taunted  for  her  disloyal  course  in  the  war,  though  the 
offenders  were  probably  few  in  number. 

By  this  time,  England  had  acquired  so  wholesome  a  respect  for  the  Ameri 
can  navy  that  orders  were  issued  that  two  or  three  vessels  should  always  cruise 
in  company,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  a  single  vessel  engage  an 
American,  where  there  was  the  least  preponderance  against  the  British.  The 
Americans  were  the  only  nation  against  whom  such  an  order  was  ever  issued. 

Captain  William  Henry  Allen,  in  command  of  the  brig  Argus,  boldly 
entered  the  English  Channel  and  destroyed  much  shipping  of  the  enemy. 
Many  vessels  were  sent  in  search  of  him,  and  on  the  14th  of  August  he  was  cap 
tured  by  the  Pelican.  Soon  afterward  the  brig  Enterprise  captured  the  British 
Boxer  off  the  coast  of  Maine.  The  fight  was  a  desperate  one,  both  commanders 
being  killed.  They  were  buried  side  by  side  in  Portland. 

THE   CRUISE   OF   THE    ESSEX. 

In  the  spring  of  1813,  Captain  David  Porter  (father  of  Admiral  David 
Dixon  Porter),  in  command  of  the  Essex,  doubled  Cape  Horn  and  entered  the 
Pacific,  where  until  then  no  American  frigate  had  ever  been  seen.  He  pro 
tected  American  vessels  and  nearly  broke  up  the  British  whaling  trade  in  that 
ocean.  He  made  so  many  captures  that  he  soon  had  almost  a  fleet  under  his 
command,  and  was  able  to  pay  his  men  with  the  money  taken  from  the  enemy. 
Every  nation  in  that  region  was  a  friend  of  England,  and  he  seized  the  Mar 
quesas  Islands,  where  lie  refitted  his  fleet  and  resumed  his  cruise.  Early  in 
1814,  he  entered  the  neutral  harbor  of  Valparaiso,  where  he  was  blockaded  by 
two  British  vessels  that  had  long  been  searching  for  him.  Regardless  of  inter 
national  law,  they  attacked  the  Essex,  which  was  in  a  crippled  condition  and 
unable  to  close  with  them,  and  finally  compelled  her  surrender. 

OPERATIONS    ON    THE    LAKES. 

Thus  far  our  record  of  the  exploits  of  the  American  navy  has  been  con 
fined  to  the  ocean,  but  the  most  important  doings  of  all  occurred  on  the  lakes. 
At  the  beginning,  our  force  upon  these  inland  waters  was  weak.  On  Lake 
Ontario,  there  was  but  one  small  vessel,  while  the  British  had  several.  Both 


PERRY'S   GREAT    VICTORY.  193 

sides  began  building  war- vessels.  The  American  fleet  was  commanded  by  Com 
modore  Cliauncey  and  the  British  by  Sir  James  Yeo.  They  alternated  in  gain 
ing  command  of  the  lake.  Meanwhile,  the  ship-builders  were  so  busy  that  from 
about  a  dozen  vessels  on  either  side  they  increased  the  number  to  more  than  a 
hundred  each  by  the  close  of  the  war. 

PERRY'S  GREAT  VICTORY. 

One  of  the  grandest  of  all  triumphs  was  gained  by  the  American  navy  in 
the  early  autumn  of  1813.  Captain  Oliver  Hazard  Perry  was  sent  to  Lake 
Erie  to  build  a  navy.  Perry  at  that  time  was  not  thirty  years  old  and  had 
never  seen  a  naval  battle.  By  August,  he  had  a  squadron  of  two  large  and 
seven  small  vessels,  carrying  54  guns  and  416  men,  with  which  he  set  out  to 
find  Commodore  Barclay,  who  had  two  large  and  four  small  vessels,  with  63 
guns  and  440  men. 

The  two  squadrons  met  at  the  western  end  of  Lake  Erie  on  the  10th  of 
September.  Barclay  centred  such  a  furious  fire  upon  the  Lawrence,  Perry's 
flagship,  that  in  two  hours  she  was  in  a  sinking  condition.  Perry  entered  a 
small  boat,  and,  exposed  to  a  sharp  fire,  was  rowed  to  the  Niagara,  on  which 
he  hoisted  his  flag.  The  battle  was  renewed,  and,  while  the  enemy  was  trying 
to  form  a  new  line  of  battle,  Perry  ran  the  Niagara  directly  through  the  fleet, 
delivering  broadsides  right  and  left.  The  other  vessels  were  prompt  in  following 
her,  and  poured  such  a  raking  fire  into  the  enemy  that  fifteen  minutes  later 
Barclay  surrendered.  The  British  commander  had  but  one  arm  when  the 
battle  opened,  and,  before  it  ended,  his  remaining  arm  was  shot  off.  He  lost 
200  killed  and  wounded  and  600  prisoners,  while  the  Americans  had  27  killed 
and  96  wounded. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  this  victory  was  of  the  utmost  importance, 
for  Proctor  was  waiting  to  invade  Ohio,  if  it  went  his  way,  while  General 
Harrison  was  also  waiting  to  invade  Canada,  in  the  event  of  an  American 
triumph.  In  sending  news  of  his  victory  to  General  Harrison,  Perry,  in  his 
hastily  written  dispatch,  used  the  words  which  have  been  quoted  thousands  of 
times  :  "  We  have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours."  It  will  be  recalled  that 
Harrison  immediately  embarked  his  troops  on  Perry's  ships,  and,  crossing  the 
lake,  pursued  Proctor  to  the  Thames,  where  he  decisively  defeated  him  and 
ended  all  danger  of  an  invasion  of  Ohio  by  the  enemy. 

The  American  government  now  began  to  heed  the  benefit  of  the  severe 
lessons  of  defeat.  The  worthless  generals  were  weeded  out,  and  the  army  in 
western  New  York  reorganized  so  effectually  that  the  country  was  rheered  by  a 
number  of  victories — proof  that  the  rank  and  file  were  of  the  best  quality  and 
that  their  previous  defeats  were  clue  to  their  leaders. 

13 


191  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MADISON. 

On  July  3, 1814,  Gens.  Scott,  Ripley,  and  Brown  crossed  the  Niagara  from 
Black  Rock  to  Erie  with  3,000  men.  Brown's  ability  had  become  so  manifest 
that  by  this  time  he  was  a  major-general.  When  he  appeared  in  front  of  Fort  Erie, 
it  surrendered  without  resistance.  Brown  pursued  a  British  corps  of  observa 
tion  down  the  river  until  it  crossed  Chippewa  Creek  and  joined  the  main  body. 
Brown  withdrew  and  united  also  with  the  principal  forces  of  the  Americans,  who 
attacked  the  British  on  the  5th  of  July,  in  their  strong  intrenchments  behind 
the  Chippewa.  They  were  completely  defeated,  routed  out  of  their  defenses,  and 
driven  up  the  shore  of  Lake  Ontario.  Their  Indian  allies  were  so  disgusted 
with  the  defeat  of  the  British  and  the  furious  fighting  of  the  Americans  that  all 
deserted  the  British  commander. 

BATTLE    OF    LUNDAY's    LANE. 

The  British  army  received  reinforcements  and  turned  back  to  meet  the 
Americans  who  were  pursuing  them.  The  armies  met,  July  25th,  at  Lundy's 
Lane,  within  sight  of  Niagara  Falls,  where  the  fiercely  contested  battle,  begin 
ning  at  sunset,  lasted  until  midnight.  The  British  commander  was  wounded 
and  captured  and  the  enemy  driven  back.  The  loss  of  the  Americans  was 
serious.  Scott  was  so  badly  wounded  that  he  could  take  no  further  part  in  the 
war,  Brown  was  less  severely  injured,  and  Ripley  withdrew  with  the  army  to 
Fort  Erie. 

An  exploit  of  Colonel  James  Miller  deserves  notice.  At  a  critical  point  in 
the  battle,  General  Brown  saw  that  victory  depended  upon  the  silencing  of  a 
battery  of  seven  guns  stationed  on  a  hill,  that  was  pouring  a  destructive  fire 
into  the  Americans. 

"  Colonel/'  said  he,  "  can  you  capture  that  battery  ?  " 

"  I  can  try,"  was  the  modest  reply,  and  a  few  minutes  later  Colonel  Miller 
was  in  motion  with  his  regiment.  The  darkness  enabled  the  men  to  conceal  them 
selves  under  the  shadow  of  a  fence,  along  which  they  silently  crept  until  they 
could  peep  between  the  rails  and  see  the  gunners  standing  with  lighted  matches 
awaiting  the  order  to  fire.  Thrusting  the  muzzles  of  their  guns  through  the 
openings,  they  shot  down  every  gunner,  and,  leaping  over  the  fence,  captured 
the  battery  in  the  face  of  a  hot  infantry  fire.  The  enemy  made  three  attempts 
to  recapture  the  battery,  but  were  repulsed  each  time.  When  General  Ripley 
retreated,  he  left  the  guns  behind,  so  that  they  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
British  from  whom  they  had  been  so  brilliantly  won. 

The  enemy  soon  received  reinforcements  and  besieged  the  Americans  in 
Fort  Erie.  Brown,  although  still  suffering  from  his  wound,  resumed  command 
and  drove  his  besiegers  once  more  beyond  the  Chippewa.  The  Americans 
evacuated  Fort  Erie  on  the  5th  of  November,  and  recrossing  the  Niagara  went 


PUNISHMENT  OF  THE   CREEK  INDIANS.  195 

into  winter  quarters  at  Black  Rock  and  Ontario.     There  were  no  more  military 
operations  during  the  war  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 

THE    ARMY   OF   THE   NORTH. 

General  Wilkinson  was  so  inefficient  with  the  Army  of  the  North  that  he 
was  superseded  by  General  Izard,  who  advanced  with  his  force  to  the  aid  of 
General  Brown  at  Fort  Erie.  This  left  Plattsburg  uncovered,  and  the  British 
decided  to  attack  it  by  land,  and  to  destroy  at  the  same  time  the  American 
flotilla  on  Lake  Champlain. 

Sir  George  Prevost,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  14,000  men,  entered  Ameri 
can  territory  on  the  3d  of  September,  and  three  days  later  reached  Plattsburg. 
The  garrison  withdrew  to  the  south  side  of  the  Saranac,  and  prepared  to  dispute 
the  passage  of  the  stream.  Commodore  Downie  appeared  off  the  harbor  of 
Plattsburg,  with  the  British  squadron,  September  llth.  The  American  squad 
ron,  under  Commodore  Macdonough,  was  in  the  harbor,  and  consisted  of  two 
less  barges  than  the  enemy,  86  guns,  and  820  men,  while  the  English  com 
mander  had  95  guns  and  more  than  a  thousand  men. 

During  the  battle  which  followed  the  British  land  forces  made  repeated 
attempts  to  cross  the  Saranac,  but  were  defeated  in  every  instance.  The  battle 
on  the  water  lasted  less  than  three  hours,  during  which  Commodore  Downie  was 
killed,  his  vessel  sunk,  and  the  remainder  sunk  or  captured.  The  destruction 
of  the  British  squadron  was  complete,  and  the  land  forces  withdrew  during  the 
night.  England  was  so  dissatisfied  with  the  action  of  Sir  George  Prevost  that 
he  was  dismissed  from  command.  No  more  serious  fighting  took  place  in  that 
section  durinsr  the  war. 

o 

PUNISHMENT   OF    THE    CREEK    INDIANS. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  massacre  at  Fort  Mimms  in  Alabama  by 
the  Creeks,  August  30,  1813.  Tennessee  acted  with  prompt  vigor.  General 
Jackson  at  the  head  of  5,000  men  marched  into  the  Creek  country  and  pun 
ished  the  Indians  witli  merciless  rigor.  After  repeated  defeats,  the  Creeks  made 
a  stand  at  the  Great  Horseshoe  Bend  of  the  Tallapoosa  River.  There  a  thousand 
warriors  gathered,  with  their  wives  and  children,  prepared  to  fight  to  the  last. 
The  desperate  battle  was  fought  March  27,  1814,  and  at  its  close  600  Indians 
were  killed  and  the  remainder  scattered.  The  spirit  of  the  Creeks  was  crushed, 
and  General  Jackson's  exploit  made  him  the  most  popular  military  leader  in 
the  Southwest. 

Matters  looked  gloomy  for  the  Americans  at  the  beginning  of  1814.  Eng 
land  sent  a  formidable  force  of  veterans  to  Canada,  and  another  to  capture 
Washington,  while  the  main  body  expected  to  take  New  Orleans,  with  the 


196  ADMINISTRATIONS  01   MADISON 

intention  of  retaining  the  city  and  province  of  Louisiana  upon  the  conclusion 
of  peace. 

PREPARING   FOR   THE    FINAL    STRUGGLE. 

The  American  government  gathered  up  her  loins  for  the  great  struggle. 
The  President  was  authorized  to  borrow  $25,000,000,  and  to  issue  treasury 
notes  to  the  amount  of  $5,000,000.  Such  sums  are  but  bagatelles  in  these  days, 
but  in  1814  the  credit  of  the  government  was  so  poor  that  the  notes  depreciated 
one-fifth  of  their  face  value.  One  hundred  and  twenty -four  dollars  were  offered 
as  a  bounty  for  every  recruit,  while  the  pay,  rations,  and  clothing  were  placed 
upon  a  generous  scale.  An  order  was  issued  increasing  the  regular  army  to 
66,000  men,  and  an  embargo  laid  with  the  aim  of  stopping  trade  under  British 
licenses  was  repealed  in  April. 

The  British  cruisers  kept  the  Atlantic  coast  in  continual  alarm.  Entering 
Delaware  Bay  they  burned  every  merchant  vessel  in  sight.  When  the  people 
of  Lewiston  refused  to  sell  food  to  them,  they  bombarded  their  homes.  In 
Chesapeake  Bay  Admiral  Cockburn  plundered  private  dwellings.  Among 
the  places  sacked  and  burned  were  Lewes,  Havre  de  Grace,  Fredericktown, 
and  Georgetown.  More  leniency  was  shown  the  New  England  coast  because 
of  her  opposition  to  the  war.  Another  inexcusable  proceeding  on  the  part  of 
the  invaders  was  that  of  persuading  many  slaves  to  leave  their  masters  and  join 
the  enemy.  This  business  compelled  England,  after  the  close  of  the  war,  to  pay 
the  United  States  one  million  and  a  quarter  dollars,  on  the  award  of  the  Em 
peror  of  Eussia,  to  whom  the  question  was  submitted. 

CAPTURE   AND    BURNING    OF    WASHINGTON. 

But  this  year  saw  the  crowning  disgrace  to  the  American  arms.  The  mis 
management  of  affairs  left  our  national  capital  defenseless.  In  August,  1814, 
Sir  Alexander  Cochrane  carried  a  British  army  up  the  Chesapeake  on  board  his 
squadron.  Commodore  Barney  with  his  few  ships  had  taken  shelter  in  the 
Patuxent.  Paying  no  attention  to  him,  Eoss  landed  his  5,000  veterans  within 
40  miles  of  Washington  and  advanced  against  the  city.  The  government  had 
awakened  to  the  threatened  peril  a  short  time  before,  and  placed  500  regulars 
and  2,000.  undisciplined  militia  under  the  command  of  General  William  H. 
Winder. 

Winder  took  a  strong  position  at  Bladensburg  and  awaited  Eoss  and  Coch- 
ran£.  The  British  army  met  with  no  opposition,  and,  upon  reaching  Marl- 
borough,  found  that  Commodore  Barney,  acting  under  the  orders  of  the  secretary 
of  war,  had  burned  his  fleet  and  hurried  to  Washington.  The  English  com 
mander  arrived  in  sight  of  Washington  on  the  24th  of  August.  His  approach 
to  Bladensburg  was  over  a  bridge  defended  by  artillery  from  Barney's  flotilla, 


CAPTURE  AND  BURNING    OF   WASHINGTON. 


197 


which  were  handled  by  Barney  and  his  sailors.  They  fought  with  the  utmost 
heroism,  repelling  the  British  again  and 
again ;  but  the  militia  fled,  and,  when 
Barney  was  wounded  and  his  command 
helpless,  he  surrendered.  General  Ross 
complimented  him  for  his  bravery  and  im 
mediately  paroled  him. 

This  was  the  only  check  encountered 


guard  of 

The 


BURNING  OF   WASHINGTON. 

by  the  British  in  their  ad 
vance  upon  Washington. 
General  Winder  had  learned 
enough  of  his  militia  to 
know  that  no  dependence 
could  be  placed  upon  them, 
and  he  fled  to  Georgetown. 
The  President,  heads  of 
departments,  and  most  of 
the  citizens  joined  in  the 
stampede,  and  the  advance 

General  Ross  entered  the  city  that  evening. 

British  commander  offered  to  spare  the  city  for  a  large  sum  of  money* 


198  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MADISON. 

but  no  one  was  within  reach  with  authority  to  comply  with  his  demand.  Ross 
claimed  that  his  flag  of  truce  had  been  fired  on,  and  he  ordered  the  city  to  be 
burned.  In  the  conflagration  that  followed,  the  President's  house,  the  depart 
ment  offices,  numerous  private  dwellings,  the  libraries  and  public  archives,  many 
works  of  art  in  the  public  buildings,  the  navy  yard  and  its  contents,  a  frigate 
on  the  stocks,  and  several  small  vessels  were  destroyed.  The  patent  office  and 
jail  were  the  only  public  property  spared.  The  burning  of  Washington  was  an 
outrage  which  was  generally  condemned  in  England. 

After  a  rest  and  the  reception  of  reinforcements,  Ross  marched  against 
Baltimore,  which  he  declared  should  be  his  winter  quarters.  While  on  the 
road  he  was  mortally  wounded  by  an  American  sharpshooter  in  a  tree.  Such  a 
brave  defense  was  made  by  Forts  McHenry  and  Covington,  guarding  the  narrow 
passage  from  the  Patapsco  into  the  harbor  of  Baltimore,  that  the  British  fleet 
and  the  land  forces  were  repelled.  The  success  of  this  defense  inspired  Francis 
S.  Key  to  write  our  famous  national  song,  The  Star- Spangled  Banner. 

THE    HARTFORD    CONVENTION. 

The  war  became  intensely  unpopular  in  New  England.  Its  shipping  suf 
fered  severely,  and  the  demands  for  peace  grew  more  clamorous.  On  the  15th 
of  December,  1814,  a  convention  of  delegates,  appointed  by  the  Legislatures  of 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont,  met  in 
Hartford  and  held  secret  sessions  for  three  weeks.  An  address  was  agreed  upon 
charging  the  national  government  with  carrying  on  a  policy  injurious  to  New 
England.  Amendments  were  proposed  to  the  Constitution,  and  a  committee 
was  selected  to  confer  with  the  government  at  Washington  and  to  propose  that  the 
revenues  of  New  England  should  be  applied  to  her  own  defense.  An  agree 
ment  was  made  that  if  their  proposed  action  failed,  and  peace  was  not  soon 
made,  the  convention  should  meet  again  in  the  following  June.  There  was 
open  talk  of  a  withdrawal  from  the  Union,  and  doubtless  grave  results  would 
have  followed  had  the  war  gone  on.  The  Hartford  Convention  and  the  "Blue 
Lights"  of  Connecticut  gave  the  final  death-blow  to  the  Federal  party. 

A    TREATY    OF    PEACE   SIGNED. 

Despite  the  progress  of  the  war,  peace  negotiations  had  been  going  on  for 
a  long  time.  Rlissia,  whose  system  of  government  has  always  been  the  exact 
opposite  of  ours,  has  shown  us  marked  friendship  in  many  instances.  As 
early  as  1813  she  offered  to  mediate  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  The  President  appointed  five  commissioners,  John  Quincy  Adams, 
James  A.  Bayard,  Henry  Clay,  Jonathan  Russell,  and  Albert  Gallatin,  who 
were  sent  to  Ghent.  Belgium,  where  they  were  met  by  Lord  Gambier,  Henry 


GREAT  VICTORY  AT  NEW  ORLEANS.  199 

Goulburn,  and  William  Adams,  the  commissioners  for  Great  Britain.  After 
long  negotiations,  the  commissioners  reached  an  agreement  on  the  24th  of 
December,  1814.  The  treaty  did  not  contain  a  word  about  the  search  of 
American  vessels  for  alleged  deserters,  which  was  the  real  cause  of  the  war,  nor 
was  any  reference  made  to  the  wrongs  done  our  commerce,  and  the  rights  of 
neutral  nations  were  not  defined.  The  Orders  of  Council,  however,  died  of 
themselves,  Great  Britain  never  again  attempting  to  enforce  them.  It  was 
agreed  that  all  places  captured  by  either  side  during  the  progress  of  the  war  or 
afterward  should  be  surrendered,  and  provisions  were  made  for  fixing  the  boun 
dary  between  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

In  those  days,  when  the  ocean  telegraph  was  not  thought  of  and  there 
were  no  swift-going  steamers,  news  traveled  slowly,  and  it  did  not  reach  Wash 
ington  until  February  4,  1815.  Meanwhile,  the  most  important  battle  of  the 
war  had  taken  place  and  several  captures  were  made  on  the  ocean. 

The  Creek  Indians  had  been  so  crushed  by  General  Jackson  that  they 
ceded  a  large  part  of  their  lands  to  the  Americans.  They  were  sullen,  and 
when  a  British  squadron  entered  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  they  eagerly  did  all  they 
could  to  help  the  enemy.  The  squadron,  by  permission  of  the  Spanish  author 
ities  took  possession  of  the  forts  of  Pensacola,  and  fitted  out  an  expedition 
against  Fort  Bower  af  the  entrance  to  Mobile  Bay.  They  attacked  the  fort, 
September  loth,  by  sea  and  land,  but  were  repulsed.  Among  the  land  assailants 
were  several  hundred  Creek  warriors,  who  thus  received  another  lesson  of  the 
bravery  of  American  soldiers. 

General  Jackson,  in  command  of  the  southern  military  district,  was  enraged 
by  the  course  of  the  Spanish  authorities.  He  marched  from  Mobile  at  the  head 
of  2,000  Tennessee  militia  and  a  number  of  Choctaws,  stormed  Pensacola, 
November  7th,  drove  the  British  from  the  harbor,  and  compelled  the  Spanish 
governor  to  surrender  the  town. 

GENERAL   JACKSON'S    GREAT   VICTORY    AT   NEW   ORLEANS. 

Having  completed  his  work  in  this  summary  fashion,  he  returned  to 
Mobile,  where  he  found  an  urgent  call  for  him  to  go  to  the  defense  of  New 
Orleans,  which  was  threatened  by  a  powerful  force  of  the  enemy.  The  invasion, 
to  which  we  have  referred  in  another  place,  was  a  formidable  one  and  had  been 
arranged  a  long  time  before.  General  Jackson  reached  New  Orleans,  Decem 
ber  2d,  and  began  vigorous  preparations.  He  enlisted  almost  everybody  capable 
of  bearing  arms,  including  negroes  and  convicts.  One  of  the  most  famous 
freebooters  that  ever  ravaged  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  was  Lafitte,  to  whom  the 
British  made  an  extravagant  offer  for  his  help,  but  he  refused,  and  gave  his  ser 
vices  to  Jackson. 


200  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MADISON. 

Jackson's  vigor  filled  the  city  with  confidence,  but  he  was  so  strict  that 
dissatisfaction  was  expressed,  whereupon  he  declared  martial  law ;  in  other 
words,  he  took  the  city  government  into  his  own  hands  and  ruled  as  he  thought 
best.  He  neglected  no  precaution.  Fort  St.  Philip,  guarding  the  passage  of  the 
Mississippi  at  Detour  la  Plaquemine,  was  made  stronger  by  new  works,  and  a 
line  of  fortifications  was  built  four  miles  below  the  city,  on  the  left  of  the  river, 
and  extended  eastward  to  an  impassable  cypress  swamp.  It  was  a  disputed 
question  for  a  time  whether  Jackson  used  cotton  bales  in  the  defenses  of  New 
Orleans,  but  it  is  established  that  he  placed  them  on  the  tops  of  the  intrench- 
ments.  Cannon  were  also  mounted  at  different  points.  The  militia  under 
General  Morgan,  and  the  crews  and  guns  of  a  part  of  the  squadron  of  Commo 
dore  Patterson,  held  the  west  bank  of  the  river.  These  precrutions  enabled  the 
defenders  to  enfilade  the  approaching  enemy.  A  detachment  guarded  the  pass 
of  Bayou  St.  John,  above  the  city,  and  a  number  of  gunboats  awaited  to  dis 
pute  the  passage  of  the  river  between  Lake  Pontchartrain  and  Lake  Borgne. 

The  British  fleet  appeared  at  the  entrance  to  this  channel,  December  14th, 
and  was  immediately  assailed  by  the  American  flotilla,  which  was  destroyed 
before  it  could  inflict  serious  damage.  Left  free  to  select  the  point  of  attack, 
the  British  sent  a  force  in  flat-bottomed  boats  to  the  extremity  of  the  lake, 
where  they  landed  in  a  swamp.  They  repelled  an  attack  by  Jackson,  who  fell 
back  toward  the  city.  On  the  28th  of  December  the  British  were  within  half 
a  mile  of  the  American  lines.  They  began  a  fire  of  shells,  but  were  repulsed 
by  Jackson's  artillery. 

The  defenders  numbered  some  3,000  militia,  who  were  stationed  in  a  line 
of  intrenchments  a  mile  long  and  four  miles  from  the  town.  This  line  was 
protected  by  a  ditch  in  front,  flanked  by  batteries  on  the  other  side  of  the  river, 
and,  in  addition,  eight  other  batteries  were  in  position. 

The  British  worked  slowly  forward  until  on  the  first  day  of  the  year  they 
were  within  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  New  Orleans.  As  the  best  material 
at  hand  from  which  to  erect  breastworks  they  used  hogsheads  of  sugar  and 
molasses,  which  were  sent  flying  in  fragments  by  the  American  cannon.  Several 
attacks  upon  the  defenders  were  repulsed  and  the  final  assault  delayed  for  a 
number  of  days. 

Sir  Edward  Pakenham,  a  veteran  of  the  Peninsular  wars,  and  a  brother- 
in-law  of  Wellington,  the  conqueror  of  Napoleon,  was  in  command  of  the 
reinforcements.  While  the  advance  went  on  slowly,  3,000  militia  joined  Jackson. 
They  were  composed  mainly  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  riflemen,  the  finest 
marksmen  in  the  world.  They  were  men,  too,  who  did  not  lose  their  heads  in 
battle,  but,  kneeling  behind  their  intrenchments,  coolly  took  aim  and  rarely 
threw  away  a  shot. 


GREAT   VICTORY  AT  NEW  ORLEANS. 


201 


On  the  morning  of  Jan.  8,  1815,  the  English  army  advanced  against  the 
American  intrenchments.  They  numbered  nearly  8,000  veterans,  and  England 
never  placed  a  finer  body  of  men  in  the  field.  The  American  riflemen,  with 
shotted  cannon  and  leveled  rifles, 


calmly    await 
mand  to  open 
ing  host. 

<? 


ed    the   c  o  m  - 
on  the  advanc- 
They  were 


WEATHERSFORD   AND   GENERAL  JACKSON. 

formed  in  two  lines,  those  at  the  rear  loading  for  those  in  front,  who  were  thus 
enabled  to  keep  up  an  almost  continuous  fire. 

Before  the  outburst  of  flame  the  British  dissolved  like  snow  in  the  sun, 
but  the  survivors  with  unsurpassable  heroism  persisted  until  it  was  apparent  that 


202  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MADISON. 

not  a  man  would  be  left  alive  if  they  maintained  their  ground.     Then  they  fell 
back  to  decide  upon  some  other  method  of  attack. 

Angered  by  his  repulse,  Pakenham  ran  to  the  head  of  a  regiment  bearing 
scaling  ladders  and  called  upon  his  men  to  follow  him.  Only  a  few  succeeded 
in  piercing  the  American  lines.  Pakenham  fell,  mortally  wounded  ;  his  suc 
cessor  was  killed,  and  the  third  in  command  was  so  badly  injured  that  he  could 
give  no  orders.  "All  that  were  left  of  them  "  retreated.  From  the  opening  to 
the  close  of  the  battle  was  less  than  half  an  hour,  during  which  the  British  lost 
2,500  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  one-third  being  killed.  On  the  Amer 
ican  side  eight  were  killed  and  thirteen  wounded.  A  few  days  later  the  British 
withdrew  to  their  ships  and  sailed  for  the  West  Indies,  where  they  learned  of 
the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  peace. 

WORK  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NAVY. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  as  the  war  progressed  the  principal  fighting  changed 
from  the  ocean  to  the  land.  Several  encounters  took  place  on  the  sea,  but  they 
were  mostly  unimportant,  and  did  not  always  result  favorably  for  us.  In  Sep 
tember,  1814,  Captain  Samuel  C.  Reid,  in  command  of  the  privateer  Armstrong, 
while  lying  in  the  harbor  of  Fayal,  one  of  the  Azores,  was  attacked  by  a  fleet 
of  boats  from  three  British  frigates.  He  fought  all  through  the  night,  and, 
although  outnumbered  twenty  to  one,  made  one  of  the  most  remarkable  defenses 
in  naval  annals. 

On  the  10th  of  January  following,  the  President  was  captured  by  the  British 
ship  Endymion.  On  the  20th  of  February,  while  Captain  Charles  Stewart  was 
cruising  off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  in  the  Constitution,  with  no  thought  that  peace 
had  been  declared,  he  fell  in  with  two  British  brigs,  the  Cyane  and  the  Levant. 
It  was  a  bright  moonlight  night,  and,  after  a  brief  engagement,  in  which  Stewart 
displayed  consummate  seamanship,  he  captured  both  vessels. 

But  peace  had  come  and  was  joyfully  welcomed  everywhere.  The  war  had 
cost  us  heavily  in  men,  ships,  and  property ;  the  New  England  factories  were 
idle,  commerce  at  a  standstill,  and  the  whole  country  in  a  deplorable  state.  But 
everything  now  seemed  to  spring  into  life  under  the  glad  tidings.  The  shipping 
in  New  England  was  decked  with  bunting,  and,  within  twenty-four  hours  after 
the  news  arrived,  the  dockyards  rang  with  the  sound  of  saw  and  hammer. 

WAR    WITH    ALGIERS. 

The  Barbary  States  did  not  forget  their  rough  treatment  at  the  hands  of 
the  United  States  a  few  years  before.  During  the  war  they  allowed  the  British 
to  capture  American  vessels  in  their  harbors,  and  sometimes  captured  them  on 
their  own  account.  In  1812  the  Dey  of  Algiers  compelled  the  American  consul 


PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION  OF  1816.  203 

to  pay  him  a  large  sum  of  money  to  save  himself,  family,  and  a  few  friends  from 
being  carried  off  into  slavery.  We  were  too  busily  occupied  elsewhere  to  give 
this  barbarian  attention,  but  in  March,  1815,  war  was  declared  against  Algiers, 
and  Commodores  Decatur  and  Bainbridge  were  sent  to  the  Mediterranean  with 
two  squadrons  to  conduct  operations. 

They  did  it  to  perfection.  After  capturing  several  frigates,  they  approached 
the  city  of  Algiers  and  demanded  the  immediate  surrender  of  every  American 
prisoner,  full  indemnity  for  all  property  destroyed,  and  the  disavowal  of  all 
future  claims  to  tribute.  The  terrified  Dey  eagerly  signed  the  treaty  placed 
before  him  on  the  quarter-deck  of  Decatur's  ship.  The  Pasha  of  Tunis  was  com 
pelled  to  pay  a  round  sum  on  account  of  the  American  vessels  he  had  allowed 
the  British  to  capture  in  his  harbor  during  the  war.  When  he  had  done  this, 
the  Pasha  of  Tripoli  was  called  upon  and  forced  to  make  a  similar  contribution 
to  the  United  States  treasury. 

FOUNDING    OF    THE    NATIONAL   COLONIZATION    SOCIETY. 

The  negro  had  long  been  a  disturbing  factor  in  politics,  and,  in  1816, 
the  National  Colonization  Society  was  formed  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  imme 
diately  reorganized  in  Washington.  Its  object  was  to  encourage  the  emancipa 
tion  of  slaves  by  obtaining  a  place  for  them  outside  the  United  States,  whither 
they  might  emigrate.  It  was  hoped  also  that  by  this  means  the  South  would  be 
relieved  of  its  free  black  population.  The  scheme  was  so  popular  that  branches 
of  the  society  were  established  in  almost  every  State.  At  first  free  negroes  were 
sent  to  Sierra  Leone,  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  under  the  equator.  Later, 
for  a  short  time,  they  were  taken  to  Sherbrooke  Island,  but  in  1821  a  permanent 
location  was  purchased  at  Cape  Mesurado,  where,  in  1847,  the  colony  declared 
itself  an  independent  republic  under  the  name  of  Liberia.  Its  capital,  Monrovia, 
was  named  in  honor  of  the  President  of  the  United  States.  The  republic  still 
exists,  but  its  functions  were  destroyed  by  the  war  for  the  Union,  which  abolished 
slavery  on  this  continent,  and  Liberia  has  never  been  looked  upon  with  great 
favor  by  the  colored  people  of  this  country. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1816. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  course  of  the  Federal  party  in  the  War 
of  1812  ruined  it.  The  Federal  nominee  for  the  presidency  was  Rufus  King, 
of  New  York.  He  was  a  native  of  Maine,  a  graduate  of  Harvard  College,  and 
had  served  as  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress.  It  was  he  who  in  1785 
moved  the  provision  against  slavery  in  the  Northwest  Territory,  and  he  was  an 
active  member  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  afterward  returning 
to  Massachusetts  and  giving  all  his  energies  to  bringing  about  the  ratification  of 


204  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MADISON. 

the  Constitution.  He  was  United  States  senator  from  New  York  in  1789" 
1796;  was  minister  to  London,  1796-1803;  and  again  a  United  States  senator, 
1813-1825. 

John  Eager  Howard,  the  candidate  for  the  vice-presidency,  had  hardly  a 
less  claim  upon  the  recognition  of  his  countrymen,  for  he  joined  the  patriot 
army  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  and  fought  with  marked  gallantry  at 
White  Plains,  Germantown,  Monmouth,  and  Camden,  and  won  special  honor 
at  the  Cowpens  in  1781.  He  was  afterward  governor  of  Maryland,  declined 
the  portfolio  of  war  in  Washington's  cabinet,  and  was  United  States  senator 
from  1796  to  1803. 

These  facts  are  given  to  show  the  character  and  standing  of  the  candidates 
of  the  Federalists  in  the  presidential  election  of  1816.  The  following  was  the  re 
sult:  For  President,  James  Monroe,  of  Virginia,  Republican,  133 ;  Rufus  King,  of 
New  York,  Federalist,  34.  For  Vice-President,  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  of  New 
York,  Republican,  183 ;  John  Eager  Howard,  of  Maryland,  Federalist,  22 ; 
James  Ross,  of  Pennsylvania,  5;  John  Marshall,  of  Virginia,  4;  Robert  G. 
Harper,  of  Maryland,  3.  Vacancies,  4.  Thus  Monroe  became  President  and 
Tompkins  Vice-President. 


FIRST   TRAIN   OF   CARS  IN   AMERICA. 

CHAPTER   X. 


OK    JAMKS     MONROE:    AND 
JOHN     QUINCY    ADAMS,    1817-1829. 

James  Monroe  —  The  "Era  of  Good  Feeling"—  The  Seminole  War—  Vigorous  Measures  of  General 
Jackson  —  Admission  of  Mississippi,  Illinois,  Alabama,  Maine,  and  Missouri  —  The  Missouri  Com 
promise—The  Monroe  Doctrine  —  Visit  of  Lafayette—  Introduction  of  the  Use  of  Gas—  Completion 
of  the  Erie  Canal—  The  First  "  Hard  Times  "—Extinction  of  the  West  Indian  Pirates—  Presidential 
Election  of  1824—  John  Quincy  Adams—  Prosperity  of  the  Country-  -Introduction  of  the  Railway 
Locomotive—  Trouble  with  the  Cherokees  in  Georgia—  Death  of  Adams  and  Jefferson—  Congressional 
Action  on  the  Tariff—  Presidential  Election  of  1828. 


JAMES    MONROE. 

JAMES  MONROE,  the  fifth  Presi-  | 
dent  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
at  Monroe's  Creek,  Westmoreland 
County,  Virginia,  April  28,  1758, 
and  died  July  4,  1831.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  four  out  of  the  first  five 
Presidents  were  natives  of  Virginia, 
and  in  course  of  time  three  others 
followed.  It  will  be  admitted,  there 
fore,  that  the  State  has  well  earned 
the  title  of  the  "  Mother  of  Presi 
dents." 

Monroe  received  his  education 
at  William  and  Mary  College,  and 
was  a  soldier  under  Washington. 
He  was  not  nineteen  years  old  when, 
as  lieutenant  at  the  battle  of  Tren 
ton,  he  led  a  squad  of  men  who  cap 
tured  a  Hessian  battery  as  it  was 
about  to  open  fire.  He  studied  law 
under  Jefferson,  was  elected  to  the 
Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  and, 
when  twenty-five  years  old,  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress.  He 

(205) 


JAMES   MONROE. 
(1758-1831.)    Two  terms,  1817-1825. 


206  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MONROE  AND  ADAMS. 

was  minister  plenipotentiary  to  France  in  1794,  but  his  course  displeased  the 
administration  and  he  was  recalled.  From  1799  to  1802  he  was  governor  of 
Virginia,  and,  in  the  latter  year,  was  sent  to  France  by  President  Jefferson 
to  negotiate  the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  In  1811  he  was  again  governor 
of  Virginia,  and  shortly  afterward  appointed  secretary  of  State  by  Madison. 
He  also  served  as  secretary  of  war  at  the  same  time,  and,  as  the  treasury  was 
empty,  pledged  his  private  means  for  the  defense  of  New  Orleans.  Monroe 
was  of  plain,  simple  manners,  of  excellent  judgment  and  of  the  highest  integrity. 
While  his  career  did  not  stamp  him  as  a  man  of  genius,  yet  it  proved  him  to  be 
that  which  in  his  situation  is  better — an  absolutely  "safe"  man  to  trust  with  the 
highest  office  in  the  gift  of  the  American  people.  Under  Monroe  the  United 
States  made  greater  advancement  than  during  any  previous  decade. 

Everything  united  to  make  his  administration  successful.  The  Federal 
party  having  disappeared,  its  members  either  stopped  voting  or  joined  the  Re 
publicans.  Since,  therefore,  everybody  seemed  to  be  agreed  in  his  political 
views,  the  period  is  often  referred  to  as  u  the  era  of  good  feeling,"  a  condition 
altogether  too  ideal  to  continue  long. 

TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 

Shortly  after  Monroe's  inauguration  he  made  a  tour  through  the  country, 
visiting  the  principal  cities,  and  contributing  by  his  pleasing  manner  greatly  to 
his  popularity.  The  manufactures  of  the  country  were  in  a  low  state  because  of 
the  cheapness  of  labor  in  Great  Britain,  which  enabled  the  manufacturers  there 
to  send  and  sell  goods  for  less  prices  than  the  cost  of  their  manufacture  in  this 
country.  Congress  met  the  difficulty  by  imposing  a  tax  upon  manufactured 
goods  brought  hither,  and  thereby  gave  our  people  a  chance  to  make  and  sell 
the  same  at  a  profit.  The  controversy  between  the  advocates  of  free  trade  and 
protection  has  been  one  of  the  leading  questions  almost  from  the  first,  and  there 
has  never  been  and  probably  never  will  be  full  accord  upon  it. 

THE   SEMINOLE   WAR. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  event  in  the  early  part  of  Monroe's  adminis 
tration  was  the  Seminole  war.  Those  Indians  occupied  Florida,  and  could  hide 
themselves  in  the  swampy  everglades  and  defy  pursuit.  Many  runaway  slaves 
found  safe  refuge  there,  intermarried  with  the  Seminoles,  and  made  their  homes 
among  them.  They  were  not  always  fairly  treated  by  the  whites,  and  committed 
many  outrages  on  the  settlers  in  Georgia  and  Alabama.  When  the  Creeks,  who 
insisted  they  had  been  cheated  out  of  their  lands,  joined  them,  General  Gaines 
was  sent  to  subdue  the  savages.  He  failed,  and  was  caught  in  such  a  dangerous 
situation  that  General  Jackson  hastily  raised  a  force  and  marched  to  his  assistance 


THE  SEMINOLE   WAR. 


207 


Since  Florida  belonged  to  Spain,  Jackson  was  instructed  by  our  government 
not  to  enter  the  country  except  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy.  "Old  Hickory"  was 
not  the  man  to  allow  himself  to  be  hampered  by  such  orders,  and,  entering 
Florida  in  March,  1818,  he  took  possession  the  following  month  of  the  Spanish 
post  of  St.  Mark's,  at  the  head  of  Appalachee  Bay.  Several  Seminoles  were 
captured,  and,  proof  being  obtained  that  they  were  the  leaders  in  a  massacre  of 
some  settlers  a  short  time  before,  Jackson  hanged  every  one  of  them. 

Advancing  into  the  in 
terior,  he  captured  two  British 
subjects,  Robert  C.  Ambrister, 
an  Englishman,  and  Alexan 
der  Arbuthnot,  a  Scotchman. 
There  seemed  to  be  no  doubt 
that  the  latter  had  been  guilty 
of  inciting  the  Indians  to  com 
mit  their  outrages,  and  both 
were  tried  by  court-martial, 
which  sentenced  Arbuthnot  to 
be  hanged  and  Ambrister  to 
receive  fifty  lashes  and  un 
dergo  a  year's  imprisonment. 
Jackson  set  aside  the  verdict, 
and  shot  the  Englishman  and 
hanged  the  Scotchman.  He 
then  marched  against  Pensa- 
cola,  the  capital  of  the  prov 
ince,  drove  out  the  Spanish 
authorities,  captured  B  a  r  - 
rancas,  whose  troops  and  offi 
cials  were  sent  to  Havana. 

Jackson  carried  things 
with  such  a  high  hand  that 
Spain  protested,  and  Congress  had  to  order  an  investigation.  The  report 
censured  Jackson  ;  but  Congress  passed  a  resolution  acquitting  him  of  all  blame, 
and  he  became  more  popular  than  ever. 

Spain  was  not  strong  enough  to  expel  the  Americans,  and  she  agreed  to  a 
treaty,  in  October,  1820,  by  which  East  and  West  Florida  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States,  the  latter  paying  Spain  $5,000,000.  The  Sabine  River,  instead 
of  the  Rio  Grande,  was  made  the  dividing  line  between  the  territories  of  the 
respective  governments  west  of  the  Mississippi.  Jackson  was  the  first  governor 


AN   INDIAN'S  DECLARATION   OF   WAK. 


208  ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  MONROE  AND  ADAMS. 

of  Florida,  and,  as  may  be  supposed,  lie  had  a  stormy  time,  but  lie  straight 
ened  out  matters  with  the  same  iron  resolution  that  marked  everything  he  did. 

STATES   ADMITTED — THE    MISSOURI    COMPROMISE. 

A  number  of  {States  were  admitted  to  the  Union  while  Monroe  was  Presi 
dent.  The  tirst  was  Mississippi,  in  1817.  The  territory  was  claimed  by 
Georgia,  which  gave  it  to  the  United  States  in  1802.  Illinois  was  admitted  in 
1818,  being  the  third  of  the  five  States  formed  from  the  old  Northwest  Terri 
tory.  Alabama  became  a  State  in  1819,  and  had  been  a  part  of  the  territory 
claimed  by  Georgia.  Maine  was  admitted  in  1820,  and,  as  has  been  shown, 
was  for  a  long  time  a  part  of  Massachusetts,  and  Missouri  became  a  State  in  1821. 

The  strife  over  the  admission  of  the  last-named  State  was  so  angry  that 
more  than  one  person  saw  the  shadow  of  the  tremendous  civil  war  that  was  to 
darken  the  country  and  deluge  it  in  blood  forty  years  later.  The  invention  of 
the  cotton  gin  in  1793  had  made  cotton  the  leading  industry  of  the  South  and 
given  an  enormous  importance  to  slavery.  The  soil  and  the  climate  and  econo 
mic  conditions  caused  it  to  flourish  in  the  South,  and  the  lack  of  such  conditions 
made  it  languish  and  die  out  in  the  North. 

Missouri  applied  for  admission  in  March,  1818,  but  it  was  so  late  in  the 
session  that  Congress  took  no  action.  At  the  following  session  a  bill  was  intro 
duced  containing  a  provision  that  forbade  slavery  in  the  proposed  new  State. 
The  debate  was  bitter  and  prolonged,  accompanied  by  threats  of  disunion,  but  a 
compromise  was  reached  on  the  28th  of  February,  1821,  when  the  agreement 
was  made  that  slavery  was  to  be  permitted  in  Missouri,  but  forever  prohibited 
in  all  other  parts  of  the  Union,  north  and  west  of  the  northern  limits  of  Ar 
kansas,  36°  30',  which  is  the  southern  boundary  of  Missouri.  The  State  was 
admitted  August  21st,  increasing  the  number  to  twenty-four.  The  census 
showed  that  in  1820  the  population  of  the  United  States  was  9,633,822.  The 
State  of  New  York  contained  the  most  people  (1,372,111)  ;  Virginia  next 
(1,065,116);  and  Pennsylvania  almost  as  many  (1,047,507). 

i 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1820. 

It  was  in  the  autumn  of  1820,  during  the  excitement  over  the  admission 
of  Missouri,  that  the  presidential  election  occurred.  The  result  is  not  likely 
ever  to  be  repeated  in  the  history  of  our  country.  There  was  no  candidate 
against  Monroe,  who  would  have  received  every  electoral  vote,  but  for  the  action 
of  one  member,  who  declared  that  no  man  had  the  right  to  share  that  honor 
with  Washington.  He  therefore  cast  his  single  vote  for  Adams  of  Massachu 
setts.  For  Vice-President,  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  Republican,  received  218; 
Richard  Stockton,  of  New  Jersey,  8  ;  Daniel  Rodney,  of  Delaware,  4 ;  Robert 


COMPLETION  OF  THE  ERIE   CANAL.  209 

G.   Harper,  of  Maryland,  and  Richard  Rush,  of   Pennsylvania,  1   vote  each. 
Monroe  and  Tompkins  were  therefore  re-elected. 

THE    MONROE    DOCTRINE. 

South  America  has  long  been  the  land  of  revolutions.  In  1821,  there  was 
a  general  revolt  against  Spain  in  favor  of  independence.  Great  sympathy  was 
felt  for  them  in  this  country,  and,  in  March,  1822,  Congress  passed  a  bill  recog 
nizing  the  embryo  republics  as  sovereign  nations.  In  the  following  year  Presi 
dent  Monroe  sent  a  message  to  Congress  in  which  he  declared  that  for  the  future 
the  American  continent  was  not  to  be  considered  as  territory  for  colonization  by 
any  foreign  power.  This  consecration  of  the  whole  Western  Hemisphere  to 
free  institutions  constitutes  the  MONROE  DOCTRINE,  one  of  the  most  precious 
and  jealously  guarded  rights  of  the  American  nation.  The  memorable  docu 
ment  which  bears  the  President's  name  was  written  by  John  Quincy  Adams, 
his  secretary  of  State. 

America  could  never  forget  Lafayette,  who  had  given  his  services  without 
pay  in  our  struggle  for  independence,  who  shed  his  blood  for  us,  and  who  was 
the  intimate  and  trusted  friend  of  Washington.  He  was  now  an  old  man,  and, 
anxious  to  visit  the  country  he  loved  so  well,  he  crossed  the  ocean  and  landed 
in  New  York,  in  August,  1824.  He  had  no  thought  that  his  coming  would 
cause  any  stir,  and  was  overwhelmed  by  the  honors  shown  him  everywhere. 
Fort  Lafayette  saluted  him  as  he  sailed  up  New  York  Bay,  and  processions, 
parades,  addresses,  feastings,  and  every  possible  attention  were  given  to  him 
throughout  his  year's  visit,  during  which  he  was  emphatically  the  "  nation's 
guest."  Nor  did  the  country  confine  itself  to  mere  honors.  He  had  been  treated 
badly  in  France  and  was  poor.  Congress  made  him  a  present  of  $200,000  in 
money,  and  sent  him  home  in  the  frigate  Brandywine,  named  in  his  honor,  for 
it  was  at  the  battle  of  the  Brandywine  that  Lafayette  was  severely  wounded. 

An  important  invention  introduced  into  this  country  from  England  in 
1822  was  lighting  by  gas,  which  soon  became  universal,  to  be  succeeded  in  later 
years  by  electricity.  Steamboat  navigation  was  common  and  travel  by  that 
means  easy.  On  land  we  were  still  confined  to  horseback  and  stages,  but  there 
was  great  improvement  in  the  roads,  through  the  aid  of  Congress  and  the  differ 
ent  States. 

COMPLETION    OF    THE    ERIE   CANAL. 

The  Erie  Canal,  connecting  Buffalo  and  Albany,  was  begun  on  the  4th  of 
July,  1817,  its  most  persistent  advocate  being  Governor  De  Witt  Clinton.  It 
was  costly,  and  the  majority  believed  it  would  never  pay  expenses.  They 
dubbed  it  "  De  Witt  Clinton's  Ditch,"  and  ridiculed  the  possibility  that  it  would 
prove  of  public  benefit.  In  October,  1825,  it  was  opened  for  public  traffic.  It 

14 


210  ADXIXISTRATIOXS  OF  MONROE  AND  ADAMS. 

is  363  miles  long,  having  the  greatest  extent  of  any  canal  in  the  world.  It 
passes  through  a  wonderfully  fertile  region,  which  at  that  time  was  little  more 
than  a  wilderness.  Immediately  towns  and  villages  sprang  into  existence  along 
its  banks.  Merchandise  could  now  be  carried  cheaply  from  the  teeming  West, 
through  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  Hudson  Eiver,  to  New  York 
City  Tnd  the  Atlantic.  Its  original  cost  was  $7,600,000,  and  its  earnings  were 
so  enormous  that  in  many  single  years  they  amounted  to  half  that  sum.  It  is 
now  operated  by  the  State  without  charge  to  those  using  it. 

No  combination  of  statesmen  are  wise  enough  to  prevent  the  occasional 
recurrence  of  "  hard  times."  Nearly  everyone  has  a  cure  for  the  blight,  and 
the  intervals  between  them  are  irregular,  but  they  still  descend  upon  us,  when 
most  unexpected  and  when  it  seems  we  are  least  prepared  to  bear  them.  No 
one  needs  a  long  memory  to  recall  one  or  two  afflictions  of  that  nature. 

THE    FIRST    "  HARD    TIMES." 

The  first  financial  stringency  visited  the  country  in  1819.  The  establish 
ment  in  1817  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  had  so  improved  credit  and  in 
creased  the  facilities  for  trade  that  a  great  deal  of  wild  speculation  followed.  The 
officers  of  the  branch  bank  in  Baltimore  were  dishonest  and  loaned  more  than 
$2,000,000  beyond  its  securities.  The  President  stopped  the  extravagant  loans, 
exposed  the  rogues,  and  greatly  aided  in  bringing  back  the  country  to  a  sound 
financial  basis,  although  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  narrowly  escaped  bank 
ruptcy — a  calamity  that  would  have  caused  distress  beyond  estimate. 

Amid  the  stirring  political  times  our  commerce  suffered  from  the  pirates 
who  infested  the  West  Indies.  Their  depredations  became  so  annoying  that  in 
1819  Commodore  Perry,  of  Lake  Erie  fame,  was  sent  out  with  a  small  squadron 
to  rid  the  seas  of  the  pests  Before  he  could  accomplish  anything,  he  was 
stricken  with  yellow  fever  and  died.  Other  squadrons  were  dispatched  to 
southern  waters,  and  in  1822  more  than  twenty  piratical  vessels  were  destroyed 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Cuba.  Commodore  Porter  followed  up  the  work  so 
effectively  that  the  intolerable  nuisance  was  permanently  abated. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1824. 

There  were  plenty  of  presidential  candidates  in  1824.  Everybody  now  was 
a  Republican,  and  the  choice,  therefore,  lay  between  the  men  of  that  political 
faith.  The  vote  was  as  follows  :  Andrew  Jackson,  of  Tennessee,  99  ;  John  Quincy 
Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  84  ;  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  37  ;  William  H.  Craw 
ford,  of  Georgia,  41.  For  Vice-President :  John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina, 
182  ;  Nathan  Sandford,  of  New  York,  30 ;  Nathaniel  Macon,  of  North  Carolina, 
24  ;  Andrew  Jackson,  13 ;  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York,  9;  Henry  Clay,  2. 


JOHX   QUINCY  ALA  MS. 


211 


This  vote  showed  that  no  candidate  was  elected,  and  the  election,  there 
fore,  was  thrown  into  the  House  of  Representatives.  Although  Jackson  was 
far  in  the  lead  on  the  popular  and  electoral  vote,  the  friends  of  Clay  united 
with  the  supporters  of  Adams,  who  became  President,  with  Calhoun  Vice- 
President.  The  peculiar  character  of  this  election  led  to  its  being  called  the 
"  scrub  race  for  the  presidency." 


at  Brain  tree,  Massa- 


JOHN    QUIXCY    ADAMS. 

John  Quincy  Adams,  the  sixth  President,  was 
chusetts,  July  11,  1767,  and  was 
the  son  of  the  second  President. 
He  was  given  every  educational  ad 
vantage  in  his  youth,  and  when 
eleven  years  old  accompanied  his 
father  to  France  and  was  placed  in 
a  school  in  Paris.  Two  years  later 
he  entered  the  University  of  Ley- 
den,  afterward  made  a  tour  through 
the  principal  countries  of  Europe, 
and,  returning  home,  entered  the 
junior  class  at  Harvard,  from  which 
he  graduated  in  1788.  Washington 
appreciated  his  ability,  and  made 
him  minister  to  The  Hague  and 
afterward  to  Portugal.  When  his 
father  became  President  he  trans 
ferred  him  to  Berlin.  The  Federal 
ists  elected  him  to  the  United  States 
Senate  in  1803,  and  in  1809  he 
was  appointed  minister  to  Russia. 
He  negotiated  important  commer 
cial  treaties  with  Prussia,  Sweden,  and  Great  Britain,  and,  it  will  be  remem 
bered,  he  was  leading  commissioner  in  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  which  brought  the 
War  of  1812  to  a  close.  He  was  a  man  of  remarkable  attainments,  but  he  pos 
sessed  little  magnetism  or  attractiveness  of  manner,  and  by  his  indifference 
failed  to  draw  warm  friends  and  supporters  around  him.  Adams  was  re- 
elected  to  Congress  repeatedly  after  serving  out  his  term  as  President.  He  was 
seized  with  apoplexy  while  on  the  point  of  rising  from  his  desk  in  the  House 
of  Representatives,  and  died  February  23,  1848. 

The  country  was  highly  prosperous  during  the  presidency  of  the  younger 


JOHN   QUINCY  .ADAMS. 
1 1707-1848.)    One  term,  1825-1829. 


212  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  MONROE  AND  ADAMS. 

Adams.  The  public  debt,  to  which  the  War  of  1812  added  $80,000,000,  began 
to  show  a  marked  decrease,  money  was  more  plentiful,  and  most  important  of 
all  was  the  introduction  of  the  steam  locomotive  from  England.  Experiments 
had  been  made  in  that  country  for  a  score  of  years,  but  it  was  not  until  1829 
that  George  Stephenson,  the  famous  engineer,  exhibited  his  "Rocket,"  which 
ran  at  the  rate  of  nearly  twenty  miles  an  hour. 

INTRODUCTION    OF   THE   STEAM    LOCOMOTIVE. 

The  first  clumsy  attempts  on  this  side  were  made  in  1827,  when  two  short 
lines  of  rails  were  laid  at  Quincy,  near  Boston,  but  the  cars  were  drawn  by  horses, 
and,  when  shortly  after,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  was  chartered,  the 
intention  was  to  use  the  same  motor.  In  1829,  a  steam  locomotive  was  used  on  the 
Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Railroad,  followed  by  a  similar  introduction  on  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Road.  The  first  railroad  chartered  expressly  for  steam  was 
granted  in  South  Carolina  for  a  line  to  run  from  Charleston  to  Hamburg.  The 
first  locomotive  made  by  Stephenson  was  brought  across  the  ocean  in  1831. 
The  Americans  set  to  work  to  make  their  own  engines,  and  were  successful  in 
1833.  It  will  be  noted  that  these  events  occurred  after  the  administration  of 
Adams. 

THE   CHEROKEES    IN    GEORGIA. 

Most  of  the  country  east  of  the  Mississippi  was  being  rapidly  settled. 
Immense  areas  of  land  were  sold  by  the  Indian  tribes  to  the  government  and 
they  removed  west  of  the  river.  The  Cherokees,  however,  refused  to  sell  their 
lands  in  Georgia  and  Alabama.  They  were  fully  civilized,  had  schools,  churches, 
and  newspapers,  and  insisted  on  staying  upon  the  lands  that  were  clearly  their  own. 
Georgia  was  equally  determined  to  force  them  out  of  the  State,  and  her  govern 
ment  was  so  high-handed  that  President  Adams  interfered  for  their  protection. 
The  governor  declared  that  the  Indians  must  leave,  and  he  defied  the  national 
government  to  prevent  him  from  driving  them  out.  The  situation  of  the  Chero 
kees  finally  became  so  uncomfortable  that,  in  1835,  they  sold  their  lands  and 
joined  the  other  tribes  in  the  Indian  Territory,  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

AN    IMPRESSIVE    OCCURRENCE. 

« 

One  of  the  most  impressive  incidents  in  our  history  occurred  on  the  4th  of 
July,  whfcn  John  Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson  died.  It  was  just  half  a 
century  after  the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  of  which  Jeffer 
son  was  the  author  and  whose  adoption  Adams  secured. 

Adams  attained  the  greatest  age  of  any  of  our  Presidents,  being  nearly 
ninety-one  years  old  when  he  died.  He  retained  the  brightness  of  his  mind, 
his  death  being  due  to  the  feebleness  of  old  age.  When  he  was  asked  if  he  knew 


AN  IMPRESSIVE   OCCURRENCE. 


213 


the  meaning  of  the  joyous  bells  that  were  ringing  outside,  his  wan  face  lighted 
up,  and  he  replied  :  "  It  is  the  4th  of  July ;  God  bless  it !  "  His  last  words, 
uttered  a  few  minutes  later  :  "  Jefferson  still  survives.'7 

It     was      a  .-.  natural  error    on 


the  part  of  Adams, 
passed     away 
before,  in 
fourth 
He 


but  Jefferson  had 
several  hours 
his  eighty- 
year, 
died 


•'  JOHNNY  BUljlV  OR  NO.  1. 

(The  first  locomotive  used.) 


quietly,  surrounded  by  friends,  with  his  mind  full  of  the  inspiring  associations 
connected  with  the  day.  His  last  words  were :  "  I  resign  my  soul  to  God, 
and  my  daughter  to  my  country." 


214  ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  MONROE  AND  ADAMS. 

An  important  issue  of  the  younger  Adams'  administration  was  the  tariff. 
Naturally  the  South  were  opposed  to  a  protective  tariff,  because  they  had  no 
manufactures,  and  were,  therefore,  compelled  to  pay  higher  prices  for  goods  than 
if  admitted  free  of  duty.  A  national  convention  was  held  at  Harrisburg, 
Pennsylvania,  in  the  summer  of  1827,  to  discuss  the  question  of  the  protection 
of  native  industry.  Only  four  of  the  slave-holding  States  were  represented,  but 
the  members  memorialized  Congress  for  an  increase  of  duties  on  a  number  of 
articles  made  in  this  country.  In  the  session  of  1827-28,  Congress,  in  defer 
ence  to  the  general  sentiment,  passed  a  law  which  increased  the  duties  on  fabrics 
made  of  wool,  cotton,  linen,  and  on  articles  made  from  lead,  iron,  etc.  The 
Legislatures  of  the  Southern  States  protested  against  this  action  as  unjust  and 
unconstitutional,  and  in  the  presidential  election  of  that  year  the  entire  electoral 
vote  of  the  South  was  cast  against  Adams. 

The  "Era  of  good  feeling"  was  gone  and  politics  became  rampant.  The 
policv  of  a  protective  tariff  became  known  as  the  American  System,  and  Henry 
Clay  was  its  foremost  champion.  Their  followers  began  to  call  themselves 
National  Republicans,  while  their  opponents  soon  assumed  the  name  of  Demo 
crats,  which  has  clung  to  them  ever  since,  though  the  National  Republicans 
changed  their  title  a  few  years  later  to  Whigs. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1828. 

The  presidential  election  of  1828  resulted  as  follows:  Andrew  Jackson, 
Democrat,  178;  John  Quincy  Adams,  National  Republican,  83.  For  Vice- 
President,  John  C.  Calhoun,  Democrat,  171 ;  Richard  Rush,  of  Pennsylvania, 
National  Republican,  49  ;  William  Smith,  of  South  Carolina,  Democrat,  7. 
Jackson  and  Calhoun  therefore  were  elected. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ADMINISTRATIONS     OK     JACKSON,     VAN     BURKN, 
\V.   H.    HARRISON,  AND   TYLER,   1829-184:5. 

Andrew  Jackson — ilTo  the  Victors  Belong  the  Spoils" — The  President's  Fight  with  the  United  States 
Bank — Presidential  Election  of  1828 — Distribution  of  the  Surplus  in  the  United  States  Treasury 
Among  the  Various  States — The  Black  Hawk  War— The  Nullification  Excitement— The  Seminole 
War — Introduction  of  the  Steam  Locomotive — Anthracite  Coal,  McCormick's  Reaper,  and  Friction 
Matches — Great  Fire  in  New  York — Population  of  the  United  States  in  1830 — Admission  of  Ar 
kansas  and  Michigan — Abolitionism — France  and  Portugal  Compelled  to  Pay  their  Debts  to  the 
United  States — The  Specie  Circular,  John  Caldwell  Calhoun,  Henry  Clay,  and  Daniel  Webster — 
Presidential  Election  of  1836— Martin  Van  Buren— The  Panic  of  1837— Rebellion  in  Canada — Popu 
lation  of  the  United  States  in  1840— Presidential  Election  of  1840 — William  Henry  Harrison — His 
Death — John  Tyler — His  Unpopular  Course — The  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty — Civil  War  in 
Rhode  Island — The  Anti-rent  War  in  New  York — A  Shocking  Accident — Admission  of  Florida — 
Revolt  of  Texas  Against  Mexican  Rule — The  Alamo — San  Jacinto — The  Question  of  the  Annexa 
tion  of  Texas— The  State  Admitted— The  Copper  Mines  of  Michigan— Presidential  Election  of  1 844 
— The  Electro-magnetic  Telegraph — Professor  Morse — His  Labors  in  Bringing  the  Invention  to 
Perfection. 

ANDREW   JACKSON. 

ANDREW  JACKSON,  seventh  President,  ranks  among  the  greatest  of  those  who 
have  been  honored  with  the  highest  gift  their  countrymen  can  confer  upon 
them.  He  was  born  of  Scotch-Irish  parents,  at  Waxhaw  Settlement,  on  the 
line  between  North  and  South  Carolina,  March  15,  1767.  His  parents  were 
wretchedly  poor  and  he  received  only  a  meagre  education.  His  father  died  just 
before  the  birth  of  his  son,  who  enlisted  in  the  patriot  army  when  but  thirteen 
years  old,  and  was  captured  at  the  battle  of  Hanging  Rock.  When  a  British 
officer  ordered  the  boy  to  clean  his  boots,  he  refused.  He  was  brutally  beaten 
for  his  stubbornness ;  he  told  the  officer  that  he  might  kill  him,  but  he  could 
never  make  a  servant  of  him. 

Shortly  afterward  he  was  seized  with  smallpox  and  was  abandoned  to  die, 
but  his  mother  secured  his  release  and  nursed  him  back  to  health.  She  died 
soon  afterward,  and,  while  still  a  boy,  Andrew  was  left  without  a  single  near 
relative.  At  the  close  of  the  Re  volution,  he  took  up  the  study  of  law,  pursuing 
it  in  a  desultory  way,  until  his  removal  to  Nashville,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years.  He  threw  his  law  books  aside  when  the  Indians  began  their  outrages,  and 
we  have  told  of  his  striking  services  as  a  soldier  and  military  leader,  culmina 
ting  with  his  great  victory  at  New  Orleans,  the  anniversary  of  which  is  still 
widely  celebrated.  Jackson  became  the  idol  of  his  countrymen,  and  he  pos- 

(215) 


216 


JACKSON,   VAN  BUREN,  HARRISON,  AND  TYLER. 


sessed  many  admirable  qualities.  Never,  under  any  circumstances,  did  he  betray 
personal  fear.  He  was  ready  to  attack  one  man,  ten  men,  a  hundred,  or  a  thou 
sand,  if  he  deemed  it  his  duty  to  do  so.  He  was  honest  to  the  core,  intensely 
patriotic,  and  he  either  loved  or  hated  a  man.  He  would  stand  by  a  friend  to 
the  death,  unless  he  became  convinced  of  his  un worthiness,  when  he  instantly 
became  his  unrelenting  enemy. 

He  fought  numerous  duels,  and  stood  up  without  a  tremor  in  front  of  one 

of  the  most  famous  of  duelists. 
When  his  opponent's  bullet  tore  a 
dreadful  wound  in  his  breast,  he 
resolutely  repressed  all  evidence  of 
pain  until  he  had  killed  his  antag 
onist,  in  order  that  the  latter  should 
not  have  the  pleasure  of  knowing 
he  had  hurt  Jackson. 

While  carrying  one  arm  in  a 
sling  from  this  wound,  he  led  a 
strong  force  into  the  Creek  country. 
When  the  men  were  close  upon  star 
vation,  they  mutinied.  Jackson 
rode  in  front  of  them,  pistol  in  hand, 
and  declared  he  would  shoot  the 
first  one  who  refused  to  obey  his  or 
ders.  Not  a  man  rebelled.  At  the 
same  time  he  divided  all  the  food  he 
had  among  them,  which  consisted 
solely  of  acorns.  Nevertheless,  he 
pressed  on  and  utterly  destroyed 
the  Indian  confederation. 
Added  to  these  fine  qualities  was  his  chivalrous  devotion  to  his  wife,  the 
unvarying  respect  he  showed  to  the  other  sex,  and  the  purity  of  his  own  character 
Such  a  man  cannot  fail  to  exercise  a  powerful  influence  upon  those  with  whom 
he  comes  in  contact.  In  Jackson's  estimation,  the  only  living  person  whose 
views  were  right  upon  every  question  was  himself.  He  was  intolerant  of  opposi 
tion,  and  merciless  in  his  enmity  of  a  personal  opponent.  He  made  mistakes, 
as  was  inevitable,  and  some  of  them  wrought  great  injury  ;  but  even  his  oppo 
nents  respected  while  they  feared  him,  and  the  qualities  which  we  have  indi 
cated  gave  him  a  warm  place  not  only  in  the  affection  of  his  own  generation  but 
in  the  generations  that  came  after  him. 

When  his  tempestuous  career  came  to  a  close,  Jackson  retired  to  his  home, 


ANDREW   JACKSON. 
(1767-1845.)    Two  terms,  1829-1837. 


PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION  OF  1832.  217 

known  as  the  Hermitage,  in  Tennessee,  where  he  passed  his  declining  years  in 
quiet  and  peace.  He  became  a  devout  Christian,  and  died  of  consumption,  June 
8,  1845. 


"  TO    THE    VICTORS    BELONG    THE    SPOILS." 


It  need  hardly  be  said  that  when  Jackson  became  President  he  shared  his 
authority  with  no  one.  He  made  up  his  cabinet  of  his  personal  friends,  and,  on 
the  principle  of  "  To  the  victors  belong  the  spoils,"  that  an  administration  to  be 
successful  must  be  composed  of  those  of  the  same  political  faith  with  its  head,  he 
began  a  system  of  removals  from  office.  The  total  number  of  such  removals 
made  by  his  predecessors  was  seventy-four,  some  of  which  were  for  cause.  A 
year  after  his  inauguration,  Jackson  had  turned  2,000  office-holders  out,  and, 
since  their  successors  were  obliged  in  many  instances  to  remove  subordinates,  in 
pursuance  of  the  same  policy,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  President  adopted  no  half 
way  measures. 

He  regarded  the  members  of  his  cabinet  as  simply  clerks,  and,  when  he 
wished  to  consult  with  trusted  friends,  called  together  a  certain  number  of  boon 
associates,  who  became  known  as  his  "  Kitchen  Cabinet." 

JACKSON'S  FIGHT  WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES  BANK. 

One  of  the  President's  unbearable  aversions  was  the  United  States  Bank. 
He  believed  that  its  strength  had  been  exerted  against  him,  and  in  his  first 
message  to  Congress,  in  December,  1829,  he  charged  that  it  had  failed  to  establish 
a  uniform  and  sound  currency  and  that  its  existence  was  contrary  to  the 
spirit  of  the  Constitution.  Its  charter  would  expire  in  1836,  and  Congress 
passed  an  act  renewing  it  for  fifteen  years.  Jackson  vetoed  the  measure,  and  the 
two-thirds  majority  necessary  to  pass  it  again  could  not  be  obtained. 

By  law  the  deposits  of  the  bank  were  subject  to  the  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
who  could  not  remove  them  without  giving  Congress  his  reasons  for  the  step. 
Jackson  ordered  his  secretary  to  remove  the  deposits,  and  when  he  very  properly 
refused,  the  President  removed  him.  He  made  Roger  B.  Taney,  afterward 
chief  justice  of  the  United  States,  his  new  secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  that 
pliable  official  promptly  transferred  the  deposits  to  certain  banks  that  had  been 
selected. 

PRESIDENTIAL   ELECTION   OF    1832. 

Although  the  fight  caused  much  excitement,  and  the  action  of  Jackson  was 
bitterly  denounced,  it  added  to  his  popularity,  as  was  proven  in  the  presidential 
election  of  1832,  when  the  following  electoral  vote  was  cast :  Andrew  Jackson, 
219 ;  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  National  Republican,  49 ;  John  Floyd,  of 
Georgia,  Independent,  11 ;  William  Wirt,  of  Maryland,  Anti-Masonic,  7.  For 
Vice-President,  Martin  Van  Buren,  Democrat,  of  New  York,  received  189 


218 


JACKSON,   VAN  BUREN,  HARBISON,  AND  TYLER. 


votes;  John  Sergeant,  of  Pennsylvania,  National  Republican,  49  ;  Henry  Lee, 
of  Massachusetts,  Independent,  11  ;  Amos  Ellmaker,  of  Pennsylvania,  Anti- 
Masonic,  7;  William  Wilkins,  of  Pennsylvania,  Democrat,  30.  On  the  popular 
vote,  Jackson  had  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  in  excess  of  all  the  others  in 
a  total  of  one  million  and  a  quarter.  It  was  a  great  triumph  for  "Old  Hickory." 
It  rarely  happens  in  the  history  of  any  country  that  the  government  finds 

itself  in  the  possession  of  more 
money  than  it  wants.  It  became 
clear,  however,  that  not  only  would 
the  public  debt  soon  be  paid,  but  a 
surplus  would  accrue.  In  view  of 
this  certainty,  Henry  Clay  secured 
the  passage  of  a  bill  in  1832,  which 
reduced  the  tariff,  except  where 
such  reduction  came  in  conflict  with 
home  labor.  Several  years  later, 
the  surplus,  amounting  to  $28.000,- 
000,  was  divided  among  the  States. 

BLACK    HAWK    WAR. 

In  the  year  named  occurred 
the  Black  Hawk  War.  The  tribes 
known  as  the  Sacs,  Foxes,  and  Win- 
nebagoes  lived  in  the  Territory  of 
Wisconsin.  The  Sacs  and  Foxes 
made  a  treaty  with  the  United 
SAMUEL  HOUSTON.  States  in  1830,  by  which  they  ceded 

One  of"  Old  Hickory  V  volunteers,  afierward  famous  im  the  Texan     all   their  lands  in   Illinois  to  the  £OV- 
War  for  Independence. 

ernment.  When  the  time  arrived 

for  them  to  leave,  they  refused,  and  the  governor  called  out  a  military  force  to 
compel  them  to  remove  beyond  the  Mississippi.  Black  Hawk,  a  famous  chieftain 
of  the  Sacs,  left,  but  returned  at  the  head  of  a  thousand  warriors,  gathered  from 
the  tribes  named,  and  began  a  savage  attack  upon  the  settlements.  The  peril 
was  so  grave  that  the  government  sent  troops  under  Generals  Scott  and  Atkinson 
to  Rock  Island.  On  the  way  thither,  cholera,  which  had  never  before  appeared 
in  this  country,  broke  out  among  the  troops  and  raged  so  violently  that  opera 
tions  for  a  time  were  brought  to  a  standstill. 

WThen  Atkinson  was  able  to  do  so,  he  pushed  on,  defeated  the  Indians,  and 
captured  Black  Hawk.  He  was  taken  to  Washington,  where  he  had  a  long 

with   President  Jackson,  who  gave  him  good  advice,  and  induced  him  to 


SECOND  SEMINOLE    WAR.  219 

sign  a  new  treaty  providing  for  the  removal  of  his  people  to  the  Indian  Terri 
tory.  Then  Black  Hawk  was  carried  on  a  tour  through  the  country,  and  was 
sc  impressed  by  its  greatness  that,  when  he  returned  to  his  people,  he  gave  no 
more  trouble.  It  is  worth  remembering  that  both  Jefferson  Davis  and  Abraham 
Lincoln  served  in  the  Black  Hawk  War. 

NULLIFICATION   MEASURES    IN    SOUTH   CAROLINA. 

South  Carolina  had  long  been  soured  over  the  tariff  measures,  which,  while 
they  helped  the  prosperity  of  other  sections  of  the  Union,  were  oppressive  to  her, 
because  there  were  no  manufactures  carried  on  within  her  borders.  When 
Congress,  in  the  spring  of  1832,  imposed  additional  duties,  she  was  so  angered 
that  she  called  a  convention  in  November,  at  which  her  governor  presided. 
The  new  tariff  was  declared  unconstitutional,  and  therefore  null  and  void,  and 
notice  was  given  that  any  attempt  to  collect  the  duties  would  be  resisted  by  South 
Carolina,  which,  unless  her  demands  were  granted,  would  withdraw  from  the 
Union  and  establish  herself  as  an  independent  government.  Other  States 
endorsed  her  action  and  the  situation  became  serious. 

President  Jackson  hated  the  tariff  as  much  as  South  Carolina,  but  his  love 
for  the  Union  was  unquenchable,  and,  having  sworn  to  enforce  the  laws,  he  was 
determined  to  do  it  in  the  face  of  any  and  all  opposition.  Because  Vice-Presi 
dent  Calhoun  sided  with  his  native  State,  Jackson  threatened  to  arrest  him. 
Calhoun  resigned,  went  home,  and  was  elected  United  States  senator. 

President  Jackson  issued  a  warning  proclamation  on  the  10th  of  December, 
but  South  Carolina  continued  her  war  preparations,  and  the  President  sent 
General  Scott,  with  the  sloop-of-war  Natchez,  to  Charleston,  with  orders  to 
strengthen  the  garrison  in  the  harbor.  Scott  displayed  great  discretion,  and 
won  the  good-will  of  the  citizens  by  his  forbearance  and  courtesy.  The  other 
Southern  States  condemned  the  rash  course  of  South  Carolina,  within  which 
gradually  appeared  quite  a  number  of  supporters  of  the  Union.  Then  Clay 
introduced  a  bill  in  Congress,  which  became  law,  providing  for  a  gradual 
reduction  of  duties  until  the  30th  of  June,  1842,  when  they  were  to  reach  a 
general  level  of  twenty  per  cent.  Calhoun,  now  a  member  of  the  Senate,  sup 
ported  the  compromise,  and  the  threatened  civil  war  passed  away  for  the  time. 

SECOND    SEMINOLE    WAR. 

Trouble  once  more  broke  out  with  the  Seminoles  of  Florida.  The  aggra 
vation,  already  referred  to,  continued.  Runaway  slaves  found  safe  refuge  in  the 
swamps  of  the  State  and  intermarried  with  the  Indians.  A  treaty,  known  as 
that  of  Payne's  Landing,  was  signed  in  May,  1832,  by  which  a  number  of 
chiefs  visited  the  country  assigned  to  the  Creeks,  it  being  agreed  that,  if  they 


220  JACKSON,   VAN  BUREN,  HARRISON,  AND  TYLER. 

found  it  satisfactory,  the  Seminoles  should  remove  thither.  They  reported  in 
its  favor,  but  the  oilier  leaders,  incensed  at  their  action,  killed  several  of  them, 
and  declared,  probably  with  truth,  that  they  did  not  represent  the  sentiment  of 
their  people,  and  doubtless  had  been  influenced  by  the  whites  to  make  their 
report.  The  famous  Osceola  expressed  his  opinion  of  the  treaty  by  driving  his 
hunting-knife  through  it  and  the  top  of  the  table  on  which  it  lay. 

It  being  clear  that  the  Seminoles  had  no  intention  of  going' west,  President 
Jackson  sei>^  General  Wiley  Thompson  to  Florida  with  a  military  force  to  drive 
them  out.  The  Indians  secured  a  delay  until  the  spring  of  1835,  under  the 
promise  to  leave  at  that  time  ;  but  when  the  date  arrived,  they  refused  to  a  man. 
Osceola  was  so  defiant  in  an  interview  with  General  Thompson  that  the  latter 
put  him  in  irons  and  held  him  prisoner  for  a  couple  of  days.  Then  the  chief 
promised  to  comply  with  the  terms  of  the  treaty  and  was  released.  He  had  not 
the  slightest  intention,  however,  of  keeping  his  promise,  but  was  resolved  to  be 
revenged  upon  Thompson  for  the  indignity  he  had  put  upon  him. 

In  the  month  of  December,  1835,  while  Thompson  and  a  party  of  friends 
were  dining  near  Fort  King,  with  the  windows  raised,  because  of  the  mildness  of 
the  day,  Osceola  and  a  party  of  his  warriors  stole  up  and  fired  a  volley  through 
the  windows,  which  killed  Thompson  and  four  of  his  companions.  Before  the 
garrison  of  the  fort  could  do  anything,  the  Seminoles  had  fled. 

DADE'S  MASSACRE. 

On  the  same  day  of  this  tragical  occurrence,  Major  Francis  L.  Dade  set 
out  with  140  mounted  men  to  the  relief  of  General  Clinch,  stationed  at  Fort 
Drane,  in  the  interior  of  Florida,  where  he  was  threatened  with  massacre. 
Dade  advanced  from  Fort  Brooke  at  the  head  of  Tampa  Bay,  and  was  not  far 
on  the  road  when  he  was  fired  upon  by  the  Indians  from  ambush.  Half  the 
men  were  killed,  including  Major  Dade.  The  remainder  hastily  fortified 
themselves,  but  were  attacked  in  such  overwhelming  numbers  that  every  man 
was  shot  down.  Two  wounded  soldiers  crawled  into  the  woods,  but  afterward 
died.  "  Dade's  Massacre "  caused  as  profound  a  sensation  throughout  the 
country  as  did  that  of  Custer  and  his  command  forty  years  later. 

The  Seminole  War  dragged  on  for  years.  General  Scott  commanded  for  a 
time  in  1836,  and  vigorously  pressed  a  campaign  in  the  autumn  of  that  year; 
but  when  he  turned  over  the  command,  in  the  spring  of  1837,  to  General 
Zachary  Taylor,  the  conquest  of  the  Seminoles  seemingly  was  as  far  off  as  ever. 
Taylor  attempted  to  use  a  number  of  Cuban  bloodhounds  for  tracking  the  mon 
grels  into  the  swamps,  but  the  dogs  refused  to  take  the  trail  of  the  red  men,  and 
the  experiment  (widely  denounced  in  the  North)  was  a  failure. 

In  October,  while  Osceola  and  a  number  of  warriors  were  holding  a  con- 


GREAT  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  THE  COMFORT*   OF  LIFE. 


221 


ference  with  General  Jessup  under  the  protection  of  a  flag  of  truce,  all  were 
made  prisoners,  and  Osceola  was  sent  to  Charleston,  and  died  in  Fort  Moultrie 
in  1838.  The  war  dragged  on  until  1842,  when  General  Worth,  after  it  had 
cost  $40,000,000  and  many  lives,  brought  it  to  an  end  by  destroying  the  crops 
of  the  Seminoles  and  leaving  to  them  the  choice  between  starvation  and  sub 
mission. 

GREAT   IMPROVEMENTS    IX    THE   COMFORTS    OF    LIFE. 

The  steam  locomotive,  of  which  we  have  given  a  brief  history,  came  into 


OSOEOLA'S  INDIGNATION, 


general  use  during  the  presidency  of  General  Jackson.  When  he  left  office 
1,500  miles  of  railway  had  been  built,  and  many  more  were  being  laid  in  dif 
ferent  parts  of  the  country.  It  wrought  a  social  revolution  by  bringing  all  parts 
of  the  country  into  close  communication,  making  settlement  easy  and  the  cost 
of  moving  crops  slight.  Anthracite  coal  was  tested  in  1837,  and,  because  of  its 
great  advantages,  was  soon  widely  used.  McCormick's  reaper  was  patented  in 
1834,  and  gave  an  enormous  impetus  to  the  cultivation  of  western  lands.  In 
the  early  days  fire  was  obtained  by  the  use  of  flint  and  steel  or  the  sun-glass 


222  JACKSON,   VANBVREK,  HARRISON,  AND  TYLER. 

Friction  matches  appeared  in  1836,  and  quickly  supplanted  the  clumsy  method 
that  had  been  employed  for  centuries. 

On  the  iii«rht  of  December  1G,  1835,  New  York  City  was  visited  by  tne 
most  destructive  tire  in  its  history.  The  weather  was  so  cold  that  the  volunteer 
fire  department  could  do  little  to  check  the  conflagration,  which  destroyed  648 
builings,  covering  seventeen  blocks  and  thirteen  acres  of  ground.  The  value  of 
the  property  lost  was  $20,000,000. 

THE    COUNTRY    IN    1830. 

The  population  of  the  United  States  in  1830  was  12,866,020,  and  the  post- 
offices,  which  in  17DO  numbered  only  75,  had  grown  to  8,450.  The  sales  of  the 

western  lands  had  increased  from  $100,000 

»-  -  J  to  $25,000,000   a  year,   a  fact  which  ex 

plain*    the    rapid    extinguishment    of    the 
public  debt. 

Two  States  were  admitted  to  the 
Union,  Arkansas  in  1836  and  Michi 
gan  in  1837.  The  former  was  a  part 
of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  and  was 
originally  settled  by  the  French  at 
Arkansas  Post,  in  1635.  Michigan 
was  the  fourth  State  formed  from  the 
Northwest  Territory,  and  was  first 

settled  b    tbe  French  at  Detroit  in 


WESTERN   RAILROAD 
IN  EARLIER  DAYS. 


17G1- 


Abolitionism  assumed  definite  form  in  1831,  when  Wil 
liam  Lloyd  Garrison,  in  his  Boston  paper,  The  Liberator, 
1»  manded  the  immediate  abolition  of  slavery.  Anti-slavery 
societies  were  organized  in  different  parts  of  the  country  and  the 
members  became  known  as  abolitionists.  The  South  was  incensed  by  the  agi 
tation,  which  reached  its  culmination  in  the  great  Civil  "War  of  1861-65. 

FRANCE    AND    PORTUGAL    FORCED    TO   TERMS. 

President  Jackson  impressed  his  personality  upon  everything  with  which 
he  came  in  contact,  We  had  been  pressing  a  suit  against  France  for  the  in 
juries  she  inflicted  upon  our  commerce  during  the  flurry  of  1798,  but  that 
country  was  so  laggard  in  paying  that  the  President  recommended  to  Congress 
that  enough  French  vessels  should  be  captured  to  pay  the  bill.  France  red 
up  and  threatened  war  unless  Jackson  apologized.  A  dozen  wars  would  not 
have  moved  him  to  recall  his  words.  England,  however,  mediated,  and  France 


JOHN   C.    CALHOUN. 


223 


paid  the  debt.     Portugal  took  the  hint  and  lost  no  time  in  settling  a  similar 
account  with  us. 

President  Jackson,  imitating  Washington,  issued  a  farewell  address  to  his 
countrymen.  It  was  well  written  and  patriotic ;  but  his  last  official  act,  which 
was  characteristic  of  him,  displeased  many  of  his  friends.  The  speculation  in 
western  lands  had  assumed  such  proportions  that  the  treasury  department,  in 
July,  1836,  sent  out  a  circular  ordering  the  collectors  of  the  public  revenues  to 
receive  only  gold  and  silver  in  payment.  This  circular  caused  so  much  con 
fusion  and  trouble  that,  at  the  beginning  of  1837,  Congress  modified  it  so  that  it 
would  have  given  great  relief.  Jack-  w 
son  held  the  bill  in  his  possession 
until  the  adjournment  of  Congress, 
and  thus  prevented  its  becoming  a 
law. 

The  stormy  years  of  Jackson's 
presidency  brought  into  prominence 
three  of  the  greatest  of  Americans. 
All,  at  different  times,  were  mem 
bers  of  the  United  States  Senate, 
where  their  genius  overshadowed 
those  who  under  other  circumstances 
would  have  attracted  national  at 
tention.  These  men  were  John  Cald- 
well  Calhoun,  Henry  Clay,  and 
Daniel  Webster. 

JOHN    C.    CALHOUN. 

The  first  named  was  born  near 
Abbeville,  South  Carolina,  March  1 8, 
1782,  and,  graduating  at  Yale,  studied 
law  and  early  developed  fine  qualities 
of  statesmanship.  He  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1811,  and 
became  at  once  the  leader  of  the  younger  element  of  the  Democratic  party.  He 
was  a  vehement  advocate  of  the  war  with  Great  Britain,  and,  in  1817,  was  ap 
pointed  secretary  of  war  under  Monroe,  serving  to  the  close  of  his  presidency. 
It  has  been  shown  that  he  was  elected  Vice-President  with  Adams.  Elected 
again  with  Jackson,  the  two  became  uncompromising  opponents,  and  he  re- 
sigr  ,n  1832,  immediately  entering  the  Senate,  where  he  was  accepted  as  the 
leader  of  the  "  State  rights  "  men. 

His  services  as  senator  were  interrupted  for  a  short  time  when,  in  1844-45, 


; 


JOHN   C.   CALHOOiV. 

(17»2-l650). 


224  JACKSON,    VAN  BUREN,  HARRISON,  AND   TYLER. 

he  acted  as  secretary  of  State  in  Tyler's  administration.  He  was  determined  to 
secure  the  admission  of  Texas  and  by  his  vigor  did  so,  in  the  face  of  a  strong 
opposition  in  the  North.  He  re-entered  the  {Senate  and  resumed  his  leadership 
of  the  extreme  southern  wing  of  the  Democratic  party.  He  died  in  Washing 
ton,  March  31,  1850,  while  Clay's  compromise  measures  were  pending. 

Calhoun  ranks  among  the  foremost  of  American  statesmen,  and  as  the 
champion  of  the  South  his  place  is  far  above  any  who  appeared  before  or  who 
have  come  after  him.  As  a  speaker,  he  was  logical,  clear,  and  always  deeply  in 
earnest.  Daniel  Webster  said  of  him :  "  He  had  the  indisputable  basis  of  all 

high  character — unspotted  integrity 
and  honor  unimpcached.  Nothing 
groveling,  low,  or  meanly  selfish 
came  near  his  head  or  his  heart." 

HENRY    CLAY. 

Henry  Clay  was  born  April 
12, 1777, iii  the  "Slashes,"  Virginia. 
He  studied  law,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty  removed  to  Kentucky,  which 
is  proud  to  claim  the  honor  of  hav 
ing  been  his  home  and  in  reality 
his  State.  His  great  ability  and  win 
ning  manners  made  him  popular 
everywhere.  He  served  in  the  Ken 
tucky  Legislature,  and,  before  he  was 
thirty  years  old,  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  of  which  he 
was  a  member  from  1806  to  1807. 
He  soon  became  recognized  as  the 
foremost  champion  of  the  cause  of 
internal  improvements  and  of  the 
tariff  measures,  known  as  the  "American  System."  His  speakership  of  the 
Kentucky  Assembly,  his  term  as  United  States  senator  again,  1800-11,  and 
as  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1811,  followed  rapidly. 
Against  precedent,  being  a  newcomer,  he  was  chosen  Speaker,  and  served  until 
his  resignation  in  1814.  He  was  as  strenuous  an  advocate  of  the  war  W7ith 
Great  Britain  as  Calhoun,  and  it  has  been  stated  that  he  was  one  of  the  com 
missioners  who  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Ghent  in  1814.  The  following  year 
he  was  again  elected  to  tlio  House  of  Representatives,  and  acted  without  a 
break  as  Speaker  until  1821..  He  was  the  most  powerful  advocate  of  the  recog- 


HENRY  CLAY. 


DANIEL    WEBSTER. 


225 


nition  of  the  Spanish-American  States  in  revolt,  and  but  for  Clay  the  Missouri 
Compromise  would  not  have  been  prepared  and  adopted. 

Absent  but  a  brief  time  from  Congress,  he  again  acted  as  Speaker  in 
1823-25.  President  Adams  appointed  him  his  secretary  of  State,  and  he 
retired  from  office  in  1829,  but  two  years  later  entered  the  Senate  from  Ken 
tucky.  For  the  following  twenty  years  he  was  the  leader  of  the  Whig  party, 
opposed  Jackson  in  the  bank  controversy,  and  secured  the  tariff  compromise  of 
1833  and  the  settlement  with  France  in  1835.  He  retired  from  tke  Senate  in 
1843,  his  nomination  for  the  presidency  following  a  year  later.  Onee  more  he 
entered  the  Senate,  in  1849,  and 
brought  about  the  great  compromise 
of  1850.  He  died  June  29,  1852. 

Clay's  vain  struggle  for  the 
presidency  is  told  in  the  succeeding 
chapter.  It  seems  strange  that 
while  he  was  indisputably  the  most 
popular  man  in  the  United  States, 
he  was  not  able  to  secure  the  great 
prize.  The  American  Congress 
never  knew  a  more  brilliant  debater, 
nor  did  the  public  ever  listen  to  a 
more  magnetic  orator.  His  various 
compromise  measures  in  the  interest 
of  the  Union  were  beyond  the  at 
tainment  of  any  other  man.  His 
fame  rests  above  that  which  any 
office  can  confer.  His  friends  idol 
ized  and  his  opponents  respected 
him.  A  strong  political  enemy  once  j_ 
refused  an  introduction  to  him  on 
the  ground  that  he  could  not  with 
stand  the  magnetism  of  a  personal  acquaintance  which  had  won  "other  good 
haters"  to  his  side.  John  C.  Breckin ridge,  his  political  adversary,  in  his 
funeral  oration,  said:  "If  I  were  to  write  his  epitaph,  I  would  inscribe  as  the 
highest  eulogy  on  the  stone  which  shall  mark  his  resting-place,  'Here  lies  a 
man  who  was  in  the  public  service  for  fifty  years  and  never  attempted  to  deceive 
his  countrymen."' 

DANIEL    WEBSTER. 

Daniel  Webster  was  born  January  18,  1782,  at  Salisbury,  New  Hampshire, 
and  died  October  24,  1852.     He  was  educated  at  Exeter  Academy  and  graduated 


DANIEL    WEBSTER. 


226 


JACKSON,    VAN  BUREX,  HARRISON,  AND   TYLER. 


from  Dartmouth  College  in  1801.  After  teaching  school  a  short  time  m  Maine, 
he  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1805,  and  began  practice  at  Boscawen, 
in  his  native  State.  Two  years  afterward,  he  removed  to  Portsmouth,  where  he 
speedily  became  a  leader  at  the  bar  and  served  in  Congress  from  1813  to  1817. 
At  that  time  he  was  a  moderate  Federalist.  He  settled  in  Boston  in  1818, 
and  assumed  a  front  rank  among  lawyers  by  his  argument  before  the  United 
{States  Supreme  Court  in  the  celebrated  "  Dartmouth  College  Case/'  which 
involved  the  obligation  of  contracts  and  the  powers  of  the  national  government. 
He  was  congressman  from  Massachusetts  from  1823  to  1827,  was  chairman  of 
the  judiciary  committee,  and  attracted  great  attention  by  his  speeches  on  Greece, 
then  struggling  for  independence,  and  his  pleas  in  favor  of  free  trade. 

Webster's  fame  as  an  eloquent  orator  was  already  established.  As  such,  he 
was  the  greatest  that  America  ever  produced,  and  many  claim  that  he  surpassed 
any  who  spoke  the  English  tongue.  Among  his  masterpieces  were  his  speeches 
at  Plymouth,  1820,  on  the  bi-centennial ;  at  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  of 
the  Bunker  Hill  monument,  1825  ;  and  his  eulogy  on  Adams  and  Jefferson, 

1826. 

When  he  entered  the  United  States  Senate  in  1827,  he  immediately  took 
rank  beside  the  giants,  Calhoun  and  Clay.  He  was  an  advocate  of  the  protec 
tive  tariff  of  1823,  and  in  1830  reached  the  highest  point  of  thrilling  and 
eloquent  logic  in  his  reply  to  Robert  Young  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina,  who 
asserted  that  any  State  had  the  right  to  disobey  such  laws  of  Congress  as 
she  deemed  unconstitutional.  Webster's  speech  is  a  classic,  never  surpassed  in 
its  way,  and  the  debate  won  for  him  the  proud  title  of  "  Expounder  of  the 
Constitution." 

Naturally  Webster  opposed  nullification,  and  he  and  Calhoun  had  many 
earnest  contests  worthy  of  two  such  masters  of  logic.  W.  H.  Harrison  appointed 
him  his  secretary  of  State,  and  he  remained  with  Tyler  until  1843.  In  1845, 
he  was  again  sent  to  the  United  States  Senate,  but  in  1850  he  alienated  many 
of  his  former  supporters  by  his  speech  in  favor  of  Clay's  compromise  measures. 
He  was  secretary  of  State  "in  1850-52,  and  his  death  called  out  more  addresses 
and  testimonials  than  any  other  since  that  of  Washington. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1836. 

The  following  was  the  electoral  vote  cast  in  1836 :  Martin  Van  Buren,  of 
New  York,  Democrat,  170 ;  William  Henry  Harrison,  of  Ohio,  Whig,  73  ;  Hugh 
L.  White,  of  Tennessee,  Wliijr,  26 ;  Daniel  Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  Whig, 
14;  Willie  P.  Mangum,  of  North  Carolina,  Whig,  11.  For  Yice-President, 
Richard  M.  Johnson,  of  Kentucky,  Democrat,  147  ;  Francis  Granger,  of  New 
York,  Whig,  77  ;  John  Tyler,  of  Virginia,  Whig,  47  ;  William  Smith,  of  Ala- 


MARTIN   VAN  BUREN. 


227 


baraa,  Democrat,  23.  The  vote  for  Johnson  as  Vice-President  was  not  sufficient 
to  elect  him,  but  he  was  chosen  by  the  House  of  Representatives. 

MARTIN    VAN    BUREN. 

Martin  Van  Buren,  eighth  President,  was  born  December  5,  1782,  at 
Kinderhook,  N.  Y.,  and  died  July  24,  1862.  He  became  eminent  as  a  lawyer, 
and  his  skill  as  a  Democratic  politician  caused  him  to  be  known  as  the  "Little 
Magician."  He  held  a  number  of  public  offices,  being  State  senator,  United 
States  senator,  1821-28  ;  governor  of  New  York,  1828-29  ;  and  secretary  of 
State  under  Jackson,  1829-31,  when 
Jackson  appointed  him  minister  to 
England,  but  his  political  opponents 
secured  his  defeat  in  the  Senate. 
Becoming  Vice-President  under 

c* 

Jackson,  he  presided  in  the  Senate 
from  1833  to  1837.  Jackson  was 
so  pleased  with  Van  Buren  that  he 
chose  him  as  his  successor.  He 
was  the  Free  Soil  candidate  for  the 
presidency  in  1848,  and  thereby 
Drought  about  the  defeat  of  Cass  by 
Taylor. 

The  administration  of  Van  Bu 
ren  was  one  of  the  most  unpopular 
we  have  ever  had,  and  through  no 
fault  of  his.  A  great  deal  of  the 
prosperity  of  Jackson's  term  was 
superficial.  He  had  been  despotic, 
as  shown  in  his  removal  of  the 

United  States  Bank  deposits  and  the  MARTIN  VAN  BUREN. 

issue  of  the  specie  circular  of  1836.  (1782-1862.)  one  term,  ISST-IMI. 

Confusion  ensued  in  business,  and  an  era  of  wild  speculation  followed  a  distribu 
tion  of  the  surplus  in  the  treasury  among  the  States.  The  credit  system  took  the 
place  of  the  cash  system,  banks  sprang  up  like  mushrooms,  and  an  immense 
amount  of  irredeemable  money  was  put  in  circulation. 

These  institutions  were  known  as  "  wild-cat  banks,"  and  their  method  of 
defrauding  the  public  was  as  follows  :  They  bought  several  hundred  thousands 
of  cheap  bills  which,  having  cost  them  practically  nothing,  they  used  in  offering 
higher  prices  for  public  lands  than  others  could  pay  in  gold  and  silver.  They 
trusted  to  chance  that  their  bills  would  not  soon  come  back  for  redemption,  but 


228  JACKSON,    VAN  BUREN,  HARRISON,   AND   TYLER. 

if  they  did  so,  the  banks  "failed"  and  the  holders   of  the  notes  lost  every 

dollar. 

The  fraud  was  a  deliberate  one,  but  the  establishment  of  the  national  bank 
ing  law  since  then  renders  a  repetition  of  the  swindle  impossible. 

THE    PANIC   OF    1837. 

Van  Buivn  was  hardly  inaugurated  when  the  panic  of  1837  burst  upon  the 
country.  The  banks  were  forced  to  suspend  specie  payment,  many  failed,  and 
mercantile  houses  that  had  weathered  other  financial  storms  toppled  over  like  ten 
pins.  In  two  months  the  failures  in  New  York  and  New  Orleans  amounted  to 
$lf)0,000,000.  Early  in  May,  a  deputation  of  New  York  merchants  and  bankers 
called  upon  the  President  and  asked  him  to  put  off  the  collection  of  duties  on 
imported  goods,  to  rescind  the  specie  circular,  and  convene  Congress  in  the  hope 
of  devising  measures  for  relief.  All  that  the  President  consented  to  do  was  to 
defer  the  collection  of  duties.  Immediately  the  banks  in  New  York  suspended 
specie  payments,  and  their  example  was  followed  by  others  throughout  the 
country.  The  New  York  Legislature  then  authorized  the  suspension  of  specie 
payments  for  a  year.  This  left  the  national  government  without  the  means  of 
paying  its  own  obligations  (since  no  banks  would  return  its  deposits  in  specie) 
except  by  using  the  third  installment  of  the  surplus  revenue  that  had  been 
promised  to  the  States. 

The  country  was  threatened  with  financial  ruin,  and  Congress  convened  in 
September.  The  President  in  his  message  proposed  the  establishment  of  an 
independent  treasury  for  the  custody  of  the  public  funds,  and  their  total  separa 
tion  from  banking  institutions.  Such  a  bill  failed,  but  it  became  a  law  in  1840. 
Congress,  however,  obtained  temporary  relief  by  authorizing  the  issue  of 
$10,000,000  in  treasury  notes. 

The  fact  remained,  however,  that  the  country  was  rich,  and  though  much 
distress  prevailed,  the  financial  stress  began  to  lessen  as  more  healthy  methods 
of  business  were  adopted.  In  1838  most  of  the  banks  resumed  specie  payments, 
but  the  effect  of  the  panic  was  felt  for  years.  Since  the  distress  occurred  while 
Van  Buren  was  President,  the  blame  was  placed  by  many  upon  the  adminis 
tration. 

At  that  time  the  present  Dominion  of  Canada  was  divided  into  two  prov 
inces,  known  as  Upper  and  Lower  Canada.  Dissatisfaction  with  some  of  the  feat 
ures  of  Great  Britain's  rule  caused  a  rebellion  in  Lower  Canada  in  1837.  Much 
sympathy  was  felt  for  them  in  this  country,  and  especially  in  New  York,  from 
which  a  force  of  700  men  seized  and  fortified  Navy  Island,  in  Niagara  River. 
There  were  plenty  of  loyalists  in  Canada,  who  made  an  attempt  to  capture  the 
place,  but  failed.  On  the  night  of  December  29,  1837,  they  impetuously 


WILLIAM  HENRY  HARRISON. 


229 


attacked  the  supply  steamer   Caroline,  killed  twelve  of  the  defenders,  set  the 
boat  on  fire,  and  sent  it  over  Niagara  Falls. 

President  Van  Buren  issued  a  proclamation  forbidding  all  interference  in 
the  affairs  of  Canada,  and  General  Wood  was  sent  to  the  frontier  with  a  military 
force  strong  enough  to  compel  obedience.  He  obliged  the  insurgents  on  Navy 
Island  to  surrender  and  pledge  themselves  to  refrain  from  all  unlawful  acts. 
These  vigorous  measures  soon  brought  quiet  to  the  border,  and  England's  wise 
policy  toward  the  disaffected  provinces  has  made  Canada  one  of  her  most  loyal 
provinces. 

The  population  of  the  United 
States  in  1840  was  17,649,453, 
further  evidence  of  the  real  pros 
perity  of  the  country.  Railroad 
building  went  on  vigorously,  there 
being  fully  4,000  miles  in  operation 
at  the  close  of  Van  Buren 's  term. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1840. 

The  following  was  the  presiden 
tial  vote  of  1840:  William  Henry 
Harrison,  of  Ohio,  Whig,  234; 
Martin  Van  Buren,  60.  For  Vice- 
President,  John  Tyler,  234;  K.  M. 
Johnson,  48;  L.  W.  Tazewell,  of 
Virginia,  Democrat,  11;  James  K. 
Polk,  of  Tennessee,  Democrat,  1. 

WILLIAM    HENRY    HARRISON. 

William  Henry  H  ?  -isori,  ninth 
President,  was  born  Fe  raary  9, 1773, 
in  Virginia,  and  was  the  son  of  Benjamin  Harrison,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  and  afterward  governor  of  Virginia.  The  son  graduated  from 
Hampden-Sidney  College,  and  took  up  the  study  of  medicine,  but  was  fond  of 
military  matters,  and,  entering  the  army  of  St.  Clair,  he  displayed  great  bravery 
and  skill.  He  helped  General  Wayne  win  his  victory  over  the  Indians  in 
1794,  and  was  rapidly  promoted.  He  became  secretary  of  the  Northwest  Terri 
tory  in  1798,  and  the  following  year  was  made  delegate  to  Congress.  In  1800, 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  Indiana  Territory,  and  was  acting  as  such  when 
he  won  his  decisive  victory  at  Tippecanoe,  in  the  autumn  of  1811.  An  account 
has  been  given  of  his  brilliant  services  in  the  War  of  1812. 


WILLIAM   HENRY  HARRISON. 
(1773-1841.)    One  month,  1841. 


230  JACKSON,    VAN  BUREN,  HARRISON,   AND   TYLER, 

He  attained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  regular  army,  but  resigned  in 
1814.  He  was  congressman  from  1816  to  1819,  United  States  senator  from 
1825  to  1828,  and  United  States  minister  to  the  United  States  of  Columbia, 
1828-29. 

President  Harrison  wore  no  hat  or  overcoat  while  delivering  his  inaugural. 
Although  accustomed  to  the  hardships  of  the  frontier,  and  naturally  one  of  the 
most  rugged  of  men,  he  was  now  old  and  weak  in  body.  His  imprudence, 
added  to  the  annoyance  from  the  clamorous  office-seekers,  drove  him  frantic. 
He  succumbed  to  pneumonia  and  died  on  the  4th  of  April,  just  one  month 
after  his  inauguration.  He  was  the  first  President  to  die  in  office,  and  an  im 
mense  concourse  attended  his  funeral,  his  remains  being  interred  near  North 
Bend,  Ohio. 

JOHN    TYLER. 

As  provided  by  the  Constitution,  the  Vice-President,  John  Tyler,  was 
immediately  sworn  into  office  as  his  successor.  Like  many  of  his  prede 
cessors,  John  Tyler  wras  a  native  of  Virginia,  where  he  was  born  March  29, 
1790.  He  possessed  great  natural  ability  and  was  a  practicing  lawyer  at  the 
age  of  nineteen,  and  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature  at  twenty-one.  When 
thirty-five,  he  was  chosen  governor  of  Virginia,  and  was  a  United  States  sena 
tor  from  1827  to  1836. 

Since  he  was  the  first  President  not  elected  to  the  office,  there  was  con 
siderable  discussion  among  the  politicians  as  to  his  precise  status.  It  was  con 
tended  by  some  that  he  was  chief  executive  "  in  trust,"  and  was  therefore  bound 
to  carry  out  the  policy  of  his  immediate  predecessor.  Tyler  insisted  that  he 
was  as  much  the  President,  in  every  respect,  as  if  he  had  been  elected  by  the 
people  to  that  office,  and  in  this  insistence  he  was  unquestionably  right. 

Tyler  quickly  involved  himself  in  trouble  with  the  Whigs.  They  passed 
an  act  to  re-establish"  the  United  States  Bank,  whose  charter  expired  in  1836, 
though  it  had  continued  in  operation  under  the  authori^  of  the  State  of  Penn 
sylvania.  President  Tyler  vetoed  the  bill.  He  suggested  some  modifications, 
and  it  was  passed  again,  but  to  the  indignant  amazement  of  his  party  he  vetoed 
it  a  second  time.  He  was  declared  a  traitor  and  widely  denounced.  All  his 
cabinet  resigned,  with  the  exception  of  Daniel  Webster,  who,  as  stated  else 
where,  remained  until  1843,  in  order  to  complete  an  important  treaty  with 
England  then  under  negotiation. 

THE    WEBSTER-ASHBURTON    TREATY. 

This  was  known  as  the  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty.  Our  northeastern 
boundary  was  loosely  defined  by  the  treaty  of  1783,  and  it  was  finally  agreed 
by  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  to  refer  the  questions  in  dispute  to  three 


THE  ANTI-RENT   WAR   IN  NEW   YORK. 


231 


commissions  to  be  jointly  constituted  by  the  two  countries.  The  first  of  these 
awarded  the  islands  in  Passamaquoddy  Bay  to  the  United  States ;  the  third 
established  the  boundary  line  from  the  intersection  of  the  forty-fifth  parallel 
with  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  western  point  of  Lake  Huron.  It  remained 
for  the  second  commission  to  determine  the  boundary  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
St.  Lawrence.  The  question  was  a  bone  of  contention  for  many  years,  and  at 
last  was  referred  to  Daniel  Webster  and  Lord  Ashburton.  These  two  gentle 
men  met  in  a  spirit  of  fairness,  calmly  discussed  the  matter,  and  without  the 
slightest  friction  reached  an  agreement,  which  was  signed  August  9,  1842,  and 
confirmed  by  the  Senate. 

CIVIL    WAR    IX    RHODE    ISLAND. 

Rhode  Island  had  been  gov 
erned  down  to  1842  by  the  charter 
received  from  Charles  II.,  in  1663. 
This  charter  permitted  only  the 
owners  of  a  certain  amount  of  prop 
erty  to  vote.  Dissatisfaction  gradu 
ally  grew  until  1842,  when  two 
political  parties  were  formed  in  the 
little  State,  one  favoring  a  new  con 
stitution  and  the  other  clinging  to 
the  old.  The  former  carried  the 
Legislature,  after  adopting  a  State 
constitution,  and  elected  Thomas  W. 
Dorr  governor.  Their  opponents 
elected  Samuel  W.  King,  and  both 
placed  armed  forces  in  the  field. 
When  civil  war  was  imminent,  the 
national  government  interfered  and 

,      „,    *  v  i        vi  JOHN   TYLER. 

Dorr  s  forces  were  dispersed  without  (1790-1862.)  one  partial  term,  1841-1545. 

bloodshed.  Dorr  was  arrested,  and  on  his  trial  found  guilty  of  treason.  He 
was  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  but  offered  liberty  on  condition  of  tak 
ing  the  oath  of  allegiance.  He  refused,  and,  in  June,  1845,  was  unconditionally 
released.  Meanwhile,  the  general  dissatisfaction  with  the  colonial  charter  led 
to  the  calling  of  a  convention,  which  adopted  a  new  constitution,  that  went 
into  effect  in  May,  1843. 


THE    ANTI-RENT    WAR    IN    NEW    YORK. 

It  has  been  shown  that  when  the  Dutch  were   the  owners  of  New  York 


232  JACKSON,    VAN  BUREN,   HARRISON,   AND    TYLER. 

State  many  of  them  took  possession  of  immense  tracts  of  lands,  over  which  they 
ruled  like  the  feudal  lords  in  ancient  England.  These  grants  and  privileges 
were  inherited  by  their  descendants  and  were  not  affected  by  the  Revolution. 
Among  the  wealthiest  patroons  were  the  Van  liensselaers,  whose  estates  included 
most  of  Albany  and  Rensselaer  Counties.  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer  was  easy 
going  and  so  wealthy  that  he  did  not  take  the  trouble  to  collect  the  rents  due 
from  his  numerous  tenants,  who,  at  his  death,  in  1840,  owed  him  nearly  a  quarter 
of  a  million  of  dollars.  His  heirs  determined  to  collect  this  amount  and  set 
vigorous  measures  on  foot  to  do  so.  The  tenants  resisted,  furious  fights  took 
place,  and  the  military  were  called  out,  but  the  tenants  remained  resolute  in  re 
fusing  to  pay  rent.  The  disturbances  continued  and  were  known  as  "The  Anti- 
Rent  War."  The  eastern  towns  of  Rensselaer  County  and  the  Livingston  manor 
of  Columbia  County  were  soon  in  a  state  of  insurrection,  and  many  outrages 
were  committed.  In  Delaware  County,  while  a  deputy-sheriff  was  trying  to 
perform  his  duty  he  was  killed.  The  civil  authorities  were  powerless  to  sup 
press  the  revolt,  and,  in  1846,  the  governor  declared  the  County  of  Delaware 
in  a  state  of  insurrection,  and  called  out  the  military.  They  arrested  the  ring 
leaders,  and  the  murderers  of  the  deputy-sheriff  were  sentenced  to  imprisonment 
for  life.  Conciliatory  measures  followed,  most  of  the  patroon  lands  were  sold 
to  the  tenants,  and  the  great  estates  gradually  passed  out  of  existence. 

A    SHOCKING    ACCIDENT. 

A  shocking  accident  occurred  on  the  28th  of  February,  1844.  Mr. 
U pshur,  secretary  of  State,  Mr.  Gilmer,  secretary  of  the  navy,  and  a  number  of 
distinguished  ladies  and  gentlemen  were  taken  on  an  excursion  down  the 
Potomac,  by  Commodore  Stockton,  on  the  steamer  Princeton.  For  the  enter 
tainment  of  his  guests,  the  commodore  ordered  the  firing  of  an  immense  new 
gun  that  had  been  placed  on  board  a  short  time  before.  It  had  been  discharged 
several  times,  and,  upon  what  was  intended  and  indeed  proved  to  be  the  last  dis 
charge,  it  exploded,  killing  Mr.  Upshur,  Mr.  Gilmer,  Commodore  Kennon, 
Virgil  Maxey,  lately  minister  to  The  Hague,  and  several  of  the  visitors,  besides 
wounding  seventeen  sailors,  some  of  whom  died.  Although  Commodore 
Stockton  lived  many  years  afterward,  he  never  fully  recovered  from  the  shock. 
The  accident  cast  a  gloom  throughout  the  whole  country. 

ADMISSION    OF    FLORIDA. 

One  State,  Florida,  was  admitted  to  the  Union  during  Tyler's  adminis 
tration.  Its  early  history  has  been  given,  it  having  been  bought  from  Spain  in 
181D.  It  was  made  a  State  in  1845. 

Texas  now  became  a  subject  of  national  interest.     Although  the  United 


ADMISSION  OF  TEXAS.  233 

States  made  claim  to  it  as  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  the  claim  was 
abandoned  in  181(J,  when  Florida  came  into  our  possession.  In  1821,  a  colony 
of  Americans  formed  a  settlement  in  Mexican  territory,  encouraged  to  do  so 
by  the  home  government.  Others  emigrated  thither,  among  whom  were  many 
restless  adventurers  and  desperate  men.  By-and-by  they  began  talkin^  of 
wresting  Texas  from  Mexico  and  transferring  it  to  the  United  States.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  in  this  design  they  received  encouragement  from  many  men 
holding  high  places  in  the  United  States. 

THE    TEXAS    REVOLUTION. 

The  ferment  in  Texas  increased,  and,  on  the  2d  of  March,  1836,  a  con 
vention  declared  Texas  independent.  Santa  Anna,  president  of  the  Mexican 
Eepublic,  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  with  a  large  force  and  advanced  to  San 
Antonio,  where  less  than  200  Texans  had  taken  refuge  in  a  mission-house 
known  as  the  Alamo,  with  their  flag,  consisting  of  a  single  star,  floating  defiantly 
above  it.  In  this  body  of  fearless  men  were  the  eccentric  Davy  Crockett, 
formerly  congressman  from  Tennessee  ;  the  Bowie  brothers,  one  of  whom  was 
the  inventor  of  the  Bowie  knife;  Colonel  Travis,  and  others  as  dauntless 
as  they.  They  had  several  rifles  apiece,  and  maintained  a  spirited  defense, 
night  and  day,  for  ten  days,  under  the  incessant  attacks  of  the  Mexicans. 
Finally,  when  the  brave  band  was  reduced  to  less  than  a  dozen,  they  surrenderd 
under  the  promise  that  their  lives  would  be  spared.  Santa  Anna  caused  the 
massacre  of  every  one. 

"Remember  the  Alamo!  "  became  the  war-cry  of  the  Texans,  and,  in  the 
following  month,  under  the  command  of  Sam  Houston,  they  virtually  destroyed 
the  Mexican  army  and  took  Santa  Anna  prisoner.  Houston  was  more  merciful 
to  him  than  he  had  been  to  the  Alamo  prisoners,  and  protected  him  from  the 
vengeance  of  the  soldiers.  He  was  very  glad  to  sign  a  treaty  acknowledging  the 
independence  of  Texas. 

The  Mexican  government,  however,  repudiated  the  action  of  its  president, 
and  a  guerrilla  warfare  was  waged  by  both  sides  for  several  years  without  any 
progress  being  made  in  the  conquest  of  the  province.  Texas  organized  itself 
into  an  independent  republic,  elected  Sam  Houston  president,  and  secured  recog 
nition  from  the  United  States,  England,  and  several  European  governments. 
While  making  no  organized  effort  to  conquer  Texas,  Mexico  insisted  that  the 
province  was  her  own. 

ADMISSIOX    OF    TEXAS. 

One  of  the  first  steps  of  Texas,  after  declaring  her  independence ,  was  to 
apply  for  admission  into  the  Union.  There  was  great  opposition  in  the  North 
because  its  admission  would  add  an  enormous  slave  area  to  our  country.  For  the 


234  JACKSON,    VAN  BUREN,   HARRISON,   AND   TYLER. 

same  reasoii  the  South  clamored  that  it  should  be  made  a  State.  Calhoun,  who 
succeeded  Upshur  as  secretary  of  State,  in  March,  1844,  put  forth  every  effort 
to  bring  Texas  into  the  Union.  Clay's  opposition  lost  him  the  support  of  the 
South  in  his  presidential  aspirations.  President  Tyler,  who  favored  its  admis 
sion,  made  an  annexation  treaty  with  Texas,  but  the  Senate  refused  to  ratify  it. 
Then  a  joint  resolution  was  introduced,  and,  after  a  hot  discussion,  was  passed 
with  the  proviso  that  the  incoming  President  might  act,  if  he  preferred,  by 
treaty.  The  resolution  was  adopted  March  1,  1845,  by  the  Senate,  three  days 
before  the  close  of  President  Tyler's  term.  Calhoun  instantly  dispatched  a 
messenger  to  Texas  with  orders  to  travel  with  the  utmost  haste  that  the  new 
State  might  be  brought  in  under  the  resolution.  President  Tyler  immediately 
signed  the  bill,  and  the  "Lone-Star"  State  became  a  member  of  the  Union. 
On  the  last  day  but  one  of  the  close  of  his  term  he  signed  the  bills  for  the 
admission  of  Florida  and  Iowa,  but  the  latter  was  not  formally  admitted  until 
the  following  year. 

THE   COPPER    MINES    OF    MICHIGAN. 

There  were  many  events  of  a  non-political  nature,  but  of  the  highest 
importance,  that  occurred  during  Tyler's  administration.  Copper  took  its  place 
as  one  of  the  great  mineral  productions  of  the  United  States  in  1844.  The 
Indians  at  last  abandoned  their  claims  to  the  country  near  Lake  Superior,  in 
northern  Michigan,  and  the  explorations  that  followed  proved  that  the  copper 
mines  there  are  the  richest  in  the  world.  Numerous  companies  were  formed 
and  copper-mining  became  the  leading  industry  of  that  section.  An  interesting 
discovery  was  that  many  of  the  mines  had  been  worked  hundreds  of  years 
before  by  the  Indians. 

The  wonderful  richness  of  the  gold  deposits  in  California,  the  vast  mineral 
resources  of  Missouri  and  Tennessee,  and  the  untold  wealth  of  the  petroleum, 
bed  under  the  surface  of  Pennsylvania  were  unsuspected. 

THE    PRESIDENTIAL    CONTEST    OF    1844. 

The  presidential  election  of  1844  hinged  on  the  question  of  the  proposed 
annexation  of  Texas.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  Whigs  nominated  Henry  Clay, 
who  opposed  annexation.  Van  Buren  lost  the  Democratic  renomination  through 
his  opposition  to  annexation,  and  the  Southern  Democrats  secured  the  candidacy 
of  James  K.  Polk.  The  Abolitionists  did  not  think  Clay's  opposition  to  annex 
ation  quite  as  earnest  as  it  should  be,  and  they  placed  William  Birney  in  nomi 
nation.  As  a  result  Clay  lost  the  State  of  New  York,  and  through  that  his 
election  to  the  presidency.  The  electoral  vote  was  as  follows : 

James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee,  Democrat,  170;  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky 
Whig,  105.  For  Vice-President,  George  M.  Dallas,  of  Pennsylvania,  Democrat, 


THE  MAGNETIC  TELEGRAPH. 


236 


170 ;  Theodore  Frelinghuysen,  of  New  Jersey,  Whig,  105.  This  secured  the 
election  of  Polk  and  Dallas.  James  G.  Birney  and  Thomas  Morris,  candidates 
of  the  Liberty  party  for  President  and  Vice-President,  received  no  electoral 
vote,  but,  as  stated,  caused  the  loss  of  the  State  of  New  York  to  Clay,  thereby 
throwing  enough  electoral  votes  to  Polk  and  Dallas  to  give  them  success. 

THE   MAGNETIC    TELEGRAPH. 

The  convention  which  placed  Polk  in  nomination  was  held  in  the  city  of 
Baltimore.     A  railway  train  was  waiting  to  carry  the  news  to  Washington,  and, 

as  soon  as  the  passengers  could  hurry  on  board, 
it  steamed  at  the  highest  speed  to  the   national 
capital.    When  the  people  left  the  cars  an 
Qt  hour   later    they    found,     to 

their  i  n  - 
expressible 
amazement, 
newspaper 
extras  for  sale 
containing 
the  news  of 
Polk's  nomi 
nation.  In 
answer  to 
their  ques 
tions  they 
were  told  that 
it  had  been 
received  from 
Baltimore  by 

TELEGRAPH. 

This  was 

>th  of  May,  1844,  and  was  the  first  public  message  sent  by  magnetic 
telegraph.     It  marked  an  era  in  the  history  of  civilization. 

^  Investigation  seems  to  establish  that  Professor  Joseph  Henry,  of  the  Smith 
sonian  Institute,  was  the  real  inventor  of  the  electro-magnetic  telegraph,  though 
that  honor  has  been  given  and  will  continue  to  be  given  by  most  people  to  Pro 
fessor  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  whose  relation  to  the  telegraph  was  much  the  same 
as  that  of  Fulton  to  the  steamboat.  He  added  to  the  ideas  of  those  before  him 
and  first  brought  them  into  practical  use. 

Professor  Morse  deserves  all  the  credit  he  has  received  as  one  of  the  greatest 


SHOP  IN  WHICH  THE  FIRST  MORSE  INSTRUMENT  WAS  CONSTRUCTED 
FOR  EXHIBITION  BEFORE   CONGRESS 


236 


JACKSON,    VAN  BUREN,  HARRISON,  AND    TYLER. 


of  inventors.  He  studied  painting  when  young  and  became  an  artist  of  consid 
erable  skill.  As  early  as  1832  he  conceived  the  idea  of  an  electro-magnetic 
telegraph  and  began  his  experiments.  The  project  absorbed  all  his  energies 
until  he  became  what  is  called  in  these  days  a  "  crank/'  which  is  often  the  name 
of  one  who  gives  all  his  thoughts  and  efforts  to  the  development  of  a  single 
project.  He  drifted  away  from  his  relatives,  who  looked  upon  him  as  a  visionary 
dreamer,  and  when  his  ragged  clothes  and  craving  stomach  demanded  attention, 
he  gave  instruction  in  drawing  to  a  few  students  who  clung  to  him, 

Light  gradually  dawned  upon  Morse,  and  he  continued  his  labors  under 
discouragement  that  would  have  overcome  almost  any  other  man.  He  secured 
help  from  Alfred  Vail,  of  Morristown,  N.  J.,  who  invented  the  alphabetical 

characters  and  many  es 
sential  features  of  the  sys 
tem,  besides  furnishing 
Morse  with  funds,  with 
out  which  his  labors 
would  have  come  to  a 
standstill.  There  was  not 
enough  capital  at  com 
mand  to  construct  a  line 
of  telegraph,  and  Morse 
a  n  d  his  few  friends 
haunted  Congress  with 
their  plea  for  an  appro 
priation.  Ezra  Cornell, 
founder  of  Cornell  Uni 
versity,  gave  assistance, 
and,  finally,  in  the  very  closing  days  of  the  session  of  Congress  in  1844,  an  ap 
propriation  of  $30,000  was  made  to  defray  the  expenses  of  a  line  between  Bal 
timore  and  Washington. 

The  invention,  like  most  others  of  an  important  nature,  was  subjected  to 
merciless  ridicule.  A  wag  hung  a  pair  of  muddy  boots  out  of  a  window  in 
Washington,  with  a  placard  announcing  that  they  belonged  to  a  man  who  had  just 
arrived  by  telegraph  ;  another  placed  a  package  on  the  wires,  and  called  to  his 
friends  to  see  it  whisked  away  by  lightning ;  while  many  opposed  the  apparent 
experimenting  with  the  electric  fluid,  which  they  believed  would  work  all  sorts 
of  mischief.  Nevertheless,  the  patient  toilers  kept  at  work,  often  stopped  by 
accident,  and  in  the  face  of  all  manner  of  opposition.  The  first  line  was  laid 
underground,  and,  as  has  been  shown,  carried  the  news  of  Folk's  nomination 
for  the  presidency  to  Washington. 


THE   SPEEDWELL  IRON   WORKS,   MORRISTOWTsT,   N.  J. 

Here  was  forged  the  shaft  for  the  Savannah,  the  first  steamship  which  crossed  the 
Atlantic.  Here  was  manufactured  the  tires,  axles  and  cranks  of  the  tirst  American 
locomotive.  Shop  in  which  Vail  and  Baxter  constructed  the  first  telegraph  appa 
ratus,  invented  by  Morse,  for  exhibition  before  Congress. 


THE  FIRST  TELEGRAM.  237 

Professor  Morse  was  in  Washington,  and  the  first  message  was  dictated  by 
Annie  Ellsworth,  March  28,  1844,  and  received  by  Alfred  Vail,  forty  miles  away 
in  Baltimore.  It  consisted  of  the  words,  "  What  hath  God  wrought  ?  "  and  the 
telegram  is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Connecticut  Historical  Society.  It  may 
be  said  that  since  then  the  earth  has  been  girdled  by  telegraph  lines,  numbers 
of  which  pass  under  the  ocean,  uniting  all  nations  and  the  uttermost  extremities 
of  the  world. 

In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  done  little  more  than  give  the  results  of  the 
various  presidential  campaigns.  The  two  leading  political  parties  were  the 
Whigs  and  the  Democrats,  and  many  of  the  elections  were  of  absorbing  interest, 
not  only  to  the  participants,  but  to  the  country  at  large.  Several  were  distin 
guished  by  features  worthy  of  permanent  record,  since  they  throw  valuable 
light  upon  the  times,  now  forgotten,  and  were  attended  in  many  instances  by  far- 
reaching  results. 

It  seems  proper,  therefore,  that  a  chapter  should  be  devoted  to  the  most 
important  presidential  campaigns  preceding  and  including  one  of  the  most  mem 
orable — that  of  1840 — often  referred  to  as  the  "hard  cider  campaign." 


OLD  GATES  AT  ST.  AUGUSTINE,  FLOKIDA. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


FAMOUS    PRESIDENTIAL    CAMPAIGNS   PRKVIOUS 

TO   18-40. 

The  Origin  of  the  "  Caucus  "—The  Election  of  1792— The  First  Stormy  Election— The  Constitution 
Amended— Improvement  of  the  Method  of  Nominating  Presidential  Candidates— The  First  Presiden 
tial  Convention— Convention  in  Baltimore  in  1832— Exciting  Scenes— The  Presidential  Campaign  of 
1820— "  Old  Hickory  "—Andrew  Jackson's  Popularity— Jackson  Nominated— "  Old  Hickory"  De 
feated — The  "Log-Cabin  "  and  "  Hard-Cider  "  Campaign  of  1840—"  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  Too  " — 
Peculiar  Feature  of  the  Harrison  Campaign. 

THE  presidential  nominating  convention  is  a  modern  institution.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  Republic  a  very  different  method  was  pursued  in  order  to 
place  the  candidates  for  the  highest  office  in  the  land  before  the  people. 

THE   ORIGIN   OF    THE    "  CAUCUS." 

In  the  first  place,  as  to  the  origin  of  the  "  caucus."  In  the  early  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century  a  number  of  caulkers  connected  with  the  shipping  busi 
ness  in  the  ^North  End  of  Boston  held  a  meeting  for  consultation.  That  meet 
ing  was  the  germ  of  the  political  caucuses  which  have  formed  so  prominent  a 
feature  of  our  government  ever  since  its  organization. 

The  Constitution  of  our  country  was  framed  and  signed  in  the  month  of 
September,  1787,  by  the  convention  sitting  in  Philadelphia,  and  then  sent  to 
the  various  Legislatures  for  their  action.  It  could  not  become  binding  until 
ratified  by  nine  States.  On  the  2d  of  July,  1788,  Congress  was  notified  that 
the  necessary  nine  States  had  approved,  and  on  the  13th  of  the  following  Sep- 

(239) 


240       FAMOUS  PRESIDENTIAL    CAMPAIGNS  PREVIOUS   TO  1840. 

tember  a  day  was  appointed  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President.  The  day 
selected  was  the  first  Wednesday  of  January,  1789.  The  date  for  the  begin 
ning  of  proceedings  under  the  new  Constitution  was  postponed  to  the  first  Wed 
nesday  in  March,  which  happened  to  fall  on  the  4th.  In  that  way  the  4th  of 
March  became  fixed  as  the  date  of  the  inauguration  of  each  President,  except 
when  the  date  is  on  Sunday,  when  it  becomes  the  oth. 

Congress  met  at  that  time  in  the  city  of  New  York.  It  was  not  until  the 
1st  of  April  that  a  quorum  for  business  appeared  in  the  House  of  Representa 
tives,  and  the  Senate  was  organized  on  the  Gth  of  that  month.  The  electors 
who  were  to  choose  the  President  were  selected  by  the  various  State  Legislatures, 
each  elector  being  entitled  to  cast  two  votes.  The  rule  was  that  the  candidate 
receiving  the  highest  number  became  President,  while  the  next  highest  vote 
elected  the  Viee-President,  The  objection  to  this  method  was  that  the  two 
might  belong  to  different  political  parties,  which  very  condition  of  things  came 
about  at  the  election  of  the  second  President,  when  John  Adams  was  chosen  to 
the  highest  office  and  Thomas  Jefferson  to  the  second.  The  former  was  a  Fed 
eralist,  while  Jefferson  was  a  Republican,  or,  as  he  would  have  been  called  later, 
a  Democrat.  Had  Adams  died  while  in  office,  the  policy  of  his  administration 
would  have  been  changed. 

There  could  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  first  choice.  While  Washington  lived 
and  was  willing  thus  to  serve  his  country,  what  other  name  could  be  considered  ? 
So,  when  the  electoral  vote  was  counted  on  the  Gtli  of  April,  1789,  every  vote 
of  the  ten  States  which  took  part  in  the  election  was  cast  for  him.  He  received 
69  (all)  ;  John  Adams,  34 ;  John  Jay,  9 ;  R.  H.  Harrison,  6  ;  John  Rutledge, 
6;  John  Hancock,  4 ;  George  Clinton,  3;  Samuel  Huntingdon,  2;  John  Mil 
ton,  2 ;  James  Armstrong,  Benjamin  Lincoln,  and  Edward  Telfair,  1  each. 

THE   ELECTION    OF    1792. 

At  the  next  election,  in  1792,  the  result  was  :  Washington,  132  (all)  votes  ; 
John  Adams,  77  ;  George  Clinton,  50 ;  Thomas  Jefferson,  4 ;  Aaron  Burr,  1  ; 
vacancies,  3.  It  would  have  been  the  same  at  the  third  election  had  the  illus 
trious  Father  of  his  Country  consented  to  be  a  candidate ;  but  he  was  growing 
feeble,  and  had  already  sacrificed  so  much  for  his  country,  that  his  yearning  for 
the  quiet,  restful  life  at  Mount  Vernon  could  not  be  denied  him.  So  he  retired, 
and,  less  than  three  years  later,  passed  from  earth. 

THE    FIRST    STORMY    ELECTION. 

What  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  first  stormy  election  of  a  President  took 
place  in  1800.  When  the  electoral  votes  came  to  be  counted,  they  were  found 
to  be  distributed  as  follows :  Thomas  Jefferson,  73 ;  Aaron  Burr,  73 ;  John 


THE  FIRST  STORMY  ELECTION.  241 

Adams,  65  ;  Charles  C.  Pinckney,  64  ;  John  Jay,  1.  Jefferson  and  Burr  being 
tied,  the  election  was  thrown  into  the  House  of  Kepresentatives,  where  the  con 
test  became  a  memorable  one.  The  House  met  on  the  llth  of  February,  1801, 
to  decide  the  question.  On  the  first  bailor,  Jefferson  had  eight  States  and  Burr 
six,  while  Maryland  and  Vermont  were  equally  divided.  Here  was  another 
tie. 

Meanwhile,  one  of  the  most   terrific  snowstorms  ever  known  swept  over 


A  TYPICAL  VIRGINIA  COURT-HOUSE. 

Washington.  Mr.  Nicholson,  of  Maryland,  was  seriously  ill  in  bed,  and  yet,  if 
he  did  not  vote,  his  State  would  be  given  to  Burr,  who  would  be  elected  Presi 
dent.  Nicholson  showed  that  he  had  the  "  courage  of  his  convictions  "  by  allow 
ing  himself  to  be  bundled  up  and  carried  through  the  blizzard  to  one  of  the 
committee  rooms,  where  his  wife  stayed  by  his  side  day  and  night,  On  each 
ballot  the  box  was  brought  to  his  bedside,  and  he  did  not  miss  one.  The  House 
remained  in  continuous  session  until  thirty-five  ballots  had  been  cast  without 
any  change. 

It  was  clear  by  that  time  that  Burr  could  not  be  elected,  for  the  columns 
of  Jefferson  were  as  immovable  as  a  stone  wall.    The  break,  when  it  came,  must 

16 


242       FAMOUS  FP^IDENTIA L   CAMPAIGNS  PREVIOUS  TO  184-0. 

be  in  the  ranks  of  Bui/r  'Jn  the  thirty-sixth  ballot,  the  Federalists  of  Mary 
land,  Delaware,  and  South  Carolina  voted  blank,  and  the  Federalist  of  Vermont 
stayed  away.  This  gave  the  friends  of  Jefferson  their  opportunity,  and,  for 
tunately  for  the  country,  Thomas  Jefferson  was  elected  instead  of  the  miscreant 
Burr.  ' 

THE   CONSTITUTION    AMENDED. 

As  a  result  of  this  noted  contest,  the  Constitution  was  so  amended  that  each 
elector  voted  for  a  President  and  a  Vice-President,  instead  of  for  two  candidates 
for  President.  It  was  a  needed  improvement,  since  it  insured  that  both  should 
belong  to  the  same  political  party. 

During  the  first  term  of  Washington,  the  country  was  divided  into  two 
powerful  political  parties.  Men  who,  like  Washington,  Hamilton,  and  others, 
believed  in  a  strong  central  government,  with  only  such  political  power  as  was 
absolutely  necessary  distributed  among  the  various  States,  were  Federalists. 
Those  who  insisted  upon  the  greatest  possible  power  for  the  States,  yielding 
nothing  to  Congress  beyond  what  was  distinctly  specified  in  the  Constitution, 
were  Republicans,  of  whom  Thomas  Jefferson  was  the  foremost  leader.  Other 
points  of  difference  developed  as  the  years  passed,  but  the  main  distinction  was 
as  given.  After  the  election  of  John  Adams,  the  Federalist  party  gradually 
dwindled,  and  in  the  war  of  1812  its  unpatriotic  course  fatally  weakened  the 
organization. 

THE   COUNTRY    DIVIDED    IN    PARTIES. 

The  Republican  party  took  the  name  of  Democratic-Republican,  which  is 
its  official  title  to-day.  During  Monroe's  administration,  when  almost  the  last 
vestige  of  Federalist  vanished,  their  opponents  gradually  acquired  the  name  of 
Democrats,  by  which  they  are  now  known.  After  a  time,  the  Federalists  were 
succeeded  by  the  Whigs,  who  held  well  together  until  the  quarrel  over  the 
admission  of  Kansas  and  the  question  of  slavery  split  the  party  into  frag 
ments.  From  these,  including  Know  Nothings,  Abolitionists,  Free  Soilers,  and 
Northern  Democrats,  was  builded,  in  1856,  the  present  Republican  party,  whose 
foundation  stone  was  opposition  to  the  extension  of  slavery.  Many  minor 
parties  have  sprung  into  ephemeral  life  from  time  to  time,  but  the  Democrats 
and  Republicans  will  undoubtedly  be  the  two  great  political  organizations  for 
many  years  to  come,  as  they  have  been  for  so  many  years  past. 

IMPROVEMENT   OF    THE    METHOD    OF    NOMINATING    PRESIDENTIAL    CANDIDATES. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  old-fashioned  method  of  nominating  presidential 
candidates  was  clumsy  and  frequently  unfair.  Candidates  sometimes  announced 
themselves  for  offices  within  the  gift  of  the  people  ;  but  if  that  practice  had  con 
tinued  to  modern  times,  the  number  of  candidates  thus  appealing  for  the  suffrages 


THE  FIRST  PRESIDENTIAL    CONVENTION. 


243 


of  their  fellow-citizens  might  have  threatened. to  equal  the  number  of  voters 
themselves.  The  more  common  plan  was  for  the  party  leaders  to  hold  private 
or  informal  caucuses.  The  next  method  was  for  the  legislative  caucus  to  name 
the  man.  The  unfairness  of  this  system  was  that  it  shut  out  from  representation 
those  whose  districts  had  none  of  the  opposite  political  party  in  the  Legislature. 
To  adjust  the  matter,  the  caucus  rule  was  so  modified  as  to  admit  delegates  spe 
cially  sent  up  from  the  districts  that  were  not  represented  in  the  Legislature. 
This,  it  will  be  seen,  was  an  important  step  in  the  direction  of  the  present  system, 
which  makes  a  nominating  convention  consist  of  delegates  from  every  part  of  a 
State,  chosen  for  the  sole  purpose  of  making  nominations. 


THE  WHITE  HOUSE   AT  WASHINGTON,   D.  C. 

The  perfected  method  appeared  in  New  Jersey  as  early  as  1812,  in  Penn 
sylvania  in  1817,  and  in  New  York  in  1825.  There  was  no  clearly  defined  plan 
followed  in  making  the  presidential  nominations  for  1824,  and  four  years  later 
the  legislative  caucus  system  was  almost  universally  followed.  After  that,  the 
system  which  had  been  applied  in  various  States  was  applied  to  national  matters. 

THE    FIRST    PRESIDENTIAL    CONVENTION. 

In  the  year  1826,  William  Morgan,  a  worthless  character,  living  in  Bata- 
via,  New  York,  attempted  to  expose  the  secrets  of  the  order  of  Free  Masons,  of 
which  he  had  become  a  member.  While  he  was  engaged  in  printing  his  book, 


244       FAMOUS  PRESIDENTIAL    CAMPAIGNS  PREVIOUS   TO  184O. 

he  disappeared  and  was  never  afterward  seen.  The  Masons  were  accused  of 
making  way  with  him,  and  a  wave  of  opposition  swept  over  the  country  which 
closed  many  lodges  and  seemed  for  a  time  to  threaten  the  extinction  of  the 
order.  An  anti-Masonic  party  was  formed  and  became  strong  enough  to  carry 
the  election  in  several  States.  Not  only  that,  but  in  September,  1831,  the  anti- 
Masons  held  a  National  nominating  convention  in  Baltimore  and  put  forward 
William  Wirt,  former  attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  as  their  nominee 
for  the  Presidency,  with  Amos  Ellmaker,  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency. 
The  ticket  received  seven  electoral  votes.  The  noteworthy  fact  about  this 
almost  forgotten  matter  is  that  the  convention  was  the  first  presidential  one  held 
in  this  country. 

CONVENTION    IN    BALTIMORE    IN    1832. 

The  system  was  now  fairly  launched,  for  in  December  of  the  same  year 
the  National  Republicans  met  in  convention  in  Baltimore  and  nominated  Henry 
Clay,  and  in  May,  1832,  Martin  Van  Buren  was  nominated  by  a  Democratic 
convention.  He  was  renominated  at  the  same  place  and  in  the  same  manner  in 
1835,  but  the  Whigs  did  not  imitate  their  opponents.  In  1840,  however,  the 
system  was  adopted  by  both  parties,  and  has  been  followed  ever  since. 

Our  whole  country  seethes  with  excitement  from  the  hour  when  the  first 
candidate  is  hinted  at  until  his  nomination  is  made,  followed  by  his  election  or 
defeat  a  few  months  later.  Some  persons  see  a  grave  peril  in  this  periodic  con 
vulsion,  which  shakes  the  United  States  like  an  earthquake,  but  it  seems  after 
all  to  be  a  sort  of  political  thunderstorm  which  purifies  the  air  and  clarifies  the 
ideas  that  otherwise  would  become  sodden  or  morbid.  It  is  essentially  Ameri 
ca  n,  and  our  people's  universal  love  of  fair  play  leads  them  to  accept  the  ver 
dict  at  the  polls  with  philosophy  and  good  nature. 

And  yet  there  have  been  many  exciting  scenes  at  the  nominating  conven 
tions  of  the  past,  as  there  doubtless  will  be  in  many  that  are  yet  to  come.  Com 
ing  down  to  later  times,  how  often  has  it  proved  that  the  most  astute  politicians 
were  all  at  sea  in  their  calculations.  The  proverbial  "  dark  horse  "  has  become 
a  potent  factor  whom  it  is  not  safe  to  forget  in  making  up  political  probabilities. 

THE    PRESIDENTIAL   CAMPAIGN    OF    1820. 

Probably  the  most  tranquil  presidential  campaign  of  the  nineteenth  cen 
tury  was  that  of  1820,  when  James  Monroe  was  elected  for  the  second  time. 
He  was  virtually  the  only  candidate  before  the  country  for  the  exalted  office. 
When  the  electoral  college  met,  the  astounding  fact  was  revealed  that  he  had 
every  vote—the  first  time  such  a  thing  had  occurred  since  Washington's  elec 
tion. 

But  there  was  one  elector  who  had  the  courage  to  do  that  which  was  never 


ANDREW  JACKSON'S  POPULARITY.  245 

done  before  and  lias  never  been  done  since:  he  voted  contrary  to  his  instruc 
tions  and  in  opposition  to  the  ticket  on  which  he  was  elected.  Blumer,  of  New 
Hampshire,  explained  that,  as  he  viewed  it,  no  President  had  the  right  to  share 
the  honor  of  a  unanimous  election  with  Washington,  and>  though  an  ardent 
friend  of  Monroe,  he  deliberately  cast  his  one  vote  for  Adams,  in  order  to  pre 
serve  Washington's  honor  distinct.  His  motive  was  appreciated,  and  Blumer 
was  applauded  for  the  act,  Monroe  himself  being  pleased  with  it. 


"  OLD     HICKORY." 


It  is  hardly  necessary  to  repeat  that  this  incident  has  not  been  duplicated 
since  that  day.  Andrew  Jackson,  "  Old  Hickory,"  was  probably  the  most  pop 
ular  man  in  the  country  when,  the  time  came  for  naming  the  successor  of  Mon 
roe.  It  may  sound  strange,  but  it  is  a  fact,  that  when  the  project  of  running 
him  for  the  presidency  was  first  mentioned  to  Jackson,  he  was  displeased.  It 
had  never  entered  his  head  to  covet  that  exalted  office. 

"Don't  think  of  it,"  he  said;  "I  haven't  the  first  qualification;  lama 
rough,  plain  man,  fitted  perhaps  to  lead  soldiers  and  fight  the  enemies  of  our 
country,  but  as  for  the  presidency,  the  idea  is  too  absurd  to  be  held." 

But  what  American  cannot  be  convinced  that  he  is  pre-eminently  fitted  for 
the  office  ?  It  did  not  take  long  for  the  ambition  to  be  kindled  in  the  breast 
of  the  doughty  hero.  His  friends  flattered  him  into  the  conviction  that  he  was 
the  man  of  all  others  to  assume  the  duties,  and  the  "  bee  buzzed  "  as  loudly  in 
Jackson's  bonnet  as  it  ever  has  in  that  of  any  of  his  successors. 


ANDREW  JACKSON'S  POPULARITY. 


It  cannot  be  denied  that  "  Old  Hickory  "  was  a  great  man,  and  though  he 
was  deficient  in  education,  lacking  in  statesmanship,  and  obstinate  to  the  last 
degree,  he  was  the  possessor  of  those  rugged  virtues  which  invariably  command 
respect.  He  was  honest,  clean  in  his  private  life,  a  stanch  friend,  an  unre 
lenting  enemy,  and  an  intense  patriot — one  who  was  ready  to  risk  nis  life  at 
any  hour  for  his  country.  In  addition,  he  never  knew  the  meaning  of  per 
sonal  fear.  No  braver  person  ever  lived.  When  the  sheriff'  in  a  court-room 
was  afraid  to  attempt  to  arrest  a  notorious  desperado,  Jackson  leaped  over  the 
chairs,  seized  the  ruffian  by  the  throat,  hurled  him  to  the  floor,  and  cowed  him 
into  submission.  When  a  piece  of  treachery  was  discovered  on  a  Kentucky 
racecourse,  Jackson  faced  a  mob  of  a  thousand  infuriated  men,  ruled  off*  the 
dishonest  official,  and  carried  his  point.  He  challenged  the  most  noted  duelist 
of  the  southwest,  because  he  dared  to  cast  a  slur  upon  Jackson's  wife.  It  mat 
tered  not  that  the  scoundrel  had  never  failed  to  kill  his  man,  and  that  all  of 
Jackson's  friends  warned  him  that  it  was  certain  death  to  meet  the  dead-shot. 


246       FAMOUS  PRESIDENTIAL   CAMPAIGNS  PREVIOUS   TO  1840. 

At  the  exchange  of  shots,  Jackson  was  frightfully  wounded,  but  he  stood  as 
rigid  as  iron,  and  sent  a  bullet  through  the  body  of  his  enemy,  whom  he  did 
not  let  know  he  was  himself  wounded  until  the  other  breathed  his  last. 

Above  all,  had  not  "Old  Hickory"  won  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  the  most 
brilliant  victory  of  the  War  of  1812?  Did  not  he  and  his  unerring  riflemen 
from  the  backwoods  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  spread  consternation,  death, 
and  defeat  among  the  red-coated  veterans  of  Waterloo?  No  wonder  that  the 
anniversary  of  that  glorious  battle  is  still  celebrated  in  every  part  of  the 
country,  and  no  wonder,  too,  that  the  American  people  demanded  that  the  hero 
of  all  these  achievements  should  be  rewarded  with  the  highest  office  in  the  gift 
of  his  countrymen. 

JACKSON    NOMINATED. 

Jackson,  having  "placed  himself  in  the  hands  of  his  friends,"  threw 
himself  into  the  struggle  with  all  the  unquenchable  ardor  of  his  nature.  On 
July  22,  1822,  the  Legislature  of  Tennessee  was  first  in  the  field  by  placing  him 
in  nomination.  On  the  22d  of  February,  1824,  a  Federalist  convention  at  Har- 
risburg,  Pa.,  nominated  him,  and  on  the  4th  of  March  following  a  Republican 
convention  did  the  same.  It  would  seem  that  he  was  now  fairly  before  the 
country,  but  the  regular  Democratic  nominee,  that  is,  the 'one  named  by  the 
congressional  caucus,  was  William  H.  Crawford,  of  Georgia.  The  remaining 
candidates  were  John  Quincy  Adams  and  Henry  Clay,  and  all  of  them  belonged 
to  the  Republican  party,  which  had  retained  the  presidency  since  1800.  Adams 
and  Clay  were  what  was  termed  loose  constructionists,  while  Jackson  and  Craw 
ford  were  strict  constructionists. 


"OLD  HICKORY"  DEFEATED. 


The  canvass  was  a  somewhat  jumbled  one,  in  which  each  candidate  had  his 
ardent  partisans  and  supporters.  The  contest  was  carried  out  with  vigor  and 
the  usual  abuse,  personalities,  and  vituperation  until  the  polls  were  closed. 
Then  when  the  returns  came  to  be  made  up  it  was  found  that  Jackson  had 
received  99  electoral  votes,  Adams  84,  Crawford  41,  and  Clay  37.  "Old 
Hickory"  was  well  ahead,  but  his  strength  was  not  sufficient  to  make  him  Presi 
dent,  even  though  on  the  popular  vote  he  led  Adams  by  more  than  50,000. 
Consequently  the  election  went  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  where  the 
supporters  of  Clay  combined  with  those  of  Adams  and  made  him  President. 
Thus  came  the  singular  result  that  the  man  who  had  the  largest  popular  and 
electoral  vote  was  defeated. 

It  was  a  keen  disappointment  to  Jackson  and  his  friends.  The  great  Sena 
tor  Benton,  of  Missouri,  one  of  the  warmest  supporters  of  "Old  Hickory," 
angrily  declared  that  the  House  was  deliberately  defying  the  will  of  the  people 


THE  "LOG-CABIN  AND  HARD-CIDER"    CAMPAIGN.  247 

by  placing  a  minority  candidate  in  the  chair.  The  senator's  position,  however, 
was  untenable,  and  so  it  was  that  John  Quincy  Adams  became  the  sixth  Presi 
dent  of  our  country. 

JACKSON'S  TRIUMPH. 

But  the  triumph  of  "  Old  Hickory  "  was  only  postponed.  His  defeat  was 
looked  upon  by  the  majority  of  men  as  a  deliberate  piece  of  trickery,  and  they 
"  lay  low  "  for  the  next  opportunity  to  square  matters.  No  fear  of  a  second 
chance  being  presented  to  their  opponents.  Jackson  was  launched  into  the  can 
vass  of  1828  like  a  cyclone,  and  when  the  returns  were  made  up  lie  had  178 
electoral  votes  to  83  for  Adams — a  vote  which  lifted  him  safely  over  the  edge  of 
a  plurality  and  seated  him  firmly  in  the  White  House. 

It  is  not  our  province  to  treat  of  the  administration  of  Andrew  Jackson,  for 


ttMi,^ 
OLD  SPANISH  HOUSE   ON  BOURBON   STREET,  NEW  ORLEANS. 

that  belongs  to  history,  but  the  hold  which  that  remarkable  man  maintained 
upon  the  affections  of  the  people  was  emphasized  when,  in  1832,  he  was  re- 
elected  by  an  electoral  vote  of  219  to  49  for  Clay,  11  for  Floyd,  and  7  for  Wirt. 
Despite  the  popular  prejudice  against  a  third  term,  there  is  little  doubt  that 
Jackson  would  have  been  successful  had  he  chosen  again  to  be  a  candidate. 
He  proved  his  strength  by  selecting  his  successor,  Martin  Van  Buren. 

THE  "LOG-CABIN  AND  HARD-CIDER"  CAMPAIGN  or  1840. 

The  next  notable  presidential  battle  was  the  "  log-cabin  and  hard-cider *' 

campaign  of  1840,  the  like  of  which  was  never  before  seen  in  this  country,, 

General  William  Henry  Harrison  had  been  defeated  by  Van   Buren  in  1836, 

but  on  the  4th  of  December,  1839,  the  National  Whig  Convention,  which  met 


248       FAMOUS  PRESIDENTIAL    CAMPAIGNS  PREVIOUS   TO   184-0. 

at  Harrisburg  to  decide  the  claims  of  rival  candidates,  placed  Harrison  in 
nomination,  while  the  Democrats  again  nominated  Van  Buren. 

General  Harrison  lived  at  North  Bend,  Ohio,  in  a  house  which  consisted 
of  a  lo«--cabin,  built  many  years  before  by  a  pioneer,  and  was  afterward  covered 
with  clapboards.  The  visitors  to  the  house  praised  the  republican  simplicity  of 
the  old  soldier,  the  hero  of  Tippecanoe,  and  the  principal  campaign  biography 
said  that  his  table,  instead  of  being  supplied  with  costly  wines,  was  furnished 
with  an  abundance  of  the  best  cider. 

The  canvass  had  hardly  opened,  when  the  Baltimore  Republican  slurred 
General  Harrison  by  remarking  that,  if  some  one  would  pension  him  with  a 


THE   MARIGNY   HOUSE,  NEW  ORLEANS. 
(Where  Louis  Philippe  stopped  in  1798.) 

few  hundred  dollars  and  give  him  a  barrel  of  hard  cider,  he  would  sit  down  in 
his  log-cabin  and  be  content  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  That  sneer  furnished  the 
keynote  of  the  campaign.  Hard  cider  became  almost  the  sole  beverage  of  the 
Whigs  throughout  the  country.  In  every  city,  town  and  village,  and  at  the 
cross-roads,  were  erected  log-cabins,  while  the  amount  of  hard  cider  drank 
would  have  floated  the  American  navy.  The  nights  were  rent  with  the  shouts 
of  "  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too/'  and  scores  of  campaign  songs  were  sung  by 
tens  of  thousands  of  exultant,  even  if  not  always  musical,  voices.  We  recall 
that  one  of  the  most  popular  songs  began  : 

44  Oh,  where,  tell  me  where,  was  the  log-cabin  made? 
'Twaa  made  by  the  boys  that  wield  the  plough  and  the  spade." 

There  was  no  end  to  the  songs,  which  were  set  to  the  most  popular  airs  and 


PECULIAR  FEATURE   OF  THE  HARRISON  CAMPAIGN.          249 

sung  over  and  over  again.  You  would  hear  them  in  the  middle  of  the  night 
on  some  distant  mountain-top,  where  the  twinkling  camp-fire  showed  that  a 
party  of  Whigs  were  drinking  hard  cider  and  whooping  it  up  for  Harrison; 
some  singer  with  a  strong,  pleasing  voice  would  start  one  of  the  songs  from  the 
platform,  at  the  close  of  the  orator's  appeal,  and  hardly  had  his  lips  parted, 
when  the  thousands  of  Whigs,  old  and  young,  and  including  wives  and  daughters, 
would  join  in  the  words,  while  the  enthusiasm  quickly  grew  to  a  white  heat. 
The  horsemen  riding  home  late  at  night  awoke  the  echoes  among  the  woods 
and  hills  with  their  musical  praises  of  "Old  Tippecanoe."  The  story  is  told  that 
in  one  of  the  backwoods  districts  of  Ohio,  after  the  preacher  had  announced 
the  hymn,  the  leader  of  the  singing,  a  staid  old  deacon,  struck  in  with  a  Har 
rison  campaign  song,  in  which  the  whole  congregation,  after  the  first  moment's 
shock,  heartily  joined,  while  the  aghast  preacher  had  all  he  could  do  to  restrain 
himself  from  "coming  in  on  the  chorus."  There  was  some  truth  in  the  declara 
tion  of  a  disgusted  Democrat  that,  from  the  opening  of  the  canvass,  the  whole 
Whig  population  of  the  United  States  went  upon  a  colossal  spree  on  hard  cider, 
which  continued  without  intermission  until  Harrison  was  installed  in  the  White 
House. 

And  what  did  November  tell  ?  The  electoral  vote  cast  for  Martin  Van 
Buren,  60;  for  General  Harrison,  234.  No  wonder  that  the  supply  of  hard 
cider  was  almost  exhausted  within  the  next  three  days. 

PECULIAR    FEATURE    OF    THE    HARRISON    CAMPAIGN. 

As  we  have  noted,  the  method  of  nominating  presidential  candidates  by 
means  of  popular  conventions  was  fully  established  in  1840,  and  has  continued 
uninterruptedly  ever  since.  One  peculiar  feature  marked  the  Harrison  cam- 
paio*n  of  1840.  The  convention  which  nominated  Martin  Van  Buren  met  in 

X         o 

Baltimore  in  May  of  that  year.  On  the  same  day,  the  young  Whigs  of  the 
country  held  a  mass-meeting  in  Baltimore,  at  which  fully  twenty  thousand 
persons  were  present.  They  came  from  every  part  of  the  Union,  Massachusetts 
sending  fully  a  thousand.  When  the  adjournment  took  place,  it  was  to  meet 
again  in  Washington  at  the  inauguration  of  Harrison.  The  railway  was  then 
coming  into  general  use,  and  this  greatly  favored  the  assembling  of  mass-eon- 


o 

ventions. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 


ADMINISTRATION    OK   ROLPC,   1845—1849. 


James  K.  Polk— The  War  with  Mexico— The  First  Conflict— Battle  of  Resaca  de  la  Palm  a— Vigorous 
Action  of  the  United  States  Government — General  Scott's  Plan  of  Campaign — Capture  of  Monterey 
— An  Armistice — Capture  of  Saltillo — Of  Victoria — Of  Tampico — General  Kearny's  Capture  of 
Santa  Fe — Conquest  of  California — Wonderful  March  of  Colonel  Doniphan — Battle  of  Buena  Vista 
— General  Scott's  March  Toward  the  City  of  Mexico — Capture  of  Vera  Cruz — American  Victory  at 
Cerro  Gordo— Five  American  Victories  in  One  Day — Santa  Anna — Conquest  of  Mexico  Completed 
-Terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace— The  New  Territory  Gained— The  Slavery  Dispute— The  Wilmot 
Proviso — "Fifty-Four  Forty  or  Fight" — Adjustment  of  the  Oregon  Boundary — Admission  of  Iowa 
and  Wisconsin — The  Smithsonian  Institute — Discovery  of  Gold  in  California — The  Mormons — The 
Presidential  Election  of  1848. 


- 


JAMES  K.  POLK. 
(1795-1849.)    One  tewa,  184*-! 849. 


JAMES    K.    POLK. 

JAMES  K.  POLK,  eleventh  Presi 
dent,  was  born  in  Mecklenburg 
County,  North  Carolina,  November 
2,  1795,  and  died  June  15,  1849. 
His  father  removed  to  Tennessee 
when  the  son  was  quite  young,  and 
he  therefore  became  identified  with 
that  State.  He  studied  law,  was  a 
leading  politician,  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1825,  serving  in  that 
body  for  fourteen  years.  He  was 
elected  governor  of  Tennessee  in 
1839,  his  next  advancement  being  to 
the  presidency  of  the  United  States. 

The  President  made  George 
Bancroft,  the  distinguished  historian, 
lii«  secretary  of  the  navy.  It  was  he 
who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  United 
States  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis, 
which  was  opened  October  10,  1845. 
It  is  under  the  immediate  care  and 
supervision  of  the  navy  department 


and  corresponds  te  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point. 


J251) 


252  ADMINISTRATION  OF  POLK. 

Everybody  knew  that  the  admission  of  Texas  meant  war  with  Mexico,  for 
that  country  would  never  yield,  until  compelled  to  do  so,  the  province  that  had 
rebelled  against  her  rule  and  whose  independence  she  had  persistently  refused 
to  recognize.  Texas  was  unable  to  withstand  the  Mexican  army,  and  her  au 
thorities  urged  the  United  States  to  send  a  force  for  her  protection.  General 
Zachary  Taylor,  who  was  in  camp  in  western  Louisiana,  was  ordered  to  advance 
into  and  occupy  Texan  territory. 

Mexico  had  always  insisted  that  the  Nueces  River  was  her  western  boun 
dary,  while  Texas  maintained  that  the  Rio  Grande  was  the  dividing  line.  The 
dispute,  therefore,  was  really  over  the  tract  of  land  between  the  two  rivers.  Our 
country  proposed  to  settle  the  question  by  arbitration,  but  Mexico  would  not 
consent,  claiming  that  the  section  (known  as  Coahtiila)  had  never  been  in 
revolt  against  her  authority,  while  Texas  declared  that  it  was  a  part  of  itself, 
and  its  Legislature  so  decided  December  19,  1836. 

General  Taylor  established  a  camp  at  Corpus  Christ!  in  the  latter  part  of 
1845,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kueces.  With  nearly  5,000  troops,  he  marched,  in 
January,  to  the  Rio  Grande  to  meet  the  Mexicans  who  were  preparing  to  invade 
the  disputed  territory.  Taylor  established  a  depot  of  provisions  at  Point  Isabel 
on  the  Gulf,  and,  upon  reaching  the  Rio  Grande,  hastily  built  Fort  Brown, 
opposite  the  Mexican  town  of  Matamoras. 

Some  time  later  the  Mexican  forces  reached  Matamoras,  and  General 
Arista  on  the  26th  of  April  notified  Taylor  that  hostilities  had  begun.  To 
emphasize  his  declaration,  Captain  Thornton  with  a  company  of  dragoons  was 
attacked  the  same  day,  and,  after  the  loss  of  sixteen  men  in  killed  and  wounded, 
was  compelled  to  surrender  to  a  much  superior  force.  This  was  the  first  engage 
ment  of  the  war  and  was  fought  on  ground  claimed  by  both  countries. 

BATTLE    OF    PALO   ALTO. 

The  Mexicans  acted  vigorously  and  soon  placed  Taylor's  lines  of  communi 
cation  in  such  danger  that  he  hurried   to  Point  Isabel  to  prevent   its  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.     He  left  Major  Brown  with  300  men  in  charge 
Fort  Brown.     The    Mexicans    were  exultant,   believing  Taylor  had   been 
frightened  out  of  the  country.     But  that  valiant  officer  paused  at  Point  Isabel 
only  long  enough  to  make  its  position  secure,  when  ho  marched  rapidly  toward 
Brown.     Reaching  Palo  Alto,  on  the  road,  he  found  the  way  disputed  by 
30  Mexicans,  who  were   three   times  as   numerous   as  his  own   army. 
Attacking  the  enemy  with  great  spirit,  he  routed  them  with  the  loss  of  a  hun 
dred  men,  his  own  loss  being  four  killed  and  forty  wounded. 

Resuming  his  march  toward  Fort  Brown/ Taylor  had  reached  a  point 
within  three  miles  of  it,  when  he  was  brought  face  to  face  with  a  much  larger 


WAR  DECLARED  BY  CONGRESS. 


253 


force  at  Eesaca  de  la  Palma.  The  battle  was  a  severe  one,  and  for  a  long  time 
was  in  doubt ;  but  the  tide  was  turned  by  a  dashing  charge  of  Captain  May 
with  his  dragoons.  Despite  a  destructive  fire  of  grapeshot,  the  horsemen  gal 
loped  over  the  Mexican  batteries,  cut  down  the  gunners,  and  captured  the  com 
manding  officer.  Tavlor  then  pushed  on  to  Fort  Brown  and  found  it  safe, 


ROBERT  B.  LEE  IN  ONE  OF   THE  BATTLES   OF   THE   MEXICAN  WAR. 
"Always  to  be  found  where  the  fighting  was  the  fiercest." 

though  it  had  been  under  an  almost  continuous  bombardment,  in  which  Major 
Brown,  the  commandant,  was  killed. 

WAR    DECLARED    BY    CONGRESS. 

News  of  these  battles  was  carried  north  by  carrier  pigeons  and  telegraph. 


254  ADMINISTRATION  OF  POLK. 

and  the  war  spirit  of  the  country  was  roused.  Congress  on  the  llth  of 
May  declared  that  war  existed  by  the  act  of  the  Mexican  government,  and 
$10,000,000  was  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  President,  who  was  authorized 
to  accept  50,000  volunteers.  The  call  for  them  was  answered  by  300,000, 
who  were  eager  to  serve  in  the  war. 

GENERAL   SCOTT'S    PLAN    OF    CAMPAIGN. 

General  Scott,  as  head  of  the  army,  formed  a  careful  plan  of  campaign  for 
the  conquest  of  Mexico.  Of  the  three  divisions,  General  Kearny,  with  the 
army  of  the  west,  was  to  cross  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  conquer  the  northern 
Mexican  provinces;  General  Scott  himself,  with  the  army  of  the  centre,  was  to 
advance  from  the  coast  into  the  interior  of  the  country,  making  the  city  of 
Mexico,  the  capital  of  the  republic,  his  objective  point;  while  General  Taylor, 
with  the  army  of  occupation,  was  to  seize  and  hold  the  Rio  Grande  country. 
The  work  of  mustering  in  the  troops  was  intrusted  to  General  Wool,  who,  some 
time  later,  established  himself  at  San  Antonio,  and  sent  many  soldiers  to  the 
different  commands. 

CAPTURE    OF    MONTEREY. 

Within  less  than  two  weeks  after  his  victory  at  Resaca  de  la  Pal  ma,  Taylor 
crossed  over  from  Fort  Brown  and  captured  Matamoras.  Then  he  turned  up 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  marched  into  the  interior.  The  Mexi 
cans  retreated  to  the  fortified  town  of  Monterey,  where  they  were  so  powerful 
that  Taylor  waited  for  reinforcements  before  attacking  them.  His  forces 
amounted  to  6,600  by  the  latter  part  of  August,  and  he  then  advanced  against 
Monterey,  which  was  defended  by  a  garrison  of  10,000  men. 

The  city  was  invested  on  the  19th  of  September.  Two  days  sufficed  for 
General  Worth  to  capture  the  fortified  works  in  the  rear  of  the  town,  and  on 
the  next  day  the  remaining  defenses  on  that  side  were  carried  by  storm.  At 
daylight,  on  the  23d,  the  city  in  front  was  captured  by  assault.  The  Mexicans 
maintained  a  vicious  defense  from  their  adobe  houses,  but  the  Americans, 
charging  through  the  streets,  battered  in  the  doors,  chased  the  defenders  from 
room  to  room  and  over  the  housetops  until  they  flung  down  their  arms  and 
shouted  for  mercy.  The  commander  was  allowed  to  evacuate  the  city,  and  fell 
back  toward  the  national  capital. 

OTHER    VICTORIES. 

Taylor  was  about  to  resume  his  advance  when  the  enemy  asked  for  an 
armistice,  saying  the  authorities  wished  to  negotiate  for  peace.  Taylor  agreed 
to  an  armistice  of  eight  weeks,  but  the  proposal  was  a  trick  of  the  enemy,  who 
spent  every  hour  of  the  respite  in  making  preparations  to  resist  the  Americans' 


CONQUEST  OF  CALIFORNIA.  255 

advance.  Santa  Anna,  who  was  undergoing  one  of  his  periodical  banishments, 
was  called  back  and  given  the  presidency.  When  the  armistice  granted  by 
Taylor  expired,  the  Mexicans  had  an  army  of  20,000  in  the  field,  and,  under 
orders  from  Washington,  the  American  commander  moved  forward.  The  first 
town  captured  was  Saltillo,  seventy  miles  southwest  of  Monterey.  It  was  taken 
by  General  Worth,  with  the  advance,  on  the  loth  of  November,  1846.  In  the 
following  month  Victoria,  in  the  province  of  Tamaulipas,  was  captured  by 
General  Butler,  who,  advancing  from  Monterey,  united  with  Patterson  at  this 
place.  Their  intention  was  to  move  upon  Tampico,  on  the  coast,  but  they 
learned  that  it  had  surrendered  to  Captain  Conner,  commander  of  an  American 
squadron.  Meanwhile,  General  Wool,  marching  from  San  Antonio,  arrived 
within  supporting  distance  of  Monterey.  Such  was  the  situation  when  General 
Scott  reached  the  army  and  took  command. 

GENERAL    KEARNY's    OPERATIONS. 

General  Kearny,  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  west,  left  Fort  Leaven- 
worth,  in  June,  1846,  on  the  way  to  conquer  New  Mexico  and  California,  He 
had  a  long  and  laborious  march  before  him,  but  he  reached  Santa  Fe  on  the 
18th  of  August,  and  it  was  easily  captured  and  garrisoned.  New  Mexico  was 
powerless,  and  the  whole  province  surrendered.  Then  Kearny,  at  the  head  of 
400  dragoons,  set  out  for  the  Pacific  coast,  but  he  had  not  gotten  far  on  the  road 
when  he  met  a  messenger  who  informed  him  that  California  had  been  conquered 
by  Colonel  John  C.  Fremont,  acting  in  conjunction  with  Commodores  Sloat  and 
Stockton.  Kearny  sent  most  of  his  men  back  to  Santa  Fe  and  pushed  for  the 
Pacific  coast,  with  a  hundred  dragoons.  He  arrived  in  November,  and  joined 
Fremont  and  Stockton. 

CONQUEST    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Fremont  acquired  the  name  of  the  "  Pathfinder  "  because  of  his  exploring 
expeditions  in  the  far  West.  He  explored  a  portion  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in 
1842,  and,  in  the  following  two  years,  conducted  an  expedition  with  much  skill 
and  success  through  the  regions  of  Utah,  the  basin  of  the  Columbia,  and  the 
passes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  He  was  in  charge  of  a  third  expedition  in  1846, 
and  was  in  California  when  the  Mexican  war  broke  out,  He  received  the  dis 
patches  as  if  they  were  news  to  him,  but  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the 
government  had  sent  him  thither,  in  order  that  he  might  be  on  the  ground  and 
do  the  very  work  he  did.  He  urged  the  pioneers  to  declare  their  independence. 
They  ardently  did  so,  raised  the  "  Black  Bear  Flag,"  and  gathered  around  Fre 
mont,  who  continually  defeated  the  superior  forces  of  Mexicans. 

The  town  of  Monterey,  eighty  miles  south  of  San  Francisco,  was  captured 
by  Commodore  Sloat  with  an  American  squadron,  and  San  Diego  was  taken 


256  ADMINISTRATION  OF  POLK. 

soon  afterward  by  Commodore  Stockton,  in  command  of  the  Pacific  squadron  ; 
learnin^  which,  Fremont  raised  the  American  flag  in  the  place  of  that  of  Cali 
fornia,  and,  joining  the  naval  commanders,  advanced  upon  Los  Angeles,  which 
submitted  without  resistance.  In  a  short  time  the  immense  province  of  Cali 
fornia  was  conquered  by  what  may  be  called  a  handful  of  Americans. 

THE   WONDERFUL    MARCH    OF   COLONEL    DONIPHAN. 

Colonel  Alexander  W.  Doniphan  had  been  left  at  Santa  Fe  with  his  small 
force  of  dragoons.  At  the  head  of  700  men,  he  performed  one  of  the  most  re 
markable  exploits  of  the  war.  Hiding  directly  through  the  enemy's  country 
for  nearly  a  thousand  miles,  he  reached  the  Rio  Grande  on  Christmas  day 
and  won  a  battle;  he  then  crossed  the  river  and  captured  El  Paso,  and,  head 
ing  for  Chihuahua,  was  met  by  a  Mexican  force  on  the  banks  of  Sacramento 
Creek.  They  outnumbered  Doniphan's  force  four  to  one,  and  displayed  the 
black  flag,  as  notice  that  no  quarter  would  be  given.  The  Americans  lay  flat 
on  the  ground,  and  the  first  volleys  passed  harmlessly  over  their  heads.  The 
Mexicans  made  the  mistake  of  believing  they  had  been  decimated  by  the  dis 
charge,  and  charged  upon  what  they  supposed  were  the  few  survivors.  They 
were  received  with  a  withering  volley,  and  assailed  with  such  fierceness  by  the 
Americans  that  they  were  utterly  routed.  Chihuahua  thus  fell  into  the  pos 
session  of  Colonel  Doniphan,  but,  since  the  term  of  the  enlistment  of  his  men 
had  expired,  he  could  advance  no  further.  He  then  conducted  them  to  New 
Orleans,  wrhere  they  were  mustered  out  of  service.  They  had  marched  a  dis 
tance  of  5,000  miles,  won  several  victories,  suffered  not  a  single  defeat,  and 
were  back  again  in  their  homes  all  within  a  year. 

General  Scott  had  landed  on  the  coast  for  the  purpose  of  marching  into 
the  interior  to  the  national  capital.  In  order  to  make  his  advance  resistless,  he 
withdrew  the  larger  part  of  Taylor's  army  and  united  it  with  his  own.  Taylor 
felt  he  was  used  unjustly,  for  both  he  and  Wool  were  threatened  by  Santa 
Anna  at  the  head  of  20,000,  men,  but  bluff  "  Old  Rough  and  Ready  "  made 
no  protest  and  grimly  prepared  for  the  danger.  The  greatest  number  of  troops 
he  could  concentrate  at  Saltillo  was  about  6,000,  and,  after  placing  garrisons 
there  and  at  Monterey,  he  had  only  4,800  remaining,  but,  undismayed,  he 
marched  out  to  meet  Santa  Anna.  Four  miles  away,  he  reached  the  favorable 
battle  ground  of  Buena  Vista,  posted  his  men,  and  awaited  attack. 

The  Mexican  commander  was  so  confident  of  overwhelming  the  Americans 
that,  in  his  message  to  Taylor,  he  assured  him  lie  would  see  that  he  was  person 
ally  well  treated  after  his  surrender.  General  Taylor  sent  word  that  he  declined 
to  obey  the  summons,  and  the  messenger  who  carried  the  message  to  Santa 
Anna  added  the  significant  words  :  "  General  Taylor  never  surrenders." 


BATTLE    OF    RESACA   DE    LA    PALMA 

Captain  May  leaped  his  steed  over  the  parapets,  followed  by  those  of  his  men  whose  horses  could  do  a  like  feat,  and  was  among 

the  gunners  the  next  moment,  sabering  right  and  left.     General  La  Vega  and  a  hundred  of  his  men  were  made 

prisoners  and  borne  back  to  the  American  lines. 


BATTLE   OF  BUEXA    VIXTA. 


257 


The  American  army  was  placed  at  the  upper  end  of  a  long  and  narrow 
pass  in  the  mountains.  It  was  flanked  on  one  side  by  high  cliffs  and  on  the 
other  by  impassable  ravines,  which  position  compelled  the  enemy  to  attack  him 
in  front 

BATTLE    OF   BUEXA    VISTA. 

The  battle  opened  early  on  the  morning  of  February  23d,  with  the  Mexi 
cans  swarming  through  the  gorges  and  over  the  hills  from  San  Luis  Potosi. 
The  first  assault  was  against  the  American  right,  but  it  was  beaten  back  by  the 
Illinois  troops ;  the  next  was  against  the  centre,  but  it  was  repelled  by  Captain 
Washington's  artillery;  and  then  the 
left  Hank  was  vehemently  assailed. 
A  mistaken  order  caused  an  Indiana 
regiment  to  give  way,  and  for  a  time 
the  whole  army  was  in  danger ;  but 
the  Mississippians  and  Kentuckians 
gallantly  flung  themselves  into  the 
breach,  the  Indiana  and  Illinois  troops 
rallied,  and  the  Mexicans  were  driven 
tumultuously  back.  In  this  brilliant 
exploit  Colonel  Jefferson  Davis,  with 
his  Mississippi  regiment,  played  a, 
prominent  part. 

"A    LITTLE    MOKE    GRAPE,    CAPTAIX 
BRAGG." 

The  next  charge  was  upon  Cap 
tain  Bragg's  battery,  but  that  officer, 
in  obedience  to  General  Taylor's  fa 
mous  request,  "A  little  more  grape, 
Captain  Bragg,"  scattered  the  Mex 
ican  lancers  in  every  direction.  The 
success  was  followed  up  by  a  cavalry  charge,  which  completed  the  discomfiture 
of  the  enemy,  who  fled  with  the  loss  of  2, OCX)  men. 

Buena  Vista  was  a  superb  victory  for  the  Americans,  but  it  cost  them  dear. 
The  killed,  wounded,  and  missing  numbered  nearly  800.  Among  the  killed 
was  Colonel  Henry  Clay,  son  of  the  Kentucky  orator  and  statesman.  The 
battle  completed  the  work  of  General  Taylor,  who  soon  afterward  returned  to 
the  United  States.  The  glory  he  had  won  made  him  President  less  than  two 
two  years  later. 

Returning  once  more  to  General  Scott,  he  entered  upon  the  last  campaign, 

17 


GENERAL  WINFIELD   SCOTT. 


258  ADMINISTRATION  OF  POL  A'. 

March  9,  1847.  Old  army  officers  of  to-day  contrast  the  admirable  manner  in 
which  he  did  his  preliminary  work  with  the  mismanagement  in  the  Spanish- 
American  War  of  1898.  Impatience  was  expressed  at  his  tardiness  in  getting 
his  troops  ready  on  the  transports  at  New  York.  To  all  such  complaints,  the 
grim  old  soldier  replied  that  he  would  embark  when  everything  was  ready  and 
not  a  single  hour  before.  As  a  consequence,  his  men  landed  at  Vera  Cruz  in 
the  best  condition,  there  was  not  the  slightest  accident,  and  every  soldier  when 
he  stepped  ashore  had  three  days'  rations  in  his  knapsack.  Twelve  thousand 
men  were  landed,  and  in  three  days  the  investment  of  Vera  Cruz  was  complete. 
Then  a  Mexican  train  was  captured  and  the  troops  had  provisions  in  abundance. 

CAPTURE   OF   VERA    CRUZ. 

The  city  having  refused  to  surrender,  the  bombardment  opened  on  the 
morning  of  March  1>1M.  The  water-side  of  Vera  Cruz  was  defended  by  the 
castle  of  San  Juan  d'Ulloa,  built  a  century  and  a  half  before  by  Spain  at  enor 
mous  cost.  Commodore  Conner  assisted  throughout  the  four  days  that  the  can 
nonade  lasted.  The  success  of  the  bombardment  made  the  Americans  confident 
of  capturing  the  castle  by  assault,  and  they  were  preparing  to  do  so  when  the 
authorities  proposed  satisfactory  terms  of  surrender,  which  took  place  March 

29th. 

The  direct  march  upon  the  capital  now  began,  with  General  Twiggs  in  com 
mand  of  the  advance.  The  road  steadily  rises  from  the  coast  and  abounds  in 
passes  and  mountains,  which  offer  the  best  kind  of  natural  fortifications.  When 
Twiggs  reached  one  of  these  passes,  named  Cerro  Gordo,  he  found  that  Santa 
Anna  had  taken  possession  of  it  with  15,000  troops.  The  whole  American 
army  numbered  only  9,000,  and  it  looked  as  if  they  were  halted  in  front  of  an 
impregnable  position,  but  it  must  be  captured  or  the  whole  campaign  would 
have  to  be  abandoned. 

BATTLE   OF   CERRO    GORDO. 

There  was  no  hesitation  on  the  part  of  our  troops,  who,  under  the  lead  of 
the  bravest  and  most  skillful  of  officers,  attacked  with  their  usual  energy  and 
daring.  The  Mexicans  made  the  best  defense  possible,  but  within  a  few  hours 
they  abandoned  every  position  and  were  driven  in  headlong  confusion  from  the 
field.  They  lost  3,000  prisoners,  among  whom  were  five  generals,  while  the 
escape  of  Santa  Anna  was  so  narrow  that  he  left  his  cork  leg  behind. 

The  American  army  pressed  on  to  Jalapa,  which  made  no  resistance,  and 
furnished  a  large  amount  of  supplies,  and  Puebla,  a  city  of  80,000  inhabitants, 
was  occupied  on  the  15th  of  May.  There  the  ground  was  high  and  the  air  cool 
and  salubrious.  The  men  were  exhausted  from  their  arduous  campaign,  and 
Soott  decided  to  give  them  a  good  rest,  so  as  to  be  fully  prepared  for  the  final 


THE  MARCH   UPON  THE  CAPITAL. 


259 


struggle.  Besides  it  was  necessary  to  receive  reinforcements  before  venturing 
further.  Santa  Anna,  realizing  that  the  critical  period  of  the  struggle  was  at 
hand,  put  forth  every  energy  to  collect  an  army  to  beat  back  the  invaders. 


I 


BATTLE  OF  CERRO  GORDO. 

"Captain  Lee  led  the  way,  and  showed  the  men  just  what  to  do.    They  lowered  the  cannons  by  ropes  down  the  steep  clifls  and 

hauled  them  up  on  the  opposite  hill-side." 

Early  in  August  the  American  army  had  been  increased  to  11,000  men, 
and,  leaving  a  small  garrison  at  Puebla,  Scott  set  out  for  the  beautiful  city  of 
Mexico.  No  serious  resistance  offered  until  they  reached  Ayotla,  fifteen  miles 


260  ADMINISTRATION  OF  POLK. 

from  the  capital.  There  it  was  found  that  the  regular  road  bristled  with  forts, 
and,  although  there  was  no  doubt  that  all  could  be  carried,  the  American  com 
mander  wisely  decided  to  move  his  army  around  to  the  south,  where  he  could 
advance  over  a  comparatively  undefended  route.  Without  any  difficulty  he 
reached  San  Augustine,  which  was  within  ten  miles  of  the  capital. 

Had  the  positions  been  changed,  a  force  ten  times  as  great  as  the  Americans 
could  not  have  captured  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  yet  it  fell  before  a  force  only 
one-third  as  numerous  as  the  defenders. 

A   DAY    OF    VICTORIES. 

The  fighting  began  before  sunrise,  August  20,  1847,  and  when  night  came 
five  distinct  victories  had  been  won.  The  fortified  camp  of  Contreras  was  cap 
tured  in  about  fifteen  minutes.  Shortly  after  the  fortified  village  of  San  Anto 
nio  was  taken  by  another  division  of  the  army.  Almost  at  the  same  time,  a 
division  stormed  one  of  the  fortified  heights  of  Churubusco,  while  still  another 
captured  the  second  height.  Seeing  the  danger  of  his  garrisons,  Santa  Anna 
moved  out  of  the  city  and  attacked  the  Americans.  The  reserves  immediately 
assailed,  drove  him  back,  and  chased  him  to  the  walls  of  the  capital,  into  which 
the  whole  Mexican  force  crowded  themselves  at  night. 

It  was  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  Santa  Anna  that  he  should  set 
2,000  convicts  loose  that  night  on  the  promise  that  they  would  fight  against  the 
Americans.  Then  he  stole  out  of  the  city,  whose  authorities  sent  a  delegation 
to  Scott  to  treat  for  peace.  This  trick  had  been  resorted  to  so  many  times  by 
the  Mexicans,  who  never  kept  faith,  that  the  American  commander  refused  to 
listen  to  them.  An  advance  was  made,  and  in  a  short  time  the  city  was  com 
pletely  in  our  possession. 

SANTA   ANNA. 

At  Puebla  there  were  2,000  Americans  in  the  hospital  under  charge  of  a 
small  guard.  Santa  Anna  attacked  them,  thinking  that  at  last  he  had  found  a 
foe  whom  he  could  beat ;  but  he  was  mistaken,  for  reinforcements  arrived  in 
time  to  drive  him  away.  This  terminated  for  a  time  the  career  of  the  treacher 
ous  Santa  Anna,  with  whom  the  Mexican  people  were  thoroughly  disgusted. 

It  is  proper  to  state  at  this  point  that  Santa  Anna  while  in  command  of  the 
Mexican  army  made  a  direct  offer  to  General  Taylor  to  betray  his  cause  for 
a  large  sum  of  money,  and  he  actually  received  an  installment,  but  circumstances 
prevented  the  completeness  of  the  bargain.  This  miscreant  was  president  and 
dictator  of  Mexico  in  1853-55,  was  banished  and  returned  several  times,  and 
was  still  plotting  to  recover  his  power  when  he  died,  in  his  eighty-second  year. 

The  capture  of  the  capital  of  Mexico  completed  the  victorious  campaign. 
The  entrance  into  the  city  was  made  September  14,  1847,  the  American  flag 


THE  SLAVERY  QUESTION.  261 

raised  over  the  palace,  and  General  Scott,  with  a  sweep  of  his  sword  over  his 
head,  while  his  massive  frame  made  a  striking  picture  in  front  of  the  palace, 
proclaimed  the  conquest  of  the  country.  All  that  remained  was  to  arrange  the 
terms  of  peace. 

TERMS    OF   PEACE. 

In  the  following  winter,  American  ambassadors  met  the  Mexican  congress  in 
session  at  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  so  named  from  the  small  town  where  it  was  situated. 
There  was  a  good  deal  of  discussion  over  the  terms,  our  ambassadors  insisting 
that  Mexico  should  surrender  the  northern  provinces,  which  included  the  present 
States  of  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  the  Territories  of  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico  and  portions  of  Colorado  and  Wyoming,  as  indemnity  for  the  war. 
Mexico  would  not  consent,  and  matters  drifted  along  until  the  2d  of  February, 
1848,  when  the  new  Mexican  government  agreed  to  these  terms.  The  treaty  was 
modified  to  a  slight  extent  by  the  United  States  Senate,  adopted  on  the  10th  of 
March,  ratified  by  the  Mexican  congress  sitting  at  Queretaro,  May  30th,  and 
proclaimed  by  President  Polk  on  the  4th  of  July.  Thus  ended  our  war  with 
Mexico. 

By  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  the  United  States  was  to  pay  Mexico  $15,000,- 
000,  and  assume  debts  to  the  extent  of  $3,000,000  due  to  American  citizens  from 
Mexico.  These  sums  were  in  payment  for  the  immense  territory  ceded  to  us. 
This  cession,  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  a  purchase  south  of  the  Gila  River  in 
1853,  added  almost  a  million  square  miles  to  our  possessions,  nearly  equaling  the 
Louisiana  purchase  and  exceeding  the  whole  area  of  the  United  States  in  1783. 

It  may  sound  strange,  but  it  is  a  fact,  that  the  governing  of  the  new  territory 
caused  so  much  trouble  that  more  than  once  it  was  seriously  proposed  in  Congress 
that  Mexico  should  be  asked  to  take  it  back  again.  General  Sherman  was 
credited  with  the  declaration  that  if  the  identity  of  the  man  who  caused  the  annexa 
tion  of  Texas  could  be  established,  he  ought  to  be  court-martialed  and  shot. 
However,  all  this  changed  when  the  vast  capabilities  and  immeasurable  worth  of 
the  new  countries  were  understood.  The  section  speedly  developed  a  wealth, 
enterprise,  and  industry  of  which  no  one  had  before  dreamed. 

THE   SLAVERY    QUESTION. 

The  real  peril  involved  in  the  acquisition  of  so  much  territory  lay  in  the 
certainty  that  it  would  revive  the  slavery  quarrel  that  had  been  put  to  sleep  by 
the  Missouri  Compromise,  nearly  thirty  years  before.  The  North  demanded  that 
slavery  should  be  excluded  from  the  new  territory,  because  it  was  so  excluded 
by  Mexican  law,  and  to  legalize  it  would  keep  out  emigrants  from  the  free 
States.  The  South  demanded  the  authorization  of  slavery,  since  Southern  emi 
grants  would  not  go  thither  without  their  slaves.  Still  others  proposed  to  divide 


262  ADMINISTRATION  OF  POLK. 

the  new  territory  by  the  Missouri  Compromise  line.  This  would  have  cut 
California  in  two  near  the  middle,  and  made  one  part  of  the  province  slave  and 
the  other  tree.  Altogether,  it  will  be  seen  that  trouble  was  at  hand. 

Before  the  outbreak  of  the  Mexican  War,  Congressman  David  Wilmot,  of 
Pennsylvania,  introduced  the  Proviso  known  by  his  name.  It  was  a  proposal 
to  purchase  the  territory  from  Mexico,  provided  slavery  was  excluded.  The 
introduction  of  the  bill  produced  much  discussion,  and  it  was  defeated  by  the 
opposition  of  the  South. 

THE   OREGON    BOUNDARY    DISPUTE. 

Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  had  jointly  occupied  Oregon  for 
twenty  years,  under  the  agreement  that  the  occupancy  could  be  ended  by  either 
country  under  a  year's  notice  to  the  other.  Many  angry  debates  took  place  in 
Congress  over  the  question  whether  such  notice  should  be  given.  The  United 
States  claimed  a  strip  of  territory  reaching  to  Alaska,  latitude  54°  40',  while 
Great  Britain  claimed  the  territory  south  of  the  line  to  the  Columbia  River. 
Congress  as  usual  had  plenty  of  wordy  patriots  who  raised  the  cry  of  "  Fifty- 
four  forty  or  light,"  and  it  was  repeated  throughout  the  country.  Cooler  and 
wiser  counsels  prevailed,  each  party  yielded  a  part  of  its  claims,  and  made  a 
middle  line  the  boundary.  A  minor  dispute  over  the  course  of  the  boundary 
line  after  it  reached  the  Pacific  islets  was  amicably  adjusted  by  another  treaty 
in  1871. 

STATES   ADMITTED. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  bill  for  the  admission  of  Iowa  did  not  become 
operative  until  1846.  It  was  the  fourth  State  formed  from  the  Louisiana  pur 
chase,  and  was  first  settled  by  the  French  at  Dubuque  ;  but  the  post  died,  and  no 
further  settlements  were  made  until  the  close  of  the  Black  Hawk  War  of  1832, 
after  which  the  population  increased  with  great  rapidity. 

Wisconsin  was  the  last  State  formed  from  the  old  Northwest  Territory.  A 
few  weak  settlements  were  made  by  the  French  as  early  as  1668,  but,  as  in  the 
case  of  Iowa,  its  real  settlement  began  after  the  Black  Hawk  War. 

THE   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTE. 

James  Smithson  of  England,  when  he  died  in  1829,  bequeathed  his  large 
estate  for  the  purpose  of  founding  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  Washington 
"  for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men."  In  1838,  his  estate, 
amounting  to  more  than  half  a  million  dollars,  was  secured  by  a  government 
agent  and  deposited  in  the  mint.  John  Quincy  Adams  prepared  a  plan  of 
organization,  which  was  adopted. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution,  so  named  in  honor  of  its  founder,  was  placed 


THE  DISCOVERY  OF  GOLD  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


263 


under  the  immediate  control  of  a  board  of  regents,  composed  of  the  President, 
Vice-President,  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  and  other  principal  officers  of  the 
government.  It  was  provided  that  the  entire  sum,  amounting  with  accrued 
interest  to  $625,000,  should  be  loaned  forever  to  the  United  States  government 
at  six  per  cent.;  that  from  the  proceeds,  together  with  congressional  appropri 
ations  and  private  gifts,  proper  buildings  should  be  erected  for  containing  a 
museum  of  natural  history,  a  cabinet  of  minerals,  a  chemical  laboratory,  a 
gallery  of  art,  and  a  library.  The  plan  of  organization  was  carried  out,  and 


THE   SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION. 

Professor  Joseph  Henry  of  Princeton  College,  the  real  inventor  of  the  electro 
magnetic  telegraph,  was  chosen  secretary. 

THE   DISCOVERY    OF    GOLD    IX   CALIFORNIA. 

For  many  years  hardy  hunters  and  trappers  had  penetrated  the  vast  wil 
derness  of  the  West  and  Northwest  in  their  hunt  for  game  and  peltries.  Some 
of  these  were  in  the  employ  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  whose  grounds 
extended  as  far  toward  the  Arctic  Circle  as  the  rugged  men  and  toughened 
Indians  could  penetrate  on  their  snowshoes. 

At  points  hundreds  of  miles  apart  in  the  gloomy  solitudes  were  erected 
trading  posts  to  which  the  red  men  brought  furs  to  exchange  for  trinkets,  blank 
ets,  firearms,  and  firewater,  and  whither  the  white  trappers  made  their  way,  after 
an  absence  of  months  in  the  dismal  solitudes.  Further  south,  among  the  rugged 


264 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  POLK. 


mountains  and  beside  the  almost  unknown  streams,  other  men  set  their  traps  for 
the  beaver,  fox,  and  various  fur-bearing  animals.  Passing  the  Rocky  Moun 
tains  and  Cascade  Range  they  pursued  their  perilous  avocation  along  the  head 
waters  of  the  rivers  flowing  through  California.  They  toiled  amid  the  snows 
and  storms  of  the  Sierras,  facing  perils  from  the  Indians,  savage  beasts,  and  the 
weather,  for  pay  that  often  did  not  amount  to  the  wages  received  by  an  ordinary 
day  laborer. 

Little  did  those  men  suspect  they  were  walking,  sleeping,  and  toiling  over  a 
tivu.-uiv  U-d  ;  that  instrad  uf  tramping  through  snow  and  over  ice  and  facing 

the  arctic  blasts 
and  vengeful  red 
men,  if  they  had 
dug  into  the 
ground,  they 
would  have  found 
wealth  beyond 
estimate. 

The  priests 
lived  in  the  adobe 
haciendas  that 
the  Spanish  had 
erected  centuries 
before,  and,  as 
they  counted  their 
beads  and  dozed 
in  calm  happi 
ness,  they  became 
rich  in  flocks  and 
the  tributes  re 
ceived  from  the  simple-minded  red  men.  Sometimes  they  wondered  in  a  mild 
way  at  the  golden  trinkets  and  ornaments  brought  in  by  the  Indians  and  were 
puzzled  to  know  where  they  came  from,  but  it  seemed  never  to  have  occurred 
to  the  good  men  that  they  could  obtain  the  same  precious  metal  by  using  the 
pick  and  shovel.  The  years  came  and  passed,  and  red  men  and  white  men  con 
tinued  to  wnlk  over  California  without  dreaming  of  the  immeasurable  riches 
that  had  l>een  nestling  for  ages  under  their  feet. 

One  day  in  February,  1848,  James  W.  Marshall,  who  had  come  to  Cali 
fornia  from  New  Jersey  some  years  before,  and  had  been  doing  only  moderately 
well  with  such  odd  jobs  as  he  could  pick  up,  was  working  with  a  companion  at 
building  a  saw-mill  for  Colonel  John  A.  Sutler,  who  had  immigrated  to  this 


THE   SLUICE. 


DISCOVERY  OF  GOLD  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


265 


country  from  Baden-  in  1834.  Going  westward,  lie  founded  a  settlement  on  the 
present  site  of  Sacramento  in  1841.  He  built  Fort  Sutter  on  the  Sacramento, 
where  he  was  visited  by  Fremont  on  his  exploring  expedition  in  1846. 

Marshall  and  his  companion  were  engaged  in  deepening  the  mill-race,  the 
former  being  just  in  front  of  the  other.  Happening  to  look  around,  he  asked  : 

"  What  is  that  shining  near  your  boot  ?  " 

His  friend  reached  his  hand  down  into  the  clear  water  and  picked  up  a 
bright,  yellow  fragment  and  held 
it  between  his  fingers. 

"It  is  brass,"  he  said;  "but 
how  bright  it  is  !  " 

"It  can't  be  brass,"  replied 
Marshall,  "  for  there  isn't  a  piece 
of  brass  within  fifty  miles  of  us." 

The  other  turned  it  over  again 
and  again  in  his  hand,  put  it  in 
his  mouth  and  bit  it,  and  then 
held  it  up  once  more  to  the  light. 
Suddenly  he  exclaimed : 

"  I  believe  it's  gold  !  " 

"  I  wonder  if  that's  possible," 
said  Marshall,  beginning  to  think 
his  companion  was  right ;  "  how 
can  we  find  out  ?  " 

"  My  wife  can  tell ;  she  has 
made  some  lye  from  wood-ashes 
and  will  test  it," 

The  man  took  the  fragment 
to  his  wife,  who  was  busy  washing, 
and,  at  his  request,  she  boiled  it 
for  several  hours  with  the  lye.  Had  it  been  brass — the  only  other  metal  it  pos 
sibly  could  have  been — it  would  have  turned  a  greenish-black.  When  examined 
again,  however,  its  beautiful  bright  lustre  was  undiminished.  There  was  scarcely 
a  doubt  that  it  was  pure  gold. 

The  two  men  returned  to  the  mill-race  with  pans,  and  washed  out  probably 
fifty  dollars'  worth  of  gold.  Despite  the  certainty  of  his  friend,  Marshall  was 
troubled  by  a  fear  that  the  fragment  was  neither  brass  nor  gold,  but  some 
worthless  metal  of  which  he  knew  nothing.  He  carefully  tied  up  all  that  had 
been  gathered,  mounted  a  fleet  horse,  and  rode  to  Sutter's  store,  thirty  miles 
down  the  American  River. 


GOLD   WASHING-THE   CRADLE. 


266  ADMINISTRATION   OF  POLK. 

Here  he  took  Colonel  Butter  into  a  private  room  and  showed  him  what  lie 
had  found,  saying  that  he  believed  it  to  be  gold.  Butter  read  up  the  account  of 
gold  in  an  encyclopedia,  tested  the  substance  with  aqua  fortis,  weighed  it,  and 
decided  that  Marshall  was  right,  and  that  the  material  he  had  found  was  un 
doubtedly  gold. 

It  was  a  momentous  discovery,  repeated  nearly  a  half-century  later,  when  the 
same  metal  was  found  in  enormous  quantities  in  the  Klondike  region.  Colonel 
Gutter  and  his  companions  tried  to  keep  the  matter  a  secret,  but  it  was  impos 
sible.  Marshall,  being  first  on  the  ground,  enriched  himself,  but  by  bad  man- 
ao-ement  lost  all  he  had  gained  and  died  a  poor  man.  Colonel  Sutter  tried  to 
keep  intruders  off  his  property,  but  they  came  like  the  swarms  of  locusts  that 
plagued  Egypt.  They  literally  overran  him,  and  when  he  died,  in  1880,  he 
was  without  any  means  whatever;  but  California  has  since  erected  a  handsome 
statue  to  his  memory. 

For  the  following  ten  or  twenty  years,  it  may  be  said,  the  eyes  of  the 
civilized  world  were  upon  California,  and  men  rushed  thither  from  every  quar 
ter  of  the  globe.  There  was  an  endless  procession  of  emigrant  trains  across  the 
plains;  the  ships  that  fought  the  storms  on  their  way  around  Cape  Horn  were 
crowded  almost  to  gunwales,  while  thousands  halved  the  voyage  by  trudging 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  the  waiting  ships  on  the  other  side.  Cali 
fornia  became  a  mining  camp  and  millions  upon  millions  of  gold  were  taken 
from  her  soil. 

THE    MORMONS. 

By  this  time  the  Mormons  engaged  much  public  attention.  Joseph  Smith, 
of  Sharon,  Vermont,  and  Palmyra,  New  York,  was  the  founder  of  the  sect. 
He  claimed  to  have  found  in  a  cave  a  number  of  engraved  plates,  containing 
the  Mormon  Bible,  which  was  his  guide  in  the  formation  of  a  new  form  of 
religious  belief.  Although  polygamy  was  not  commended,  it  was  afterward 
added  to  their  peculiar  faith,  which  is  that  sins  are  remitted  through  baptism, 
and  that  the  will  of  God  was  revealed  to  his  prophet,  Smith,  as  it  was  to  be 
revealed  to  his  successors. 

The  most  grotesque  farce  in  the  name  of  religion  is  sure  to  find  believers, 
and  they  soon  gathered  about  Smith.  The  first  Mormon  conference  was  held  at 
Fayette,  N.  Y.,  in  1830.  As  their  number  increased,  they  saw  that  the  West 
offered  the  best  opportunity  for  growth  and  expansion,  and,  when  there  were 
nearly  2,000  of  them,  they  removed  to  Jackson,  Missouri,  where  they  made  a 
settlement.  Their  practices  angered  the  people,  and,  as  soon  as  they  could  find 
a  good  pretext,  the  militia  were  called  out  and  they  were  ordered  to  "move  on." 

Crossing  the  Mississippi  into  Illinois,  they  laid  out  a  city  which  they 
named  Nauvoo.  Some  of  them  were  wealthy,  and.  as  they  held  their  means  in 


THE  MORMONS. 


267 


common,  they  were  able  to  erect  a  beautiful  temple  and  numerous  residences. 
Converts  now  flocked  to  them  until  they  numbered  fully  10,000.  Their  neigh 
bors  were  displeased  with  their  presence,  and  the  feeling  grew  into  indignation 
when  the  Mormons  not  only  refused  to  obey  the  State  laws,  but  defied  them  and 
passed  laws  of  their  own  in  open  opposition.  In  the  excitement  that  followed, 
Joseph  Smith  and  his  brother  Hyram  were  arrested  and  lodged  in  jail  at  Car 
thage.  Lynch-law  was  as  popular  in  the  West  as  it  is  to-day  in  the  South,  and 
a  mob  broke  into  the  jail  and  killed  the  Smith  brothers.  This  took  place  in 
June,  1844,  and  the  Illinois  Legislature  annulled  the  charter  of  Nauvoo. 


GKEAT   SALT   LAKE   CITY,  UTAH. 

The  experience  of  the  Mormons  convinced  them  that  they  would  never  be 
allowed  to  maintain  their  organization  in  any  of  the  States.  They,  therefore, 
gathered  up  their  worldly  goods,  and,  in  1846,  set  out  on  the  long  journey  to 
the  far  West.  Reaching  the  Basin  of  Utah,  they  founded  Great  Salt  Lake  City, 
which  is  one  of  the  handsomest,  best  governed,  and  cleanest  (in  a  physical 
sense)  cities  in  the  world. 

While  referring  to  these  peculiar  people,  we  may  as  well  complete  their 
history  by  anticipating  events  that  followed. 

In  1857,  our  government  attempted  to  extend  its  judicial  system  over  Utah 
Territory.  Brigham  Young,  the  successor  of  Joseph  Smith,  until  then  had  not 
been  disturbed,  and  he  did  not  mean  to  be  interfered  with  by  any  government. 


268  ADMINISTRATION  OF  POLK. 

He  insulted  the  Federal  judges  sent  thither  and  drove  them  out  of  the  Terri 
tory,  his  pretext  being  that  the  objectionable  character  of  the  judges  justified 
the  step.  Our  government,  which  is  always  patient  in  such  matters,  could  not 
accept  this  explanation,  and  Alfred  Gumming,  superintendent  of  Indian  affairs 
on  the  Upper  Missouri,  was  made  governor  of  Utah  and  Judge  Delano  Eckels, 
of  Indiana,  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  Territory.  Knowing  that  he 
would  be  resisted,  Colonel  Albert  Sidney  Johnston  was  sent  thither  to  compel 
obedience  to  the  laws. 

The  United  States  troops,  numbering  2,500,  entered  the  Territory  in  Oc 
tober  and  were  attacked  by  the  Mormons,  who  destroyed  their  supply  train  and 
compelled  the  men  to  seek  winter  quarters  near  Fort  Bridges.  Affairs  were  in 
this  critical  state  when  a  messenger  from  the  President,  in  the  spring  of  1858, 
carried  a  conciliatory  letter  to  Brigham  Young,  which  did  much  to  soothe  his 
ruffled  feelings.  Then,  by-and-by,  Governor  Powell  of  Kentucky  and  Major 
McCulloch  of  Texas  appeared  with  a  proclamation  of  pardon  to  all  who  would 
submit  to  Federal  authority.  The  Mormons  were  satisfied,  accepted  the  terms, 
and  in  May,  1860,  the  United  States  troops  were  withdrawn  from  the  Territory. 

Since  that  time  our  government  has  had  many  difficulties  in  dealing  with 
the  Mormons.  Although  polygamy  is  forbidden  by  the  laws  of  the  States  and 
Territories,  the  sect  continued  to  practice  it,  In  March,  1882,  Congress  passed 
what  is  known  as  the  Edmunds  Act,  which  excluded  Mormons  from  local  offices 
which  they  had  hitherto  wholly  controlled.  Many  persons  were  indicted  and 
punished  for  the  practice  of  polygamy,  while  others  abandoned  it.  Brigham 
Young,  who  had  become  governor  of  Deseret  in  1849,  and  two  years  later  was 
appointed  governor  of  Utah,  died  in  1877,  at  which  time  he  was  president  of 
the  Mormon  church.  The  practice  of  polygamy  was  never  fully  eradicated, 
and  Utah,  at  this  writing,  is  represented  in  the  United  States  Senate  by  men  who 
make  no  attempt  at  concealing  the  fact  that  they  are  polygamists. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1848. 

The  former  Democrats  and  Whigs  who  were  friendly  to  the  Wilmot 
Proviso  formed  the  Free  Soil  party  in  1848,  to  which  also  the  Abolitionists 
naturally  attached  themselves.  The  regular  Whigs  and  Democrats  refused  to 
support  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  through  fear  of  alienating  the  South.  The  Free 
Soilers  named  as  their  nominees  Martin  Van  Bnren,  for  President,  and  Charles 
Francis  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  for  Vice-President ;  the  Democrats  selected 
Louis  Cass,  of  Michigan,  for  President,  and  William  O.  Butler,  of  Kentucky,  for 
Vice-President;  the  Whig  candidates  were  General  Zachary  Taylor,  of  Louis 
iana,  for  President,  and  Millard  Fillmore,  of  New  York,  for  Vice-President. 
At  the  electoral  vote  Zachary  Taylor  was  elected  President  and  Millard  Fill- 
more  Vice-President. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


ADMINISTRATIONS   OK  TAYLOR,   KILLNIORE, 
PIERCK,    AND    BUCHANAN,   18-49—1857. 

Zachary  Taylor— The  "Irrepressible  Conflict"  in  Congress— The  Omnibus  Bill— Death  of  President 
Taylor— Millard  Fillmore— Death  of  the  Old  Leaders  and  Debut  of  the  New— The  Census  of  1850— 
Surveys  for  a  Railway  to  the  Pacific— Presidential  Election  of  1852— Franklin  Pierce— Death  ^  of 
Vice-President  King— A  Commercial  Treaty  Made  with  Japan— Filibustering  Expeditions— The 
Ostend  Manifesto— The  "Know  Nothing"  Party— The  Kansas  Nebraska  Bill  arid  Repeal  of  the 
Missouri  Compromise. 

ZACHARY   TAYLOR. 

GENERAL  ZACHARY  TAYLOR,  twelfth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
at  Orange  Court-House,  Virginia, 
September  24,  1784,  but,  while  an 
infant,  his  parents  removed  to  Ken 
tucky.  His  school  education  was 
slight,  but  he  possessed  fine  mili 
tary  instincts  and  developed  into 
one  of  the  best  of  soldiers.  His 
services  in  the  war  of  1812  and  in 
that  with  Mexico  have  been  told  in 
their  proper  place.  His  defense  of 
Fort  Harrison,  on  the  Wabash,  dur 
ing  the  last  war  with  England,  won 
him  the  title  of  major  by  brevet, 
that  being  the  first  time  the  honor 
was  conferred  in  the  American 
army. 

No  man  could  have  been  less  a 
politician  than  "Old  Rough  and 
Ready,"  for  he  had  not  cast  a  vote 
in  forty  years.  Daniel  Webster  char- 
acterized  him  as  an  "  ignorant  fron 
tier  colonel,"  and  did  not  conceal  his 
disgust  over  his  nomination  by  the  great  party  of  which  the  New  England 
orator  was  the  leader.  It  was  Taylor's  brilliant  services  in  Mexico  that 
made  him  popular  above  all  others  with  the  masses,  who  are  the  ones  that 

(269) 


ZACHARY   TAYLOR. 

(1784-18 -u;     One  paitial  term,  1849-1S5Q. 


270  TAYLOR,  FILLMORE,  PIERCE,  AND  BUCHANAN. 

make  and  unmake  presidents.  Besides,  a  great  many  felt  that  Taylor  had  nor. 
been  generously  treated  by  the  government,  and  this  sentiment  had  much  to  do 
with  his  nomination  and  election. 

THE    IRREPRESSIBLE    CONFLICT. 

The  "  irrepressible  conflict "  between  slavery  and  freedom  could  not  be  post 
poned,  and  when,  on  the  13th  of  February,  1850,  the  President  sent  to  Con 
gress  the  petition  of  California  for  admission  as  a  State,  the  quarrel  broke  out 
afresh.  The  peculiar  character  of  the  problem  has  already  been  stated.  A 
part  of  California  lay  north  and  a  part  south  of  36°  30',  the  dividing  line  be 
tween  slavery  and  freedom  as  defined  by  the  Missouri  Compromise,  thirty  years 
before.  Congress,  therefore,  had  not  the  power  to  exclude  slavery,  and  the 
question  had  to  be  decided  by  the  people  themselves.  They  had  already  done 
so  by  inserting  a  clause  in  the  Constitution  which  prohibited  slavery. 

There  were  violent  scenes  on  the  floor  of  Congress.  General  Foote,  of 
Mississippi,  was  on  the  point  of  discharging  a  pistol  at  Colonel  Benton,  of  Mis 
souri,  when  bystanders  seized  his  arm  and  prevented.  Weapons  were  frequently 
drawn,  and  nearly  every  member  went  about  armed  and  ready  for  a  deadly 
affray.  The  South  threatened  to  secede  from  the  Union,  and  we  stood  on  the 
brink  of  civil  war. 

THE   COMPROMISE    OF    1850. 

It  was  at  this  fearful  juncture  that  Henry  Clay,  now  an  old  man,  submitted 
to  the  Senate  his  famous  "  Omnibus  Bill,"  so  called  because  of  its  many  feat 
ures,  which  proposed  a  series  of  compromises  as  follows :  the  admission  of  Cali 
fornia  as  a  State,  with  the  Constitution  adopted  by  her  people  (which  prohibited 
slavery)  ;  the  establishment  of  territorial  governments  over  all  the  other  newly 
acquired  Territories,  with  no  reference  to  slavery  ;  the  abolishment  of  all  traffic 
in  slaves  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  but  declaring  it  inexpedient  to  abolish 
slavery  there  without  the  consent  of  the  inhabitants  and  also  of  Maryland  ;  the 
assumption  of  the  debts  of  Texas ;  while  all  fugitive  slaves  in  the  free  States 
should  be  liable  to  arrest  and  return  to  slavery. 

John  C.  Calhoun,  the  Southern  leader,  was  earnestly  opposed  to  the  coin- 
promise,  but  he  was  ill  and  within  a  few  weeks  of  death,  and  his  argument  was 
read  in  the  Senate  by  Senator  Mason.  Daniel  Webster  supported  the  measure 
with  all  his  logic  and  eloquence,  and  it  was  his  aid  extended  to  Clay  that 
brought  about  the  passage  of  the  bill,  all  the  sections  becoming  laws  in  Septem 
ber,  1850,  and  California,  conquered  from  Mexico  in  1846,  took  her  place  among 
the  sisterhood  of  States.  Webster's  support  of  the  fugitive  slave  law  lost  him 
many  friends  in  the  North,  and,  has  been  stated,  rendered  his  election  to  the 
^residency  impossible. 


MILLARD  FILLMORK 


271 


On  the  4th  of  July,  1850,  the  remains  from  Kosciusko's  tomb  were  depos 
ited  in  the  monument  in  Washington,  and  President  Taylor  was  present  at  the 
ceremonies.  The  heat  was  terrific  and  caused  him  great  distress.  On  his  return 
home  he  drank  large  quantities  of  ice-water  and  milk,  though  he  was  warned 
against  the  danger  of  doing  so.  A  fatal  illness  followed,  and  he  died  on  the  9th 
of  July.  Vice-President  Fillmore  was  sworn  into  office  on  the  following  day. 


MILLARD    FILLMORE. 

Millard  Fillmore,  the  thirteenth  President,  was  born  at  Summer  Hill, 
New  York,  February  7,  1800.  He  .  mmm 

learned  the  fuller's  trade,  afterward 
taught  school,  and,  studying  law, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Buffalo, 
where  he  attained  marked  success. 
He  was  State  comptroller  for  one 
term  and  served  in  Congress  for  four 
terms.  He  died  in  Buffalo,  March 
7,  1874.  Fillmore  was  a  man  of 
good  ability,  but  the  inferior  of  many 
of  those  who  preceded  him  in  the 
exalted  office.  He  was  a  believer  in 
the  compromise  measures  of  Clay, 
and  performed  his  duties  conscien 
tiously  and  acceptably. 

Fillmore's  administration  is  no 
table  for  the  fact  that  it  saw  the 
passing  away  of  the  foremost  lead 
ers,  Clay,  Webster,  and  Calhoun, 
with  others  of  less  prominence. 
They  were  succeeded  in  Congress 
by  the  anti-slavery  champions,  Wil 
liam  H.  Seward,  of  New  York;  Charles  Sumner,  of  Massachusetts;  and 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  of  Ohio.  From  the  South,  too,  came  able  men,  in  Jefferson 
Davis,  of  Mississippi ;  John  Y.  Mason,  of  Louisiana ;  and  others.  The  giants 
had  departed  and  their  mantles  fell  upon  shoulders  that  were  not  always  able 
to  wear  them  as  fittingly  as  their  predecessors. 

The  slavery  agitation  produced  its  natural  effect  in  driving  many  of  the 
Southern  Whigs  into  the  Democratic  party,  while  a  feAV  Northern  Democrats 
united  with  the  Whigs,  who,  however,  were  so  disrupted  that  the  organization 


MILLARD  FILLMORE. 

(1800-1874.)  one  partial  term,  1850-53. 


272  TAYLOR,  F1LLMORE,  PIERCE,  AND  BUCHANAN. 

crumbled  to  pieces  after  the  presidential  election  of  1852,  and,  for  a  time,  no 
effective  opposition  to  the  Democratic  party  seemed  possible. 

TUE    NEED   OF    A    TRANS-CONTINENTAL    RAILROAD. 

The  population  of  the  United  States  in  1840  was  23,191,876.  General 
prosperity  prevailed,  but  all  felt  the  urgent  need  of  a  railroad  connecting  Mis 
souri  and  California.  The  Pacific  coast  had  become  a  leading  part  of  the  Union 
and  its  importance  was  growing  every  year.  But  the  building  of  such  a  rail 
way,  through  thousands  of  miles  of  wilderness,  across  lofty  mountains  and  large 
rivers,  was  an  undertaking  so  gigantic  and  expensive  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach 
of  private  parties,  without  congressional  assistance.  Still  all  felt  that  the  road 
must  be  built,  and,  in  1853,  Congress  ordered  surveys  to  be  made  in  order  to 
find  the  best  route.  The  building  of  the  railway,  however,  did  not  begin  until 
the  War  for  the  Union  was  well  under  way. 

PRESIDENTIAL   ELECTION    OF    1852. 

When  the  time  arrived  for  presidential  nominations,  the  Democratic  con 
vention  met  in  Baltimore,  June  12,  1852.  The  most  prominent  candidates 
were  James  Buchanan,  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  Lewis  Cass,  and  William  L.  Marcy. 
There  was  little  variance  in  their  strength  for  thirty-five  ballots,  and  everybody 
seemed  to  be  at  sea,  when  the  Virginia  delegation,  on  the  next  ballot,  presented 
the  name  of  Franklin  Pierce  of  New  Hampshire. 

"Who  is  Franklin  Pierce?  "was  the  question  that  went  round  the  hall, 
but,  on  the  forty-ninth  ballot,  he  received  282  votes  to  11  for  all  the  others,  and 
the  question  was  repeated  throughout  the  United  States.  Pierce's  opponent 
was  General  Win  field  Scott,  the  commander-in-chief  in  the  Mexican  War, 
who  had  done  fine  service  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  ranks  among  the  foremost 
military  leaders  of  our  country.  But,  personally,  he  was  unpopular,  overbear 
ing  in  his  manners,  a  martinet,  and  without  any  personal  magnetism.  No 
doubt  he  regarded  it  as  an  act  of  impertinence  for  Pierce,  who  had  been  his  sub 
ordinate  in  Mexico,  to  presume  to  pit  himself  against  him  in  the  political  field. 
But  the  story  told  by  the  November  election  was  an  astounding  one  and  read 
as  follows : 

Franklin  Pierce,  of  New  Hampshire,  Democrat,  254;  Winfield  Scott,  of 
New  Jersey,  Whig,  42 ;  John  P.  Hale,  of  New  Hampshire,  Free  Democrat,  0; 
Daniel  Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  Whig,  0.  For  Vice-President:  William  R. 
King,  of  Alabama,  Democrat,  254;  William  A.  Graham,  of  North  Carolina, 
Whig,  42;  George  W.  Julian,  of  Indiana,  Free  Democrat,  0. 

The  Whig  convention  which  put  Scott  in  nomination  met  also  in  Baltimore, 
a  few  days  after  the  Democratic  convention.  Webster  was  confident  of  receiv- 


FRANKLIN  PIERCE. 


273 


(no-  the  nomination,  and  it  was  the  disappointment  of  his  life  that  he  failed. 
The  "  Free  Democrats,"  who  placed  candidates  in  nomination,  represented  those 
who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  various  compromise  measures  that  had  been 
adopted  by  Congress.  The  only  States  carried  by  Scott  were  Vermont,  Massa 
chusetts,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee. 

FRANKLIN    TIERCE. 

Franklin  Pierce,  the  fourteenth  President,  was  born  at  Hillsborough,  New 
Hampshire,  November  23,  1804.  Upon  his  graduation  from  Bowdoin  College, 
he  became  a  successful  lawyer.  He  -™ 
always  showed  a  fondness  for  mili 
tary  matters,  though  not  to  the  ex 
tent  of  neglecting  politics  and  his 
profession.  He  was  elected  to  his 
State  Legislature  and  was  a  mem 
ber  of  Congress  from  1833  to  1837, 
and,  entering  the  Senate  in  1839,  he 
remained  until  1842,  afterward  de 
clining  a  cabinet  appointment  from 
President  Polk.  He  volunteered  in 
the  Mexican  War,  commanded  a 
brigade,  and  showed  great  gallantry 
in  several  battles.  He  died  October 
8,  1869. 

Mr.  King,  the  Vice-President, 
was  in  such  feeble  health  that  he 
took  the  oath  of  office  in  Cuba,  and, 
returning  to  his  native  State,  died 
April  18,  1853,  being  the  first  vice- 
president  to  die  in  office.  One  re 
markable  fact  should  be  stated  re 
garding  the  administration  of  Pierce :  there  was  not  a  change  in  his  cabinet 
throughout  his  whole  term,  the  only  instance  of  the  kind  thus  far  in  our  history. 

A    TREATY    WITH    JAPAN. 

It  seems  strange  that  until  a  few  years,  Japan  was  a  closed  nation  to  the 
world.  Its  people  refused  to  have  anything  to  do  with  any  other  country,  and 
wished  nothing  from  them  except  to  be  let  alone.  In  1854,  Commodore  M.  C 
Perry  visited  Japan  with  an  American  fleet  and  induced  the  government  to 
make  a  commercial  treaty  with  our  own.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  mar- 

18 


FRANKLIN  PIERCE. 

(1804-1868.)    One  term,  1£~>3-1857. 


274  TAYLOR,  FILLMORE,  PIERCE,  AND  BUCHANAN. 

velous  progress  of  that  country  in  civilization  and  education,  which  forms  one 
of  the  most  astonishing  records  in  the  history  of  mankind.  Japan's  over 
whelming  defeat  of  China,  whose  population  is  ten  times  as  great  as  pur  own ; 
her  acceptance  of  the  most  advanced  ideas  of  civilization,  and  the  wisdom  of 
her  rulers  have  carried  her  in  a  few  years  to  a  rank  among  the  leading 
powers  and  justified  the  appellation  of  the  "Yankees  of  the  East,"  which  is 
sometimes  applied  to  her  people. 

FILIBUSTERING. 

Pierce's  administration  was  marked  by  a  number  of  filibustering  expeditions 
against  Spanish  possessions  in  the  West  Indies.  None  of  them  succeeded,  and 
a  number  of  the  leaders  were  shot  by  the  Spanish  authorities.  The  American 
government  offered  to  purchase  Cuba  of  Spain,  but  that  country  indignantly 
replied  that  the  mints  of  the  world  had  not  coined  enough  gold  to  buy  it.  Could 
she  have  foreseen  the  events  of  1898,  no  doubt  she  would  have  sold  out  for  a 
moderate  price. 

In  August,  1854,  President  Pierce  directed  Mr.  Buchanan,  minister  to  Eng 
land,  Mr.  Mason,  minister  to  France,  and  Mr.  Soule,  envoy  to  Spain,  to  meet  at  some 
convenient  place  and  discuss  the  question  of  obtaining  possession  of  Cuba.  These 
distinguished  gentlemen  met  at  Ostend  on  the  9th  of  October,  and  adjourned 
to  Aix-la-Chapelle,  from  which  place  they  issued,  on  the  18th  of  October,  what 
is  known  as  the  "  Ostend  Manifesto  or  Circular,"  in  which  they  recommended 
the  purchase  of  Cuba,  declaring  that,  if  Spain  refused  to  sell,  the  United  States 
would  be  justified  "by  every  law,  human  and  divine,"  in  wresting  it  from  her. 
This  declaration,  for  which  there  was  no  justification  whatever,  caused  angry 
protest  in -Europe  and  in  the  free  States  of  our  country,  but  was  ardently 
applauded  in  the  South.  Nothing  came  of  it,  and  the  country  soon  became  so 
absorbed  in  the  slavery  agitation  that  it  was  forgotten. 

THE    "KNOW    NOTHINGS." 

Patriotic  men,  who  feared  what  was  coming,  did  all  in  their  power  to  avert 
it.  One  of  these  attempts  was  the  formation  of  the  "Know  Nothing"  party, 
which  grew  up  like  a  mushroom  and  speedily  acquired  a  power  that  enabled  it 
to  carry  many  local  elections  in  the  various  States.  It  was  a  secret  organization, 
the  members  of  which  were  bound  by  oath  to  oppose  the  election  of  foreign- 
born  citizens  to  office.  The  salutation,  when  one  member  met  another,  was, 
"Have  you  seen  Sam?"  If  one  of  them  was  questioned  about  the  order,  his 
reply  was  that  he  knew  nothing,  from  which  the  name  was  given  to  what  was 
really  the  Native  American  party.  It  soon  ran  its  course,  but  has  been  suc 
ceeded  in  its  cardinal  principles  by  the  American  Protective  Association  of  the 
present  day. 


THE  MISSOURI  COMPROMISE. 


275 


Meanwhile,  the  slavery  question  was  busy  at  its  work  of  disintegration. 
The  Democratic  party  was  held  together  for  a  time  by  the  Compromise  of  1850, 
to  the  effect  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  new  Territories  of  New  Mexico  and 
Utah  should  be  left  to  decide  for  themselves  the  question  of  slavery.  In  a  few 
years  the  settlements  in  Nebraska  and  Kansas  made  it  necessary  to  erect  terri 
torial  governments  there,  and  the  question  of  slavery  was  thus  brought  before 
Congress  again.  The  Missouri  Compromise  forbade  sir.  very  forever  in  those  sec 
tions,  for  both  of  them  lie  to  the  north  parallel  of  86°  80'.  Stephen  A.  Douglas, 
however,  and  a  number  of  other  Democratic  leaders  in  Congress  claimed  that 
the  Compromise  of  1850  nullified  this 
agreement,  and  that  the  same  freedom  of 
choice  should  be  given  to  the  citizens 
of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  as  was  given 
to  those  in  Utah  and  New  Mexico. 
This  policy  was  called  "Squatter  Sov 
ereignty." 

THE    MISSOURI    COMPROMISE. 

The  bill  was  bitterly  fought  in  Con 
gress,  but  it  passed  the  Senate  by  a  vote 
of  thirty-seven  to  fourteen,  and  after 
another  fierce  struggle  was  adopted  in 
the  House  by  a  vote  of  113  to  100. 
It  received  several  amendments,  and  the 
President  signed  it  May  81,  1854. 
Thus  the  Missouri  Compromise  was 
repealed  and  the  first  note  of  civil  war 
sounded.  The  question  of  slavery  was 
opened  anew,  and  could  never  be  closed 
without  the  shedding  of  blood  to  an  extent  that  no  one  dreamed. 

FORMATION    OF    THE    REPUBLICAN    PARTY. 

The  enforcement  of  the  fugitive  slave  law  was  resisted  in  the  North  and 
numerous  conflicts  took  place.  During  the  attempted  arrest  of  Anthony  Burns 
in  Boston  a  deputy-sheriff  was  shot  dead,  and  Federal  troops  from  Rhode  Island 
had  to  be  summoned  before  Burns  could  be  returned  to  slavery.  Former  political 
opponents  began  uniting  in  both  sections.  In  the  North  the  opponents  of 
slavery,  comprising  Democrats,  Free-Soilers,  Know  Nothings,  Whigs,  and  Abo 
litionists,  joined  in  the  formation  of  the  "Anti-Nebraska  Men,"  and  under  that 
name  they  elected,  in  1854,  a  majority  of  the  House  of  Representatives  for  the 


LUCRETIA  MOTT. 

The  advance  agent  of  emancipation. 
(1 793-1880.) 


TAYLOR,  FILLMORE,  PIERCE,  AND  BUCHANAN. 

next  Congress.  Soon  after  the  election,  the  new  organization  took  the  name  of 
Republicans?,  by  which  they  are  known  to-day.  Its  members,  with  a  few  ex 
ceptions  among  the  Germans  in  Missouri  and  the  Ohio  settlers  in  western 
Virginia,  belonged  wholly  to  the  North. 

CIVIL    WAR    IN    KANSAS. 

Kansas  became  for  the  time  the  battle-ground  between  slavery  and  freedom. 
Societies  in  the  North  sent  emigrants  into  Kansas,  first  furnishing  them  with 
Bibles  and  rifles,  while  the  pro-slavery  men  swarmed  thither  from  Missouri,  and 
the  two  parties  fought  each  other  like  Apache  Indians.  In  the  midst  of  the 
civil  war,  a  territorial  legislature  was  formed,  and  in  many  instances  the  majority 
of  thr  randidati's  flirted  was  double  that  of  the  voting  population  in  the  district. 

Governor  A.  H.  Reeder,  of  Pennsylvania,  had 
been  appointed  governor  of  the  Territory,  and, 
finding  himself  powerless  to  check  the  anarchy, 
went  to  Washington  in  April,  1855,  to  consult 
with  the  government.  While  there  he  was 
nominated  for  Congress,  and  defeated  by  the 
fraudulent  votes  of  the  pro-slavery  men. 

Meanwhile,  two  State  governments  had  been 
formed.  The  pro-slavery  men  met  at  Lecomp- 
ton,  in  March,  and  adopted  a  Constitution  per 
mitting  slavery.  Their  opponents  assembled  in 
Lawrence,  August  15th,  and  elected  delegates, 
who  came  together  in  October  and  ratified  the 
Topeka  Constitution,  which  forbade  slavery. 
In  January,  1856,  the  people  held  an  election 
under  this  Constitution.  In  the  same  month 

President  Pierce  sent  a  message  to  Congress,  in  which  he  declared  the  for 
mation  of  a  free  State  government  in  Kansas  an  act  of  rebellion,  while 
that  adopted  at  Lecompton  was  the  valid  government,  Governor  Reeder 
was  superseded  by  William  Shannon.  A  committee  sent  by  Congress  into 
the  Territory  to  investigate  and  report  could  not  agree,  and  nothing  came 
of  it. 

The  civil  war  grew  worse.  A  free  State  government,  with  General  Joseph 
Lane  as  its  head  and  supported  by  a  well-armed  force,  was  formed  at  Lawrence. 
The  town  was  sacked  and  almost  destroyed,  May  20, 1856.  On  the  4th  of  July 
following,  the  free  State  Legislature  was  dispersed  by  Federal  troops,  upon  order 
of  the  national  government. 

John  W.  Geary  now  tried  his  hand  as  governor.     His  first  step  was  to  call 


HENRY  WARD  BEECHER. 
The  (Jrenl  Pulpit  Orator  and  Anti-Slavery 


JAMES  BUCHANAN.  271 

upon  both  parties  to  disarm,  and  neither  paid  any  attention  to  mm.  Finding  he 
could  not  have  the  support  of  the  President  in  the  vigorous  policy  he  wished  to 
adopt.  Governor  Geary  resigned  and  was  succeeded  by  .Robert  J.  Walker  of  Mis- 
sissirpi.  He  showed  a  disposition  to  be  fair  to  all  concerned,  but,  before  he 
could  accomplish  anything,  he  was  turned  out  to  make  room  for  J.  W.  Denver. 
He  was  soon  disgusted  and  gave  way  to  Samuel  Medary.  Before  long,  it  be 
came  evident  that  the  influx  of  northern  settlers  must  overcome  the  pro-slavery 
men,  and  the  struggle  was  given  up  by  the  latter.  A  constitution  prohibiting 
slavery  was  ratified  in  1859  and  Charles  Robinson  elected  governor. 

VIOLENT    SCENES   IN    CONGRESS. 

Nebraska  lies  so  far  north  that  it  was  not  disturbed.  Acts  of  disgraceful 
violence  took  place  in  Congress,  challenges  to  duels  being  exchanged,  personal 
collisions  occurring  on  the  floor,  while  most  of  the  members  went  armed,  not 
knowing  what  minute  they  would  be  assaulted.  In  May,  1856,  Senator  Charles 
Su inner,  of  Massachusetts,  for  utterances  made  in  .debate,  was  savagely  assaulted 
by  Preston  S.  Brooks,  of  South  Carolina,  and  received  injuries  from  which  he 
did  not  recover  for  several  years.  Brooks  was  lionized  in  the  South  for  his 
brutal  act  and  re-elected  to  Congress  by  an  overwhelming  majority. 

The  Republican  party  was  growing  rapidly  in  strength,  and  in  1856  it 
placed  its  candidates  in  the  field  and  astonished  the  rest  of  the  country  by  the 
vote  it  rolled  up,  as  shown  in  the  following  statistics  : 

James  Buchanan,  of  Pennsylvania,  Democrat,  174 ;  John  C.  Fremont,  of 
California,  Republican,  114;  Millard  Fillmore,  of  New  York,  Native  Ameri 
can,  8.  For  Vice-President,  John  C.  Breckinridge,  of  Kentucky,  Democrat, 
174 ;  William  L.  Dayton,  of  New  Jersey,  Republican,  114 ;  A.  J.  Donelson,  of 
Tennessee.  Native  American,  8, 

JAMES   BUCHANAN 

James  Buchanan,  fifteenth    !  'resident,  was  born  in  Mercersbtirg,  Pennsyl 
vania,  April  23,  1791,  and  graduated  from  Dickinson  College  in  1809.     He  be 
came  a  lawyer,  was  elected  to  the  State  Legislature  and  to  Congress  in  1821. 
Thenceforward,    he    was    almost  continuously    in    office.     President  Jackson 
appointed  him  minister  to  Russia  in  1832,  but,  soon   returning  home,  he  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1834.     He  left  that  body,  in  1845,  to 
become  Folk's  secretary  of  State.      In  1853,  he  was    appointed   minister  to 
England,  where  he  remained  until  his  election  to  the  presidency  in  1856.     He 
died  at  his  home  in  Lancaster,  June  1, 1868.     The  many  honors  conferred  upon 
Buchanan  prove  his  ability,  though  he  has  been  often  accused  of  showing  timid- 


278 


TAYLOR,   FILLMORE,   PIERCE,   AND  BUCHANAN. 


ity  during  his  term  of  office,  which  was  of  the  most  trying  nature.     He 
only  bachelor  among  our  Presidents. 


the 


STATES   ADMITTED. 

Minnesota  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1858.  It  was  a  paH  of  tire  Lou- 
isana  purchase.  Troubles  over  the  Indian  titles  delayed  its  settlement  until 
1851,  after  which  its  growth  was  wonderfully  rapid.  Oregon  was  admitted  in 
1859.  The  streams  of  emigration  to  California  overflowed  i/xto  Oregon,  where 
some  of  the  precious  metal  was  found.  It  was  learned,  however,  in  time  that 

Oregon's  most  valuable  treasure 
mine  was  in  her  wheat,  which  is  ex 
ported  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Kansas,  of  which  we  have  given  an 
account  in  the  preceding  pages,  was 
quietly  admitted,  directly  after  the 
seceding  Senators  abandoned  their 
seats,  their  votes  having  kept  it  out 
up  to  that  time.  The  population  of 
the  United  States  in  1860  was  31,- 
443,321.  Prosper  ity  prevailed  every 
where,  and.  but  for  the  darkening 
shadows  of  civil  war,  the  condition  of 
no  people  could  have  been  more 
happy  and  promising. 

THE    DRED    SCOTT    DECISION. 

Dred  Scott  was  the  negro  slave 
ot  Dr.  Emerson,  of  Missouri,  a  sur 
geon  in  the  United  States  army.  In 
the  discharge  of  his  duty,  his  owner 
took  him  to  military  posts  in  Illi 
nois  and  Minnesota.  Scott  married  a  negro  woman  in  Minnesota,  and  both 
were  sold  by  Dr.  Emerson  upon  his  return  to  Missouri.  The  negro  brought  suit 
for  his  freedom  on  the  ground  that  he  had  been  taken  into  territory  where 
slavery  was  forbidden.  The  case  passed  through  the  various  State  courts,  and, 
reaching  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  that  body  made  its  decision  in  March, 
1857. 

This  decision  was  to  the  effect  that  negro  slaves  were  not  citizens,  and  no 
means  existed  by  which  they  could  become  such  ;  they  were  simply  property, 
like  household  goods  and  chattels,  and  their  owner  could  take  them  into  any 


JAMES  BUCHANAN. 
(17'J1-186S.)    One  term,  18,57-1861. 


THE  DEED  SCOTT  DECISION. 


279 


State  in  the  Union  without  forfeiting  his  ownership  in  them.  It  followed  also 
from  this  important  decision  that  the  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820  and  the 
Compromise  of  1850  were  null  and  void,  since  it  w;i>  hcyond  the  power 
of  the  contracting  parties  to  make  such 
agreements.  Six  of  the  justices  con 


cur  reel  in 


1  in  this  decision  and  two  dissented. 


LUCRETIA  MOTT   PROTECTING  THE   NEGRO   DANGERFIELD   FROM   THE   MOB   IN 

PHILADELPHIA. 

'.Then  Daniel  Dangerfield,  a  fugitive  slave,  was  tried  in  Philadelphia,  Lucretia  Mott  sat  during  all  his  trial  by  the  side  of  the 
prisoner.  When  the  trial  was  ended  Dangerfield  was  set  at  liberty,  and  Mrs.  Mott  walked  out  of  the  court-room  and  through  the 
mob  which  threatened  to  lynch  him,  her  hand  on  the  colored  man's  arm,  and  that  little  hand  was  a  sure  protector,  for  no  one 
dared  tq  touch  him. 

This  decision  was  received  with  delight  in  the  South  and  repudiated  in  the 
.North.     The    contention   there  was    that   the  Constitution   regarded   slaves  as 


280  TAYLOR,   FILLMORE,   PIERCE,   AND  BUCHANAN. 

"persons  held  to  labor"  and  not  as  property,  and  that  they  were  property  only 

by  State  law. 

JOHN  BROWN'S  RAID. 

While  the  chasm  between  the  North  and  South  was  rapidly  growing  wider, 
a  startling  occurrence  took  place.  John  Brown  was  a  fanatic  who  believed 
Heaven  had  appointed  him  its  agent  for  freeing  the  slaves  in  the  South.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  active  partisans  on  the  side  of  freedom  in  the  civil  war  in 
Kansas,  and  had  been  brooding  over  the  subject  for  years,  until  his  belief  in  his 
mission  became  unshakable. 

Brown's  plan  was  simple,  being  that  of  invading  Virginia  with  a  small 
armed  force  and  calling  upon  the  slaves  to  rise.  He  believed  they  would  flock 
around  him,  and  he  fixed  upon  Harper's  Ferry  as  the  point  to  begin  his  cru 
sade. 

Secretly  gathering  a  band  of  twenty  men,  in  the  month  of  October,  1859, 
he  held  them  ready  on  the  Maryland  shore.  Late  on  Sunday  night,  the  16th, 
they  crossed  the  railway  bridge  over  the  Potomac,  seized  the  Federal  armory  at 
Harper's  Ferry,  stopped  all  railroad  trains,  arrested  a  number  of  citizens,  set 
free  such  slaves  as  they  came  across,  and  held  complete  possession  of  the  town 
for  twenty-four  hours. 

Brown  acted  with  vigor.  He  threw  out  pickets,  cut  the  telegraph  wires,  and 
sent  word  to  the  slaves  that  their  day  of  deliverance  had  come  and  they  were 
summoned  to  rise.  By  this  time  the  citizens  had  themselves  risen,  and,  attack 
ing  the  invaders,  drove  them  into  the  armory,  from  which  they  maintained  fire 
until  it  became  clear  that  they  must  succumb.  Several  made  a  break,  but  were 
shot  down.  Brown  retreated  to  an  engine-house  with  his  wounded  and  prisoners 
and  held  his  assailants  at  bay  all  through  Monday  and  the  night  following. 

News  having  been  sent  to  Washington,  Colonel  Robert  E.  Lee  arrived 
Tuesday  morning  with  a  force  of  marines  and  land  troops.  The  local  militia  of 
Virginia  had  also  been  called  out.  The  situation  of  Brown  was  hopeless,  but 
he  refused  to  surrender.  Colonel  Lee  managed  matters  with  such  skill  that 
only  one  of  his  men  was  shot,  while  Brown  was  wounded  several  times,  his 
two  sons  killed,  and  others  slain.  The  door  of  the  engine-house  was  battered  in 
and  the  desperate  men  overpowered.  The  enraged  citizens  would  have  raided 
them  to  pieces,  had  they  been  allowed,  but  Colonel  Lee  protected  and  turned 
them^over  to  the  civil  authorities.  Brown  and  his  six  companions  were  placed 
on  trial,  found  guilty  of  what  was  certainly  an  unpardonable  crime,  and  hanged 
on  the  2d  of  December,  1859. 

Many  in  the  South  believed  that  the  act  of  Brown  was  planned  and 
supported  by  leading  Republicans,  but  such  was  not  the  fact,  and  they  were  as 
earnest  in  condemnation  of  the  mad  proceeding  as  the  extreme  slavery  men,  but 


PRESIDENTIAL    CAMPAIGN  OF  1860. 


281 


John  Brown's  raid  served  to  fan  the  spark  of  civil  war  that  was  already  kindled 
and  fast  growing  into  a  flame. 

PRESIDENTIAL    CAMPAIGN    OF    1860. 

The  presidential  campaigns  that  had  been  pressed  heretofore  with  a  certain 
philosophic  good  nature,  now  assumed  a  tragic  character.  The  South  saw  the 
growing  preponderance  of  the  North.  New  States  were  continually  forming 
out  of  the  enormous  territory  in  the  West,  the  opposition  to  slavery  was  inten- 


KARPER'S  FERRY. 

sifying,  and  its  overthrow  was  certain.  Senator  Seward  had  announced  the 
"  irrepressible  conflict "  between  freedom  and  the  institution,  and  the  only 
remedy  the  South  saw  lay  in  secession  from  the  Union,  for  they  loved  that  less 
than  slavery.  They  announced  their  unalterable  intention  of  seceding  in  the 
event  of  the  election  of  a  president  of  Republican  principles.  The  Republicans 
placed  Abraham  Lincoln,  of  Illinois,*in  nomination.  Jefferson  Davis  saw  that 
the  only  way  of  defeating  him  was  by  uniting  all  the  opposing  parties  into  one. 
He  urged  such  a  union,  but  the  elements  would  not  fuse. 


282  TAYLOR,  FILLMORE,  PIERCE,  AND  BUCHANAN. 

The  Democratic  convention  assembled  in  Charleston  in  April,  1860,  and 
had  hardly  come  together  when  the  members  began  quarreling  over  slavery. 
Some  of  the  radicals  insisted  upon  the  adoption  of  a  resolution  favoring  the 
opening  of  the  slave  trade,  in  retaliation  for  the  refusal  of  the  North  to  obey  the 
fugitive  slave  law.  This  measure,  however,  was  voted  down,  and  many  were  in 
favor  of  adopting  compromises  and  making  concessions  for  the  sake  of  the 
Union.  Stephen  A.  Douglas  was  their  candidate,  but  no  agreement  could  be 
made,  and  the  convention  split  apart.  The  extremists  were  not  satisfied  with 
"squatter  sovereignty,"  and,  determined  to  prevent  the  nomination  of  Douglas, 
they  withdrew  from  the  convention.  Those  who  remained,  after  balloting  some 
time  without  result,  adjourned  to  Baltimore,  where,  on  the  18th  of  June,  they 
placed  Douglas  in  nomination,  with  Herschel  V.  Johnson  as  the  nominee  for 
Vice-President.  Their  platform  was  the  doctrine  that  the  people  of  each 
Territory  should  settle  the  question  of  slavery  for  themselves,  but  they  expressed 
a  willingness  to  abide  by  the  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

The  seceding  delegates  adjourned  to  Richmond,  and  again  to  Baltimore, 
where,  June  2Sth,  they  nominated  John  C.  Breckinridge  for  President  and 
Joseph  Lane  for  Vice-President.  Their  platform  declared  unequivocally  in 
favor  of  slavery  being  protected  in  all  parts  of  the  Union,  where  the  owners 
chose  to  take  their  slaves. 

The  American  party,  which  called  themselves  Constitutional  Unionists, 
had  already  met  in  Baltimore,  and  nominated  John  Bell  for  President  and 
Edward  Everett  for  Vice-President,  Their  platform  favored  the  "  Constitu 
tion,  the  Union,  and  the  enforcement  of  the  laws."  This  platform  was  of  the 
milk-and-water  variety,  appealing  too  weakly  to  the  friends  and  opponents  of 
slavery  to  develop  great  strength.  The  question  of  African  slavery  had  become 
the  burning  one  before  the  country,  and  the  people  demanded  that  the  political 
platforms  should  give  out  no  uncertain  sound. 

Amid  uncontrollable  excitement,  the  presidential  election  took  place  with 
the  following  result : 

Abraham  Lincoln,  of  Illinois,  Republican,  180;  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of 
Illinois,  Democrat,  12;  John  C.  Breckinridge,  of  Kentucky,  Democrat,  72; 
John  Bell,  of  Tennessee,  Union,  39.  For  Vice-President:  Hannibal  Hamlin, 
of  Maine,  Republican,  180;  Herschel  V.  Johnson,  of  Georgia,  Democrat,  12  ; 
Joseph  Lane,  of  Oregon,  Democrat,  72 ;  Edward  Everett,  of  Massachusetts, 
Union,  39. 

On  the  popular  vote,  Lincoln  received  866,352  ;  Douglas,  1,375,157  ;  Breck 
inridge,  845,763 ;  Bell,  589,581.  Lincoln  had  the  electoral  votes  of  all  the 
Northern  States,  except  a  part  of  New  Jersey ;  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Ten 
nessee  supported  Bell,  while  most  of  the  Southern  States  voted  for  Breckin- 


FORMATION  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  CONFEDERACY.  283 

ridge.  The  Democratic  party,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  break  in  1840 
and  1848,  had  controlled  the  country  for  sixty  years,  was  now  driven  from  the 
field. 

SECESSION    AND    FORMATION    OF    THE    SOUTHERN    CONFEDERACY. 

The  hope  was  general  that  the  South  would  not  carry  out  her  threat  of 
seceding  from  the  Union,  and,  but  for  South  Carolina,  she  would  not  have  done 
so  ;  but  that  pugnacious  State  soon  gave  proof  of  her  terrible  earnestness.  Her 
Convention  assembled  in  Charleston,  and  passed  an  ordinance  of  secession,  De 
cember  20,  1860,  declaring  "  That  the  Union  heretofore  existing  between  this 
State  and  the  other  States  of  North  America  is  dissolved/'  The  other  Southern 
States,  although  reluctant  to  give  up  the  Union,  felt  it  their  duty  to  stand  by 
the  pioneer  in  the  movement  against  it,  and  passed  ordinances  of  secession,  as 
follows  :  Mississippi,  January  9,  1861 ;  Florida,  January  10th  ;  Alabama,  Jan 
uary  llth ;  Georgia,  January  19th ;  Louisiana,  January  26th ;  and  Texas, 
February  23d. 

In  the  hope  of  averting  civil  war  numerous  peace  meetings  were  held  in 
the  North,  and  Virginia  called  for  a  "peace  conference,"  which  assembled  in 
Washington,  February  4th.  The  States  represented  included  most  of  those  in 
the  North,  and  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee, 
Kentucky,  and  Missouri.  Ex-President  Tyler,  of  Virginia,  was  made  president 
of  the  conference.  The  proposed  terms  of  settlement  were  rejected  by  the  Virginia 
and  North  Carolina  delegates  and  refused  by  Congress,  which,  since  the  with 
drawal  of  the  Southern  members,  was  controlled  by  the  Republicans. 

The  next  step  of  the  Southern  conventions  was  to  send  delegates  to  Mont 
gomery,  Alabama,  where  they  formed  "  The  Confederate  States  of  America," 
with  Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi,  President,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  of 
Georgia,  Vice-President.  A  constitution  and  flag,  both  resembling  those  of  the 
United  States,  were  adopted  and  all  departments  of  the  government  organized. 

As  the  various  States  adopted  ordinances  of  secession  they  seized  the  gov 
ernment  property  within  their  limits.  In  most  cases,  the  Southern  United 
States  officers  resigned  and  accepted  commissions  in  the  service  of  the  Confeder 
acy.  The  only  forts  saved  were  those  near  Key  West,  Fort  Pickens  at  Perisa- 
cola,  and  Fort  Sumter  in  Charleston  harbor.  The  South  Carolina  authorities 
began  preparations  to  attack  Sumter,  and  when  the  steamer  Star  of  the  West 
attempted  to  deliver  supplies  to  the  fort,  it  was  fired  upon,  January  9th,  and 
driven  off.  Thus  matters  stood  at  the  close  of  Buchanan's  administration, 
March  4,  1861. 


THE     BLUE     AND     THE     GRAY 


CHAPTER   XV. 


ADMINISTRATION     OK     LINCOLN,    1861-1865. 
\VAR    KOR    THE    UNION,    1861. 


Abraham  Lincoln  —  Major  Anderson's  Trying  Position  —  Jefferson  Davis  —  Inauguration  of  President 
Lincoln  —  Bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter  —  War  Preparations  North  and  South  —  Attack  on  Uniou 
Troops  in  Baltimore  —  Situation  of  the  Border  States  —  Unfriendliness  of  England  and  France  —  Friend 
ship  of  Russia  —  The  States  that  Composed  the  Southern  Confederacy  —  Union  Disaster  at  Big  Bethel 
•  —  Success  of  the  Union  Campaign  in  Western  Virginia  —  General  George  B.  McCiollan  —  First  Battle 
of  Bull  Run  —  General  McClelhin  Called  to  the  Command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  —  Union  Dis 
aster  at  Ball's  Bluff—  Military  Operations  in  Missouri—  Battle  of  Wilson's  Creek—  DC-  feat  of  Colonel 
Mulligan  at  Lexington,  Mo.  —  Supersedure  of  Fremont  —  Operations  on  the  Coast  —  The  Trent  Affair 
—  Summary  of  the  Year's  Operations. 


the  greatest  that 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN,  sixteenth  President,  ranks  amon 
has  ever  presided  over  the  desti 
nies  of  our  country.  He  was  born 
in  Hardin  (now  Lame)  County, 
Kentucky,  February  12,  1809,  but 
when  seven  years  old  his  parents 
removed  to  Indiana,  making  their 
home  near  the  present  town  of  Gen- 
tryville. 

His  early  life  was  one  of  extreme 
poverty,  and  his  whole  schooling 
did  not  amount  to  more  than  a 
year;  but,  possessing  a  studious 
mind,  he  improved  every  spare 
hour  in  the  study  of  instructive 
books.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  the 
tall,  awkward,  but  powerful  boy 
was  earning  a  living  by  managing 
a  ferry  across  the  Ohio.  He  re 
mained  for  some  time  after  reaching 
manhood  with  his  parents,  who  re 
moved  to  Illinois  in  1830,  and  built 
a  log-cabin  on  the  north  fork  of  the 
Sangamon.  He  was  able  to  give  valuable  help  in  clearing  the  ground  and 


ABRAHAM   LINCOLN. 

(1809-18<>s.)    Two  terms  (died  in  office;,  1&61-1865. 


(285) 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 


f  - 


286 

in  splitting  rails.  With  the  aid  of  a  few  friends  he  constructed  a  flat-boat, 
with  which  he  took  produce  to  New  Orleans.  Selling  both  goods  and  boat, 
he  returned  to  his  home  and  still  assisted  his  father  on  the  farm.  In  the  Black 
Hawk  War  he  was  elected  captain  of  a  company,  but  did  not  see  active 

service. 

By  this  time  his  ability  had  attracted  the  notice  of  friends,  and  at  the  age 
of  twenty-five  he  was  elected  to  the  Illinois  Legislature,  in  which  he  served  for 

four  terms.  Meanwhile  he 
had  studied  law  as  oppor 
tunity  presented,  and  was 
sent  to  Congress  in  1846. 
He  opposed  the  war  with 
Mexico,  but,  among  such 
giants  as  Webster,  Clay, 
Calhoun,  Benton,  and 
others,  he  could  not  make 
any  distinctive  mark;  but 
his  powerful  common  sense, 
his  clear  logic,  his  unassail 
able  integrity,  his  states 
manship  and  grasp  of  pub 
lic  questions,  and  hia 
quaint  humor,  often  ap 
proaching  the  keenest  wit, 
carried  him  rapidly  to  the 
front  and  made  him  the 
leader  of  the  newly  formed 
Republican  party.  I  n 
1858  lie  stumped  Illinois 
for  United  States  senator 
against  Stephen  A.  Doug 
las,  his  valued  friend.  His 
speeches  attracted  national 
attention  as  m;ist»Tpi»'<vs  of  eloquence,  wit,  and  forceful  presentation  of  the 
great  issues  which  were  then  agitating  the  country.  He  was  defeated  by  Doug 
las,  but  the  remarkable  manner  in  which  he  acquitted  himself  made  him  the 
successful  candidate  of  the  Republican  party  in  the  autumn  of  1860. 

Lincoln  was  tall  and  ungainly,  his  height  being  six  feet  four  inches.  His 
countenance  was  rugged  and  homely,  his  strength  as  great  as  that  of  Washington, 
while  his  wit  has  become  proverbial.  His  integrity,  which  his  bitterest  opponent 


FROM   LOO-CABIN   TO   THE   WHITE  HOUSE. 


MAJOR  ANDERSON  AND  FORT  SUMTER. 


287 


never  questioned,  won  for  him  the  name  of  "  Honest  Abe."  He  was  one  of  the 
most  kind-hearted  of  men,  and  his  rule  of  life  was  "  malice  toward  none  and 
charity  for  all.  He  grew  with  the  demands  of  the  tremendous  responsibilities 
placed  upon  him,  and  the  reputation  he  won  as  patriot,  statesman,  and  leader 
lias  been  surpassed  by  no  previous  President  and  becomes  greater  with  the  passing 
years. 

MAJOR  ANDERSON  AND  FORT  SUMTER. 

All  eyes  were  turned  toward  Fort  Sumter  in  Charleston  harbor.  It  was 
the  strongest  of  the  defenses.  Major  Robert  Anderson,  learning  that  the  Con 
federates  intended  to  take  possession 
of  it,  secretly  removed  his  garrison 
from  Fort  Moultrie  on  the  night  of 
December  26,  1860.  Anderson  was 
in  a  trying  position,  for  the  secretary 
of  war,  Floyd,  and  the  adjutant- 
general  of  the  army,  Cooper,  to 
whom  he  was  obliged  to  report,  were 
secessionists,  and  not  only  refused  to 
give  him  help,  but  threw  every  ob 
stacle  in  his  way.  President  Bu 
chanan  was  surrounded  by  secession 
ists,  and  most  of  the  time  was  be 
wildered  as  to  his  course  of  duty. 
He  resented,  however,  the  demand 
of  Secretary  Floyd  for  the  removal 
of  Anderson  because  of  the  change 
he  had  made  from  Moultrie  to  Sum 
ter.  Floyd  resigned  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  Joseph  Holt,  of  Kentucky, 
an  uncompromising  Unionist,  who 
did  all  he  could  to  hold  up  the  Presi 
dent  in  his  tottering  position  of  a  friend  of  the  Union.  The  latter  grew 
stronger  as  he  noted  the  awakening  sentiment  of  loyalty  throughout  the  North. 
An  admirable  act  was  the  appointment  of  Edwin  M.  Stanton  as  attorney-general, 
for  he  was  a  man  of  great  ability  and  a  relentless  enemy  of  secession. 

JEFFERSON    DAVIS. 

Jefferson  Davis,  who  had  been  chosen  President  of  the  Southern  Confederacy 
that  was  formed  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  early  in  February,  was  born  in  Ken 
tucky,  June  3,  1808.  Thus  he  and  President  Lincoln  were  natives  of  the  same 


JEFFERSON  DAVIS. 


288  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

State,  with  less  than  a  year's  difference  in  their  ages.  Davis  was  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1828,  and  served  on  the  northwest  frontier,  in  the  Black  Hawk 
War.  He  was  also  a  lieutenant  of  cavalry  in  the  operations  against  the  Co 
ma  nches  and  Apaches.  He  resigned  from  the  army  and  became  a  cotton-planter 
in  Mississippi,  which  State  he  represented  in  Congress  in  1845-46,  but  resigned 
to  assume  the  colonelcy  of  the  First  Mississippi  regiment. 

Colonel  Davis  displayed  great  gallantry  at  the  storming  of  Monterey  and 
at  the  battle  at  Buena  Vista,  and  on  his  return  home  was  immediately  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate,  in  which  he  served  1847-51  and  1857-61.  From  1853 
to  1857  he  was  secretary  of  war  under  Pierce.  He  was  one  of  the  Southern 
leaders,  and  had  already  been  mentioned  as  a  candidate  for  the  presidency. 
He  resigned  his  seat  in  the  United  States  Senate  in  January,  1861,  upon  the 
secession  of  his  State,  and,  being  elected  Provisional  President  of  the  Southern 
Confederacy  February  9th,  was  inaugurated  February  18th.  In  the  following 
year  he  and  Stephens  were  regularly  elected  President  and  Vice-President 
respectively,  and  were  inaugurated  on  the  18th  of  the  month. 

INAUGURATION    OF    PRESIDENT    LINCOLN. 

President-elect  Lincoln  left  his  home  in  Springfield,  Illinois,  on  the  llth 
of  February  for  Washington.  He  stopped  at  various  points  on  the  route,  and 
addressed  multitudes  that  had  gathered  to  see  and  hear  him.  A  plot  was 
formed  to  assassinate  him  in  Baltimore,  but  it  was  defeated  by  the  vigilance  of 
the  officers  attending  Lincoln,  who  took  him  through  the  city  on  an  earlier  train 
than  was  expected.  General  Scott  had  the  capital  so  well  protected  by  troops 
that  no  disturbance  took  place  during  the  inauguration. 

BOMBARDMENT    OF    FORT    SUMTER. 

The  Confederate  government  sent  General  Beauregard  to  assume  charge  of 
the  defenses  in  Charleston  harbor.  Finding  the  fort  was  being  furnished  with 
supplies,  he  telegraphed  to  his  government  for  instructions.  He  was  ordered  to 
enforce  the  evacuation.  Beauregard  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  fort,  and, 
being  refused  by  Major  Anderson,  he  opened  fire,  early  on  the  morning  of  April 
12th,  from  nineteen  batteries.  Major  Anderson  had  a  garrison  of  79  soldiers 
and  30  laborers  who  helped  serve  the  guns.  He  allowed  the  men  to  eat  break 
fast  before  replying.  In  a  few  hours  the  supply  of  cartridges  gave  out,  and 
blankets  and  other  material  were  used  as  substitutes.  The  garrison  were  kept 
within  the  bomb-proof  galleries,  and  did  not  serve  the  guns  on  the  open  para 
pets,  two  of  which  had  been  dismounted  by  the  fire  from  the  Confederate 
batteries,  which  after  a  time  set  fire  to  the  officers'  barracks.  The  flames  were 
extinguished,  but  broke  out  several  times.  The  smoke  became  so  smothering 


UNION  TROOPS  ATTACKED  IN  BALTIMORE. 


289 


that  the  men  could  breathe  only  by  lying  flat  on  their  faces.  Finally  the  posi 
tion  became  so  untenable  that  Anderson  ran  up  the  white  flag  in  token  of 
surrender.  No  one  was  killed  on  either  side. 

The  news  of  the  surrender  created  wild  excitement  North  and  South  and 
united  both  sections.  While  the  free  States  rallied  to  the  Union,  almost  as  one 
man,  the  Unionists  in  the  South  became  ardent  supporters  of  the  cause  of  dis 
union.  It  was  now  a  solid  North  against  a  solid  South. 

Three  days  after  the  surrender  of  Fort  Sumter,  President  Lincoln  called 


FORT  MOULTRIE,  CHARLESTON,   WITH  FORT   SUMTER  IN   THE  DISTANCE. 

for  75,000  volunteers  to  serve  for  three  months,  and  Congress  was  summoned  to 
meet  on  the  4th  of  July.  Few  people  comprehended  the  stupendous  work  that 
would  be  required  to  crush  the  rebellion.  While  the  South  was  hurrying  its 
sons  into  the  ranks,  300,000  answered  the  call  of  President  Lincoln,  who  on  the 
19th  of  April  issued  another  proclamation  declaring  a  blockade  of  the  Southern 
ports. 

UNION  TROOPS  ATTACKED  IN  BALTIMORE. 

Many  of  the  Confederates  demanded  that  an  advance  should  be  made  upon 

19 


290  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

Wasliington,  and,  had  it  been  done  promptly,  it  could  have  been  captured  without 
difficulty.  Realizing  its  danger,  the  national  government  called  upon  the  States 
for  troops  and  several  regiments  were  hurried  thither.  While  the  Seventh 
Pennsylvania  and  Sixth  Massachusetts  were  passing  through  Baltimore,  they 
were  savagely  assailed  by  a  mob.  A  portion  of  the  Sixth  Massachusetts  were 
hemmed  in,  and  stoned  and  pelted  with  pistol-shots.  They  remained  cool 
until  three  of  their  number  had  been  killed  and  eight  wounded,  when  they  let 
fly  with  a  volley  which  stretched  nearly  a  dozen  rioters  on  the  ground,  besides 
wounding  many  others.  This  drove  the  mob  back,  although  they  kept  up  a 
fusillade  until  the  train  drew  out  of  the  city  with  the  troops  aboard. 

ACTIVITY    OF    THE    CONFEDERATES. 

The  Confederates  in  Virginia  continued  active.  They  captured  Harper's 
Ferry  and  the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard,  both  of  which  proved  very  valuable  to  them. 
Their  government  issued  "  letters  of  marque  "  which  permitted  private  persons 
to  capture  merchant  vessels  belonging  to  the  United  States,  against  which  the 
Confederate  Congress  declared  war. 

The  border  States  were  in  perhaps  the  most  trying  situation  of  all,  for, 
while  they  wished  to  keep  out  of  the  war,  they  were  forced  to  act  the  part  of 
buffer  between  the  hostile  States.  The  secessionists  in  Maryland,  Kentucky, 
and  Missouri  made  determined  efforts  to  bring  about  the  secession  of  those 
States,  but  the  Union  men  were  too  strong.  The  armies  on  both  sides  received 
many  recruits  from  the  States  named,  which  in  some  cases  suffered  from  guer 
rilla  fighting  between  former  friends  and  neighbors. 

Kentucky,  whose  governor  was  a  secessionist,  thought  she  could  hold  a 
neutral  position,  but  the  majority  of  the  citizens  were  Union  in  their  sentiments. 
Besides,  the  situation  of  the  State  was  such  that  it  was  soon  invaded  by  armed 
forces  from  both  sides,  and  some  of  the  severest  battles  of  the  war  were  fought 
on  its  soil. 

THE    WAR    AS    VIEWED    IN    EUROPE. 

The  prospect  of  the  splitting  apart  of  the  United  States  was  pleasing  to  all 
the  European  powers,  with  the  single  exception  of  Russia.  France  was 
especially  urgent  in  favoring  an  armed  intervention  in  favor  of  the  Confederacy, 
but  England  would  not  agree,  nor  would  she  recognize  the  Confederate  States 
as  an  independent  nation,  for,  had  she  done  so,  the  United  States  would  immedi 
ately  have  declared  war  against  her.  In  May,  however,  England  declared  the 
Confederacy  a  belligerent  power,  thereby  entitling  it  to  make  war  and  man  war 
vessels,  which  could  take  refuge  in  foreign  ports.  While  this  recognition  was 
of  unquestionable  help,  it  would  not  have  amounted  to  a  great  deal  had  not 
England  permitted  the  building  of  swift  and  powerful  cruisers,  which  were 


THE  MILITARY  SITUATION. 


291 


turned  over  to  the  Confederates,  and  did  immense  damage  to  Northern  com 
merce. 

When  June  arrived,  the  Southern  Confederacy  was  composed  of  eleven 
States :  South  Carolina,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Tennessee,  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  and  Texas.  As  soon  as  Virginia 
seceded  (May  23d),  the  capital  was  removed  from  Montgomery  to  Richmond. 
It  was  clear  that  Virginia  would  be  the  principal  battle-ground  of  the  war, 
and  the  Confederate  volunteers  throughout  the  South  hurried  into  the 
State. 

An  intelligent  knowledge  of  the  direction  from  which  danger  was  likely  to 
come  was  shown  by  the  placing  of  troops  in  western  Virginia  to  meet  Confederate 
attacks,  while  soldiers  were  moved  into  southern  Kentucky  to  defend  Ten 
nessee.      In   Virginia  they  held 
the  line  from  Harper's  Ferry  to 
Norfolk,  and  batteries  were  built 
along  the  Mississippi  to  stop  all 
navigation  of  that  stream.     The 
erection   of  forts  along  the   At 
lantic  and   Gulf  coasts  for  pro 
tection    against   the    blockading 
fleets  soon  walled  in  the  Confed 
eracy  on  every  hand. 


THE    MILITARY    SITUATION. 

General  Scott  for  a  time 
held  the  general  command  of  all 
the  United  States  forces.  But  he 
was  old  and  growing  weak  in 
body  and  mind,  and  it  was  evi 
dent  must  soon  give  way  to  a 
younger  man.  The  national  forces  held  the  eastern  side  of  the  Potomac,  from 
Harper's  Ferry  to  Fort  Monroe,  and  a  small  section  of  the  western  side  oppo 
site  Washington.  While  enlisting  and  drilling  troops,  they  strove  to  hold  also 
Kentucky  and  Missouri,  succeeding  so  well  that  their  grip  was  never  lost 
throughout  the  war. 

With  the  opposing  forces  face  to  face,  continual  skirmishing  was  kept  up. 
This  had  no  effect  on  the  war  itself,  but  was  expressive  of  the  martial  spirit 
which  animated  both  »ldes.  General  B.  F.  Butler,  who  had  great  executive  but 
slight  military  ability,  was  in  command  at  Fort  Monroe.  While  there  he 
refused  to  surrender  a  number  of  fugitive  slaves  that  had  fled  into  his  lines, 


A   SKIRMISHER. 


292  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

declaring  them  "  contraband  of  war."     The  phrase  was  a  happy  one  and  caught 
the  fancy  of  the  North. 

UNION    DISASTER    AT    BIG    BETHEL. 

Butler  fortified  Newport  News,  which  is  a  point  of  land  at  the  junction  of 
the  James  River  and  Hampton  Roads.  Fifteen  miles  away  was  a  Confederate 
detachment,  on  the  road  to  Yorktown,  where  the  main  body  was  under  the 
command  of  General  J.  B.  Magruder,  a  former  artillery  officer  of  the  United 
States  army.  The  Confederate  position  at  Big  Bethel  was  a  strong  one  and  had 
a  garrison  of  more  than  a  thousand  troops.  A  short  distance  in  front  was 
Little  Bethel,  where  a  small  detachment  was  under  the  command  of  Colonel  D. 
H.  Hill,  also  a  former  member  of  the  United  States  army. 

General  Pierce  advanced  to  the  attack  early  on  the  morning  of  June  9th. 
The  two  columns  mistook  each  other,  and  not  until  10  men  were  killed  was  the 
sad  blunder  discovered.  An  assault  quickly  followed,  but  the  assailants  were 
defeated  with  the  loss  of  14  killed  and  49  wounded.  Among  the  slain  was 
Lieutenant  John  T.  Greble,  a  brilliant  West  Point  officer,  who  ought  to  have 
been  in  command  of  the  brigade,  with  which  he  doubtless  would  have  achieved 
a  success.  The  incompetency  of  the  political  leader  cost  dearly,  but  the  govern 
ment  was  yet  to  learn  that  full-fledged  officers  are  not  to  be  found  among  men 
who  have  made  politics  their  life  profession. 

SUCCESSFUL   UNION    CAMPAIGN    IN   WESTERN    VIRGINIA. 

The  only  place  where  there  were  any  Union  successes  was  in  western  Vir 
ginia.  Colonel  Wallace  with  a  detachment  of  Indiana  Zouaves — a  favorite  form 
of  military  troops  at  the  beginning  of  the  war — made  a  forced  march  at  night 
over  a  mountain  road  from  Cumberland,  in  Maryland,  to  Romney,  where  the 
Confederates  had  a  battery  on  a  bluff  near  the  village,  guarded  by  a  number  of 
field-pieces.  By  a  spirited  dash,  the  Union  troops  captured  the  position  and 
drove  the  defenders  into  the  woods.  Unable  to  overtake  them,  Colonel  Wallace 
returned  to  Cumberland. 

This  incident  had  important  results.  General  Jo  Johnston,  one  of  the 
best  commanders  of  the  war,  was  at  Harper's  Ferry,  and,  fearing  for  his  com 
munications,  he  evacuated  the  post  and  marched  up  the  Shenandoah  Valley  to 
a  point  near  Winchester. 

GENERAL    M'CLELLAN. 

The  operations  in  western  Virginia  brought  into  prominence  an  officer 
who  was  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  war.  He  was  George  B. 
McClellan,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1826,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846. 
He  rendered  fine  service  in  the  Mexican  War,  after  which,  resigning  from  the 
army,  he  was  for  several  years  engineer  for  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  and 


GENERAL   MoCLELLAN. 


293 


afterward  a  railroad  president.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  at  the  open 
ing  of  the  Civil  War,  and,  with  15,000  troops,  mostly  from  the  Western  States, 
he  advanced  against  the  Confederates  in  western  Virginia  under  the  command 
of  General  Garnett,  also  a  graduate  and  formerly  an  instructor  at  West  Point. 
Garnett  held  a  position  west  of  the  principal  line  of  the  Alleghanies,  which 
covered  the  road  leading  from  Philippi  to  Beverly.  Colonel  Pegram  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  hill  Rich  Mountain,  a  short  distance  south  of  Garnett. 

McClellan  advanced  against  these  two  positions.  Colonel  Rosecrans,  with  four 
regiments  and  in  the  face  of  a  blind- 

o 

ing  rain-storm,  followed  a  circuitous 
path  through  the  woods,  and  charged 
up  the  elevation  against  a  strong 
fire.  The  Confederates  were  driven 
from  their  position  and  down  the 
other  side  of  the  hill.  Colonel  Peg 
ram,  finding  his  position  turned,  re 
treated  in  the  direction  of  Beverly. 
Rosecrans  pursued  and  Garnett 
turned  to  the  north,  aiming  for  St. 
George  on  the  Cheat  River.  Pegram 
had  surrendered  with  600  men,  the 
remainder  joining  Garnett,  who  was 
hard  pressed  by  General  Morris. 
Despite  the  obstructions  thrown  in 
his  path,  he  overtook  the  fugitives 
on  the  13th  of  July  at  Carrick's 
Ford  on  the  Cheat  River.  There 
the  Confederates  were  routed  and 
Garnett  shot  dead  at  the  head  of 
his  troops.  The  remnant  of  his 
force  fled  in  disorder,  and  succeeded  in  reaching  Monterey  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  mountains. 

The  campaign  in  western  Virginia  was  a  brilliant  Union  success.  A  thou 
sand  prisoners,  seven  guns,  1,500  stands  of  arms,  and  twelve  colors  were  captured, 
with  slight  loss  to  the  victors.  All  the  credit  of  this  success  was  given  to  Mc 
Clellan,  and,  since  the  North  was  yearning  for  some  leader  with  the  halo  of  suc 
cess  attached  to  his  name,  they  at  once  proclaimed  "  Little  Mac  "  as  their  idol, 
destined  to  crush  secession  and  re-establish  the  Union  in  all  its  strength  and 
former  glory. 

In   September   General  Robert   E.  Lee  was  sent  into  western  Virginia  to 


GENERAL  GEORGE  B.  McCLELLAN. 

(1 826-1 8te6). 


294  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

regain  the  ground  lost,  but  he  failed  and  was  driven  out  of  the  section  by  Rose- 
crans,  the  successor  of  McClellan.  Before  this  took  place,  however,  the  opening 
battle  of  the  war  had  been  fought  elsewhere. 

"  ON    TO    RICHMOND  !  " 

The  removal  of  the  Confederate  government  from  Montgomery  to  Richmond 
was  unbearably  exasperating  to  the  North.  It  may  be  said  that  the  secession  flag 
was  flaunted  in  sight  of  Washington.  The  New  York  Tribune,  the  most  influ 
ential  journal  of  the  North,  raised  the  cry  "On  to  Richmond!"  and  the  pressure 
became  so  clamorous  and  persistent  that  the  government,  although  conscious  of 
the  risk  of  the  step,  ordered  an  advance  against  the  Confederate  capital.  Con 
gress,  which  had  met  July  4th,  appropriated  $500,000,000  for  carrying  on  the 
war,  and  authorized  President  Lincoln  to  call  out  500,000  volunteers  for  crushing 

the  rebellion. 

The  Union  army  across  the  Potomac  from  Washington  numbered  about 
40,000  men  and  was  under  the  command  of  General  Irvin  McDowell.  It  was 
only  partly  disciplined,  had  a  few  good  and  many  incompetent  officers,  was  com 
posed  of  fine  material,  but  of  necessity  lacked  the  steadiness  which  can  only  be 
acquired  by  actual  campaigns  and  fighting. 

General  Beau  regard,  with  a  Confederate  army  not  quite  so  numerous,  held 
a  strong  military  position  near  Manassas  Junction,  some  thirty  miles  from  Wash 
ington,  and  connected  with  Richmond  by  rail.  General  Jo  Johnston  had  a 
smaller  Confederate  army  at  Winchester,  it  being  his  duty  to  hold  General 
Patterson  in  check  and  prevent  his  reinforcing  McDowell.  At  the  same  time 
Patterson,  to  prevent  Johnston  from  joining  Beauregard,  planned  an  offensive 
movement  against  the  Confederate  commander  at  Winchester. 

THE    FIRST    BATTLE   OF    BULL    RUN. 

McDowell's  plan  was  to  advance  to  Fairfax  Court-House,  and  then,  turning 
south,  cut  Beauregard's  communications.  The  first  movement  was  made  on  the 
afternoon  of  July  16th.  General  Mansfield  with  16,000  men  remained  in 
Washington  to  protect  the  capital  from  surprise.  The  advance  was  slow,  occupy 
ing  several  days.  McDowell  discovered  six  Confederate  brigades  posted  along  the 
creek  known  as  Bull  Run,  and  he  decided  to  begin  his  attack  upon  them.  While 
General  Tyler  was  sent  across  the  stone  bridge  to  threaten  the  Confederate  front, 
Hunter  and  Heintzelman  were  directed  to  make  a  detour  and  attack  the  enemy's 
front  and  rear.  Johnston,  who  had  hurried  up  from  Winchester,  had  decided  to 
hasten  the  battle  through  fear  of  the  arrival  of  Patterson  with  reinforcements 
for  McDowell,  but  the  latter,  moving  first,  Johnston  was  compelled  to  act  on  the 
defensive. 


THE  FIRST  BATTLE   OF  BULL  RUN. 


295 


Tyler  and  Hunter  were  tardy  in  their  movements,  but  by  noon  McDowell 
had  turned  the  Confederate  left  and  uncovered  the  stone  bridge.  Instead  of 
using  the  advantage  thus  secured  and  assuming  position  at  Manassas  depot,  he 
kept  up  his  pursuit  of  the  fleeing  Confederates  to  the  woods.  There,  when 
everything  seemed  to  be  going  the  way  of  the  Union  army,  it  was  checked  by 
General  T.  J.  Jackson's  brigade,  whose  firm  stand  in  the  face  of  seeming  dis 
aster  won  for  him  the  soubriquet  of  " Stonewall"  Jackson,  first  uttered  in  com 
pliment  by  Gen- 
e  r  a  1  Bee,  by 
which  name  the 
remarkable  man 
will  always  be 
remembered. 

The  stand  of 
Jackson  enabled 
Johnston  to  rally 
the  right  and 
Beau  regard  the 
left,  but  matters 
were  in  a  critical 
shape,  when  Kir- 
by  Smith,  who 
had  escaped  Pat 
terson  in  the  val 
ley,  rushed  across 
the  fields  from 
Manassas  w  i  t  h 
15,000  fresh 
troops.  This! 
timely  arrival 
turned  the  for 
tunes  of  the  day. 
McDowell  was 

driven  from  the  plateau  he  had  occupied,  and  the  whole  Union  army  was  thrown 
into  a  panic  and  rushed  in  headlong  flight  for  the  defenses  of  Washington. 
Nothing  could  stay  their  flight,  and  the  city  was  overrun  with  the  terrified  fugi 
tives,  who  swarmed  into  the  railroad  trains,  fled  to  the  open  fields  beyond, 
spreading  the  most  frightful  rumors,  while  many  did  not  believe  themselves  safe 
until  at  home  in  the  North. 

Had  the  Confederates  followed  up  the  pursuit,  they  could  have  easily  cap- 


STATUE  OF  McCLELLAN  IN  CITY  HALL   SQUARE,  PHILADEL 
PHIA. 


296  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

turetl  Washington.  They  failed  to  do  so,  because  they  did  not  know  how  beaten 
and  disorganized  the  Union  forces  were.  The  Union  losses  in  this  first  great 
battle  of  the  war  were:  Killed,  470;  wounded,  1,071;  captured  and  missing. 
l,7l)o ;  total,  o,oo4.  The  Confederate  losses  were :  Killed,  387 ;  wounded, 
1,582 ;  captured  and  missing,  13 ;  total,  1,1*82. 

GENERAL    Al'CLELLAN    APPOINTED     TO    THE     COMMAND    OF    THE    ARMY     OF     THE 

POTOMAC. 

Bull  Run  was  a  bitter  humiliation  for  the  North,  but  it  served  a  good  pur 
pose.  The  national  government  understood  for  the  first  time  the  formidable 
nature  of  the  task  before  it.  Its  determination  to  subdue  the  rebellion  was 
intensified  rather  than  lessened,  but  it  now  went  about  it  in  the  right  way. 
Incompetent  officers  were  weeded  out,  careful  and  vigorous  measures  set  on  foot, 
and,  what  was  the  most  popular  movement  of  all,  General  McClellan  was  called 
to  the  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  took  charge  August  20th, 
and  set  about  organizing  and  disciplining  the  magnificent  body  of  men.  No 
one  could  surpass  him  at  such  work,  and  he  had  the  opportunity  of  establishing 
himself  as  the  idol  of  the  nation.  That  he  failed  to  do  so  was  due  to  an  inherent 
ilrfrct  of  his  nature.  He  shrank  from  taking  chances,  lacked  nerve  and  dash, 
distrusted  himself,  and  was  so  slow  and  excessively  cautious  that  he  wore  out 
the  patience  of  the  government  and  finally  of  the  nation  itself. 

General  Scott's  old  age  and  increasing  infirmities  compelled  him  in  Novem 
ber  to  give  up  the  command  of  the  Union  armies,  and  all  hopes  centred  upon 
McClellan.  He  kept  drilling  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  by  the  close  of 
the  year  had  150,000  well-trained  soldiers  under  his  command.  The  impatience 
of  the  North  began  to  manifest  itself,  but  no  general  advance  took  place,  though 
the  Confederate  line  was  gradually  pushed  back  from  its  threatening  position 
in  front  of  Washington  to  its  first  position  at  Bull  Run.  The  Confederacy  was 
also  busy  in  recruiting  and  drilling  its  forces.  Knowing  that  Richmond  was 
the  objective  point  of  the  Union  advance,  the  city  was  surrounded  with  formid 
able  fortifications. 

DISASTER   AT   BALL'S   BLUFF. 

On  the  10th  of  October  General  McCall  was  ordered  to  occupy  Draines- 
ville,  eighteen  miles  northwest  of  Washington.  At  the  same  time,  General 
Stone  was  directed  to  keep  watch  of  Leesburg,  from  which  the  patrols  afterward 
reported  a  weak  Confederate  force.  An  advance  was  ordered,  whereupon  Col 
onel  Evans,  who  had  given  the  Confederates  great  help  at  Bull  Run,  concen 
trated  his  forces  on  the  road  leading  from  Leesburg  to  Washington,  and,  on  the 
morning  of  the  21st,  had  assumed  a  strong  position  and  was  ready  to  be 
attacked. 


DISASTER  AT  BALL'S  BLUFF. 


297 


The  Union  troops  were  ferried  across  the  river  in  three  scows,  two  skiffs, 
and  a  life-boat,  which  combined  would  not  carry  one-fourth  of  the  men.  When 
all  were  over  they  advanced  to  Leesburg,  where  no  Confederate  camp  was  found, 


. 


FORTIFYING  RICHMOND. 
In  the  foreground  we  see  R.  E.  Lee  and  two  other  Confederate  officers  directing  the  work. 

but  the  enemy  in  the  woods  attacked  them.  Colonel  E.  D.  Baker,  a  civilian 
officer  from  California,  hurried  across  the  river  with  1,900  men  and  took  com 
mand.  The  enemy  was  reinforced  and  drove  the  Unionists  back.  Colonel 


298  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

Baker  was  killed  and  the  Federals  fled  in  a  panic  to  the  Potomac,  with  the  Con 
federates  upon  them.  The  fugitives  swarmed  into  the  boats  and  sank  three  of 
them  ;  others  leaped  over  the  bank  and  swam  and  dived  for  their  lives,  the 
enemy  shooting  and  bayoneting  all  who  did  not  surrender.  When  the  horrible 
affair  was  over,  the  Union  loss  was  fully  a  thousand  men.  This  occurrence  was 
in  some  respects  more  disgraceful  than  Bull  Hun. 

MILITARY    OPERATIONS    IN    MISSOURI. 

Claiborne  F.  Jackson,  governor  of  Missouri,  was  a  strong  secessionist,  and 
did  all  he  could  to  take  the  State  out  of  the  Union,  but  the  sentiment  against 
him  was  too  strong.  St.  Louis  was  also  secession  in  feeling,  but  Captain 
Nathaniel  Lyon  kept  the  disloyalists  in  subjection  so  effectively  that  he  was 
rewarded  by  being  made  a  brigadier-general.  Governor  Jackson  by  proclama 
tion  called  out  50,000  of  the  State  militia  to  repel  the* "invasion"  of  the  State 
by  United  States  troops.  Sterling  Price,  a  major-general  of  the  State  forces, 
was  dispatched  to  Booneville  and  Lexington,  on  the  Missouri  River. 

Colonel  Franz  Sigel,  with  1,100  Union  troops,  had  an  engagement  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  State  and  was  compelled  to  retreat,  but  he  managed 
his  withdrawal  so  skillfully  that  he  killed  and  wounded  a  large  number  of  his 
pursuers.  General  Lyon  joined  Sigel  near  Springfield,  and  the  Confederates, 
under  General  Ben  McCulloch,  retreated  to  Cowskin  Prairie,  on  the  border  of 
the  Indian  Territory. 

BATTLE    OF    WILSON'S    CREEK. 

Both  sides  were  reinforced,  the  Unionists  being  under  the  command  of 
General  John  C.  Fremont,  who  had  been  assigned  to  the  department  of  the 
West,  which  included  Kentucky,  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Kansas.  The  two 
armies  met  early  in  August  near  Wilson's  Creek.  The  Confederates  were  the 
most  numerous,  but  were  poorly  armed  and  disciplined.  The  battle  was  badly 
mismanaged  by  both  sides,  and  General  Lyon,  while  leading  a  charge,  was  shot 
dead.  His  men  were  defeated  and  retreated  in  the  direction  of  Springfield. 

Missouri  was  now  overrun  with  guerrillas  and  harried  by  both  sides. 
Colonel  Mulligan  made  a  desperate  stand  at  Lexington  in  September,  but  an 
overwhelming  force  under  General  Price  compelled  him  to  surrender.  Price 
moved  southward  and  Lexington  was  retaken  by  the  Unionists,  who  also  occupied 
Springfield.  The  Legislature  sitting  at  Neocho  passed  an  ordinance  of  secession, 
but  most  of  the  State  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Federals  until  they 
finally  gained  entire  possession. 

General  Fremont's  course  was  unwise  and  made  him  unpopular.  He  issued 
what  was  in  reality  an  emancipation  proclamation,  which  President  Lincoln  was 
compelled  to  modify.  He  was  fond  of  show  and  ceremony,  and  so  extravagant 


THE  TRENT  AFFAIR.  299 

that  he  was  superseded  in  November  by  General  Hunter,  who  was  soon  sent  to 
Kansas,  and  was  in  turn  succeeded  by  General  Halleck.  The  fighting  in  the 
State  was  fierce  but  of  an  indecisive  character. 

The  expected  neutrality  of  Kentucky  was  speedily  ended  by  the  entrance 
of  a  body  of  Confederates  under  the  command  of  General  Leonidas  Polk,  a 
graduate  of  West  Point  and  a  bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  General  U. 
S.  Grant  was  dispatched  with  a  force  from  Cairo,  as  soon  as  it  became  known 
that  Polk  had  entered  Kentucky.  Grant  destroyed  a  Confederate  camp  at  Bel- 
mont,  but  was  attacked  by  Polk  and  compelled  to  retreat  to  his  gunboats. 

OPERATIONS    ON    THE    COAST. 

A  formidable  coast  expedition,  with  land  and  naval  forces  on  board,  under 
command  of  General  B.  F.  Butler  and  Commodore  Stringham,  in  August,  1861, 
captured  Hatteras  Inlet  and  the  fort  defending  it.  Establishing  themselves  at 
that  point,  they  made  other  attacks  along  the  adjoining  coast  of  North  Carolina. 
A  still  larger  expedition  left  Fort  Monroe  in  November  under  Commodore 
Dupont  and  General  T.  W.  Sherman  and  captured  Port  Royal.  The  fleet  was 
so  powerful,  numbering  nearly  one  hundred  vessels  and  transports,  that  the 
garrisons  were  easily  driven  out  of  the  forts,  after  which  the  land-forces  took 
possession  of  them.  The  islands  between  Charleston  and  Savannah  were  seized, 
and  in  September  a  Union  fleet  took  possession  of  Ship  Island,  not  far  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  with  a  view  of  aiding  an  expedition  against  New 
Orleans. 

THE    TRENT    AFFAIR. 

It  was  all  important  for  the  Confederacy  to  secure  recognition  from  Eng 
land  and  France.  The  Confederate  government  thought  they  could  be  induced 
to  act,  if  the  proper  arguments  were  laid  before  the  respective  governments. 
Accordingly,  James  M.  Mason,  of  Virginia,  and  John  Slidell,  of  Louisiana, 
both  of  whom  had  been  United  States  senators,  were  appointed  commissioners, 
the  former  to  England  and  the  latter  to  France. 

They  succeeded  in  running  the  blockade  to  Havana,  where  they  took  pas 
sage  on  the  British  steamer  Trent  for  England.  Captain  Charles  Wilkes,  of 
the  steamer  San  Jacinto,  knew  of  their  intended  sailing  and  was  on  the  lookout 
for  them.  Before  they  were  fairly  on  their  way,  Captain  Wilkes  stopped  the 
Trent,  and,  despite  the  protests  of  the  captain  and  the  rebel  commissioners,  he 
forcibly  took  them  off  and  carried  them  to  the  United  States. 

In  acting  thus  Captain  Wilkes  did  the  very  thing  that  caused  the  war  with 
England  in  1812.  It  was  our  opposition  to  the  search  of  American  vessels  by 
British  cruisers  that  caused  that  war,  while  England  was  as  persistent  in  her 
claim  to  the  right  to  make  such  search.  The  positions  were  now  reversed,  and 


300  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

England  expressed  indignation,  and  demanded  the  return  of  the  commissioners 
and  a  disavowal  of  the  act  of  Captain  Wilkes.  The  position  of  our  govern 
ment  was  untenable,  and  Secretary  Seward  gracefully  confessed  it,  and  .surren 
dered  the  prisoners,  neither  of  whom  was  able  afterward  to  be  of  the  slightest 
benefit  to  the  Confederacy. 

SUMMARY   OF    THE    YEAR'S    OPERATIONS. 

The  close  of  1861  was  to  the  advantage  of  the  Confederates.  The  two 
real  battles  of  the  war — Bull  Run  and  Wilson's  Creek — had  been  won  by 
them.  In  the  lesser  engagements,  with  the  exception  of  West  Virginia,  they 
had  also  been  successful.  This  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  people  of  the  North 
and  West  had  been  so  long  at  peace  that  they  needed  time  in  which  to  learn 
war.  In  the  South  the  men  were  more  accustomed  to  the  handling  of  firearms 
and  horseback  riding.  Moreover,  they  were  on  the  defensive,  and  fighting,  as 
may  be  said,  on  inner  lines. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  Union  forces  had  saved  Ken 
tucky,  Maryland,  and  Missouri  from  joining  the  Confederacy,  despite  the 
strenuous  efforts  of  their  disunion  governors  and  an  aggressive  minority  in  each 
State.  Washington,  which  more  than  once  had  been  in  danger  of  capture,  was 
made  safe,  and  the  loyal  section  of  Virginia  in  the  West  was  cut  off  and  formed 
into  a  separate  State.  In  wealth  and  resources  the  North  vastly  preponderated. 
An  immense  army  had  been  raised,  money  was  abundant,  commerce  thriving, 
the  sentiment  overwhelmingly  in  favor  of  the  prosecution  of  the  war,  and  the 
manufactories  hummed  with  work  made  necessary  by  the  building  of  hundreds 
of  ships  for  the  navy  and  the  furnishing  of  supplies  and  equipments  to  the 
armies. 


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CHAPTER  XVI. 

ADMINISTRATION     OK    LINCOLN    (CONT1NUKD), 

1861-1865. 

WAR   KOR   THK   UNION   (CONTINUED),  1862. 

Capture  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson — Change  in  the  Confederate  Line  of  Defense — Capture  of  Island 
No.  10 — Battle  of  Pittsburg  Landing  or  Shiloh — Capture  of  Corinth — Narrow  Escape  of  Louisville 
— Battle  of  Perry  ville — Battle  of  Murfreesboro'  or  Stone  River — Battle  of  Pea  Ridge — Naval  Battle 
Between  the  Monitor  and  Merrimac — Fate  of  the  Two  Vessels — Capture  of  New  Orleans — The  Advance 
Against  Richmond — McClellan's  Peninsula  Campaign— The  First  Confederate  Invasion  of  the  North 
— Battle  of  Antietam  or  Sharpsburg — Disastrous  Union  Repulse  at  Fredericksburg — Summary  of 
the  Wars  Operations — The  Confederate  Privateers — The  Emancipation  Proclamation — Greenbacks 
and  Bond  Issues. 

CAPTURE    OF    FORTS    HENRY    AND    DONELSON. 

THE  fighting  of  the  second  year  of  the  war  opened  early.  General  Albert 
Sidney  Johnston,  one  of  the  ablest  leaders  of  the  Confederacy,  was  in  chief 
command  in  the  West.  The  Confederate  line  ran  through  southern  Kentucky, 
from  Columbus  to  Mill  Spring,  through  Bowling  Green.  Two  powerful  forts 
had  been  built  in  Tennessee,  near  the  northern  boundary  line.  One  was  Fort 
Henry  on  the  Tennessee  River,  and  the  other  Fort  Donelson,  twelve  miles  away, 
on  the  Cumberland. 

Opposed  to  this  strong  position  were  two  Union  armies,  the  larger,  number 
ing  100,000,  under  General  Don  Carlos  Buell,  in  central  Kentucky,  and  the 
lesser,  numbering  15,000,  commanded  by  General  U.  S.  Grant,  at  Cairo.  Under 
Buell  was  General  George  H.  Thomas,  one  of  the  finest  leaders  in  the  Union 
army.  In  January,  with  a  division  of  BuelPs  army,  he  attacked  the  Confeder 
ates,  routed  and  drove  them  into  Tennessee.  In  the  battle,  General  Zollicoffer, 
the  Confederate  commander,  was  killed. 

Embarking  at  Cairo,  General  Grant  steamed  up  the  Tennessee  River,  in 
tending  to  capture  Fort  Henry.  Before  he  could  do  so,  Commodore  Andrew  H. 
Foote,  with  his  fleet  of  gunboats,  compelled  it  to  surrender,  though  most  of  the 
garrison  escaped  across  the  neck  of  land  to  Fort  Donelson. 

CAPTURE  OF  FORT  DONELSON. 

Upon  learning  that  Fort  Henry  had  fallen,  Grant  steamed  up  the  Cumber 
land  to  attack  Fort  Donelson,  which  was  reinforced  until  the  garrison  numbered 

(301) 


302 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 


some  20,000  men.  It  was  a  powerful  fortification,  with  many  rifle-pits  and 
intrenchments  on  the  land  side,  and  powerful  batteries  commanding  the  river. 
The  political  General  Floyd  was  in  chief  command,  the  right  wing  being  under 
General  Simon  B.  Buckner  and  the  left  in  charge  of  General  Gideon  J.  Pillow. 

On  the  afternoon  of  February  14th,  Commodore  Foote  opened  the  attack 
with  two  wooden  vessels  and  four  iron-clad  gunboats.  The  garrison  made  no 
reply  until  the  boats  had  worked  their  way  to  within  a  fourth  of  a  mile  of  the  fort, 
the  elevation  of  which  enabled  it  to  send  a  plunging  fire,  which  proved  so  de 
structive  that  two  of  the  boats  were  disabled  and  drifted  down  current,  the  other 
following.  Some  fifty  men  were  killed,  and  among  the  wounded  was  Commodore 
Foote.  He  withdrew  to  Cairo,  intending  to  wait  until  a  sufficient  force  could 
be  brought  up  from  that 
point. 

But  General  Grant, 
like  the  bull-dog  to  which 
he  was  often  compared, 
having  inserted  his  teeth 
in  his  adversary,  did  not 


UNITED    STATES   12-INCH    BREECH-LOADING   MORTAR,   OR  HOWITZER 

mean  to  let  go.  Placing  his  troops  in  front  of  the  works,  it  did  not  take  him 
long  to  invest  the  whole  Confederate  left,  with  the  exception  of  a  swampy  strip 
near  the  river.  The  weather,  which  had  been  unusually  mild  for  the  season, 
now  became  extremely  cold,  and  some  of  the  Union  men  were  frozen  to  death 
in  the  trenches.  The  garrison  also  suffered  greatly,  but  the  siege  was  pressed 
with  untiring  vigor.  Seeing  the  inextricable  coils  closing  round  them,  the 
defenders  made  an  attempt  to  cut  their  way  out,  but  Grant  with  true  military 
genius  saw  the  crisis  and  ordered  an  advance  along  the  whole  line,  the  gun 
boats  giving  all  the  help  they  could. 

The  situation  of  the  garrison  was  so  dangerous  that  a,  council  of  war  was 
held  that  night.  Floyd  and  Pillow  were  frightened  nearly  out  of  their  wits. 
They  rated  themselves  so  high  as  prizes  for  the  Federals  that  they  determined 


CAPTURE  OF  ISLAND  NUMBER  10.  303 

to  make  their  escape  before  the  surrender,  which  was  inevitable,  was  forced. 
Buckner  was  another  sort  of  man.  Disgusted  with  the  cowardice  of  his  asso 
ciates,  he  quietly  announced  that  he  would  stay  by  his  men  to  the  last.  Floyd 
stole  out  of  the  fort  with  his  brigade  and  crossed  the  river  in  boats,  while  Pillow 
followed  in  a  scow,  a  large  number  of  the  cavalry  galloping  by  the  lower  road 
to  Nashville. 

Grant  was  ready  for  the  assault  at  daylight  the  next  morning,  when  he 
received  a  note  from  General  Buckner  proposing  an  armistice  until  noon  in 
order  to  arrange  terms  of  capitulation.  Grant's  reply  became  famous :  "  No 
terms  except  immediate  and  unconditional  surrender  can  be  accepted ;  I  pro 
pose  to  move  immediately  upon  your  works.''  Buckner  was  disappointed,  but 
he  had  no  choice  except  to  submit.  He  was  greatly  relieved  to  find  that  his 
conqueror  was  a  chivalrous  man,  who  granted  better  terms  than  he  expected. 
The  privates  were  allowed  to  retain  their  personal  baggage  and  the  officers  their 
side-arms.  The  number  of  prisoners  was  15,000,  and  the  blow  was  the  first 
really  severe  one  that  the  South  had  received.  As  may  be  supposed,  the  news 
caused  great  rejoicing  in  the  North  and  was  the  beginning  of  Grant's  fame  as  a 
military  leader — a  fame  which  steadily  grew  and  expanded  with  the  progress  of 
the  war. 

Jefferson  Davis  saw  the  mistake  he  had  made  in  intrusting  important  inter 
ests  to  political  generals.  He  deprived  Floyd  of  his  command,  and  that  officer 
dropped  back  to  the  level  from  which  he  never  ought  to  have  been  raised. 
Pillow  had  done  some  good  work  in  the  Mexican  War,  but  he  was  erratic  and 
unreliable,  and  he,  too,  was  summarily  snuffed  out.  Buckner,  a  West  Point 
graduate,  upon  being  exchanged  soon  afterward,  was  assigned  to  an  important 
command  and  proved  himself  an  excellent  soldier. 

CHANGE    IN    THE    CONFEDERATE    LINE    OF    DEFENSE. 

The  capture  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson  compelled  a  change  in  the 
Confederate  line  of  defense.  General  Albert  Sidney  Johnston  withdrew  from 
Bowling  Green  to  Nashville,  but  fell  back  again  upon  learning  of  the  fall  of 
Fort  Donelson,  and  assumed  position  near  Murfreesboro',  Tennessee.  All  the 
northern  part  of  that  State,  including  the  Cumberland  River,  was  given  up  by 
the  Confederates,  and,  when  the  new  line  was  established,  the  centre  was  held 
by  Beauregard  at  Jackson,  the  left  by  Polk  at  New  Madrid,  and  the  right  by 
Johnston  at  Murfreesboro'.  Thus  the  Confederates  were  driven  out  of  Ken 
tucky  and  the  northern  part  of  Tennessee.  It  was  a  serious  check  for  the  Con 
federacy. 

CAPTURE   OF   ISLAND   NO.    10. 

General  Grant  gave  the  enemy  no  rest.     In  order  to  retain  possession  of 


304  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

Island  No.  10,  it  was  necessary  for  them  to  hold  the  outpost  of  New  Madrid. 
In  the  latter  part  of  February,  General  Pope  led  an  expedition  against  that 
place,  while  Commodore  Foote  made  a  demonstration  in  front  with  his  gunboats. 
Through  cold  and  storm  the  Unionists  bravely  pushed  their  way,  and  the  gar 
rison  of  New  Madrid  were  compelled  to  take  refuge  on  Island  No.  10,  and  in 
the  works  on  the  Kentucky  side  of  the  river.  Operations  were  then  begun 
against  Island  No.  10.  By  digging  a  canal  twelve  miles  long,  which  permitted 
the  gunboats  to  pass  around  the  defenses,  and  by  energetic  operations  in  all 
directions,  the  Confederate  position  was  rendered  untenable,  and  the  post,  with  a 
large  amount  of  war  material,  was  surrendered  to  Commodore  Foote. 

Meanwhile,  General  Grant,  after  the  occupation  of  Nashville,  went  down 
the  Tennessee  River  to  Pittsburg  Landing,  while  General  Buell,  with  the  other 
portion  of  the  Union  army,  started  for  the  same  point  by  land.  Aware  of  this 
division  of  the  Federal  forces,  General  Albert  Sidney  Johnston  hastily  concen 
trated  his  own  divisions  with  the  intention  of  crushing  the  two  Union  armies 
before  they  could  unite.  When  Johnston  arrived  in  the  vicinity  of  Pittsburg 
Landing  on  the  3d  of  April  he  had  40,000  men,  divided  into  three  corps 
and  a  reserve. 

BATTLE   OF    PJTTSBURG   LANDING. 

Pittsburg  Landing,  or  Shiloh,  as  it  is  called  in  the  South,  consists  of  a 
high  bluff,  a  half-mile  in  extent,  where  General  W.  T.  Sherman  had  been 
ordered  to  take  position  and  prepare  for  the  arrival  of  100,000  men.  Grant  was 
not  prepared  for  the  unexpected  attack.  Buell  was  some  distance  away  with 
40,000  troops,  and  the  Union  commander  had  a  somewhat  less  force  on  his  side 
of  the  Tennessee  River.  Only  a  few  defenses  had  been  thrown  up,  and  the 
men  were  scattered  over  the  ground,  when  at  daylight  on  Sunday  morning, 
April  6th,  the  Confederates  furiously  assailed  the  outlying  divisions  of  the  Union 
army  and  drove  them  back  upon  the  main  body.  They  steadily  gained  ground, 
and  it  looked  as  if  nothing  could  save  the  Union  army  from  overwhelming 
disaster. 

When  the  attack  was  made  Grant  was  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  in 
consultation  with  Buell.  Hurrying  to  the  scene  of  the  furious  conflict,  it  looked 
as  if  his  army  was  on  the  edge  of  inevitable  destruction,  but  he  handled  his 
demoralized  forces  with  such  masterly  skill  that  the  panic  was  checked,  and  on 
the  river  bank,  over  which  they  had  been  well-nigh  driven,  an  effective  stand 
was  made  and  the  Confederates  were  checked,  the  gunboats  giving  invaluable 
assistance  in  saving  the  army  from  defeat.  The  night  closed  with  all  the 
advantage  on  the  side  of  the  Confederates. 

The  darkness,  however,  was  of  immeasurable  value  to  the  Federals. 
BuelFs  army  was  brought  across  the  river  and  other  reinforcements  arrived,  so 


EVACUATION  OF  CORINTH. 


305 


that  in  the  morning  Grant  found  himself  in  command  of  fully  50,000  well- 
equipped  troops.  The  greatest  advantage  gained  by  the  Federals,  however,  came 
during  the  previous  day's  fighting,  when  everything  was  going  the  way  of  their 
enemies.  General  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  while  directing  operations,  was 
struck  by  a  shot  which  shattered  his  knee  and  mortally  wounded  him.  He 
spoke  only  a  few  words  as  he  was  lifted  from  his  horse,  and  the  command 
devolved  upon  Beauregard,  much  his  inferior  in  ability.  He  was  unable  to 
restrain  the  troops  from  plundering  the  captured  Union  camps;  and  when  on 
the  second  day  Grant  launched  his  regiments  against  them,  they  were  driven 


A  RAILROAD   BATTERY. 

pellmell  from  the  field,  and  did  not  stop  their  retreat  until  they  reached  Corinth, 
Mississippi. 

Little  fear  of  the  Union  troops  being  caught  a  second  time  at  such  a  dis 
advantage.  They  were  established  on  the  upper  part  of  the  Tennessee,  prepared 
to  strike  blows  in  any  direction. 

EVACUATION    OF   CORINTH. 

The  withdrawal  of  Beauregard  to  Corinth  made  that  point  valuable  to  the 
Unionists,  because  of  the  large  number  of  railroads  which  centre  there.  It  was 

20 


306  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

strongly  fortified,  and  no  one  expected  its  capture  without  a  severe  battle 
General  Halleck,  who  was  high  in  favor  with  the  government,  assumed  com 
mand  of  the  Union  armies  and  began  an  advance  upon  Corinth.  He  moved 
slowly  and  with  great  caution,  and  did  not  reach  the  front  of  the  place  until 
the  close  of  May.  While  making  preparations  to  attack,  Beauregard  withdrew 
and  retired  still  further  southward.  No  further  Union  advance  was  made  for 
some  tf.c  e.  The  important  result  accomplished  was  in  opening  up  the  Missis 
sippi  from  Cairo  to  Memphis  and  extending  the  Union  line  so  that  it  passed 
along  the  southern  boundary  of  Tennessee. 

Beauregard  resembled  McClellan  in  many  respects.  He  was  excessively 
cautious  and  disposed  to  dig  trenches  and  throw  up  fortifications  rather  than 
fight.  Jefferson  Davis  always  had  a  warm  regard  for  General  Braxton  Bragg, 
whom  he  now  put  in  the  place  of  Beauregard.  By  the  opening  of  September, 
Bragg  had  an  army  of  60,000  men.  Kirby  Smith's  corps  was  at  Knoxville  and 
Hardee  and  Polk  were  with  Bragg  at  Chattanooga. 

They  were  ordered  to  march  through  Kentucky  to  Louisville,  threatening 
Cincinnati  on  the  way.  Kirby  Smith's  approach  threw  that  city  into  a  panic, 
but  he  turned  off  and  joined  Bragg  at  Frankfort. 

A    KACE    FOR   LOUISVILLE. 

By  this  time  the  danger  of  Louisville  was  apparent,  and  Buell,  who  was 
near  Nashville,  hastened  to  the  defense  of  the  more  important  city.  Bragg  ran 
a  race  with  him,  but  the  burning  of  a  bridge,  spanning  the  river  at  Bardstown, 
stopped  him  just  long  enough  to  allow  Buell  to  reach  Louisville  first.  This 
was  accomplished  on  the  25th  of  September,  and  BuelPs  army  was  increased  to 
100,000  men. 

BATTLE   OF    PERRYVILLE. 

Disappointed  in  securing  the  main  prize,  Bragg  marched  to  Frankfort, 
where  he  installed  a  provisional  governor  of  Kentucky  and  issued  a  high-sound 
ing  proclamation,  to  which  few  paid  attention.  Bragg  had  entered  one  of  the 
richest  sections  of  the  State,  and  he  secured  an  enormous  amount  of  supplies 
in  the  shape  of  cattle,  mules,  bacon,  and  cloth.  His  presence  in  the  State 
was  intolerable  to  the  Union  forces,  and  Buell,  finding  a  strong  army  under  his 
command,  set  out  to  attack  him.  Bragg  started  to  retreat  through  the  Cumber 
land  Mountains  on  the  1st  of  October,  with  Buell  in  pursuit,  A  severe  but 
indecisive  battle  was  fought  at  Perryville,  and  the  Confederates  succeeded  in 
carrying  away  their  immense  booty  to  Chattanooga,  while  the  Union  army  took 
position  at  Nashville. 

The  government  was  dissatisfied  with  the  sluggishness  of  Buell  and  re 
placed  him  with  General  William  S.  Rosecrans.  He  posted  a  part  of  his  army 


BATTLE   OF  PEA   RIDGE.  307 

at  Nashville  and  the  remainder  along  the  line  of  the  Cumberland  River. 
Advancing  against  Bragg,  he  faced  him  in  front  of  Murfreesboro',  some  forty 
miles  from  Nashville.  On  the  30th  of  December  brisk  firing  took  place 
between  the  armies,  and  when  they  encamped  for  the  night  their  fires  were  in 
plain  sight  of  each  other. 

BATTLE    OF    MURFREESBORO'    OR    STONE    RIVER. 

The  opposing  forces  were  on  both  sides  of  Stone  River  (this  battle  is  gen 
erally  referred  to  in  the  South  by  that  name),  a  short  distance  to  the  northwest 
of  Mnrfreesboro'.  By  a  curious  coincidence,  each  of  the  respective  commanders 
formed  the  same  plan  of  attack,  it  being  to  mass  his  forces  on  the  left  and 
crush  his  enemy's  right  wing.  A  terrific  engagement  lasted  all  day,  and  night 
closed  without  any  decisive  advantage  to  either  side,  though  the  Confederates 
had  succeeded  in  driving  back  the  Union  right  upon  the  left  and  occupying  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  field  formerly  held  by  the  Federals. 

The  exhaustion  of  the  armies  prevented  anything  more  than  skirmishing 
on  New  Year's  day,  1863,  but  on  the  afternoon  of  January  2d  the  furious 
battle  was  renewed.  Rosecrans  ordered  an  advance  of  the  whole  line,  and  the 
Confederate  right  wing  was  broken  and  the  flank  so  endangered  that  Bragg  was 
compelled  to  withdraw  his  entire  army.  The  only  way  for  him  to  retain  Ten 
nessee  was  to  abandon  Murfreesboro'.  Accordingly,  he  retreated  to  a  point 
beyond  Duck  River,  about  fifty  miles  south  of  Murfreesboro',  which  was  occu 
pied  by  the  Federals,  January  5,  1863. 

Other  important  events  took  place  in  the  West.  General  Sterling  Price 
wintered  in  Springfield,  Missouri,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  and  gained 
a  good  many  recruits  and  a  large  amount  of  needed  supplies.  He  was  attacked 
by  Sigel  and  Curtis  on  the  12th  of  February,  and  continued  his  retreat  to  the 
Boston  Mountains,  where  he  was  reinforced  by  McCulloch,  Van  Dorn,  and 
Albert  Pike,  and  felt  himself  strong  enough  to  turn  about  and  attack  Curtis, 
who  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  Pea  Ridge. 

BATTLE    OF    PEA    RIDGE. 

The  Union  right  was  commanded  by  General  Sigel,  the  left  by  General 
Carr,  and  the  centre  by  General  Jefferson  C.  Davis.  Sigel  was  surprised  and 
came  very  near  being  cut  off,  but  he  was  master  of  the  art  of  retreating  rather 
than  of  advancing,  and  he  extricated  his  Germans  with  astonishing  skill  and 
joined  the  main  army.  General  Curtis  changed  his  front,  and  in  the  attack  his 
right  wing  was  driven  back,  obliging  him  that  night  to  take  a  new  position  a 
mile  to  the  rear.  The  fighting  next  day  was  at  first  in  favor  of  the  Confederates, 
and  for  a  time  the  Union  army  was  in  a  critical  position ;  but  with  great  bravery 


308  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

and  skill  the  enemy's  left  was  turned,  the  centre  broken,  and  their  forces  driven 
in  disorder  from  the  field. 

In  this  battle  Albert  Pike  used  2,000  Indian  allies.  They  belonged  to  the 
"  civilized  "  tribes,  and  good  service  was  expected  from  them  ;  but  they  were  un 
accustomed  to  fighting  in  the  open,  could  not  be  disciplined,  and  in  the  excite 
ment  of  the  struggle  it  is  alleged  they  so  lost  their  heads  that  they  scalped  about 
as  many  of  the  Confederates  as  Unionists.  At  any  rate,  the  experiment  was  a 
failure,  and  thereafter  they  cut  no  figure  in  the  war. 

INDECISIVE    FIGHTING. 

The  enemy  were  so  badly  shaken  that  they  retreated  toward  the  North 
to  reorganize  and  recruit.  Reinforcements  from  Kansas  and  Missouri  also 
joined  Curtis,  who  advanced  in  the  direction  of  Springfield,  Missouri,  upon 
learning  that  Price  was  making  for  the  same  point.  Nothing  followed,  and 
Curtis  returned  to  Arkansas.  He  had  been  at  Batesville  in  that  State  a  few 
months  when  he  found  himself  in  serious  peril.  His  supplies  were  nearly  ex 
hausted,  and  it  was  impossible  to  renew  them  in  the  hostile  country  by  which 
he  was  surrounded.  An  expedition  for  his  relief  left  Memphis  in  June,  but 
failed.  Supplies  from  Missouri,  however,  reached  him  early  in  July. 

Curtis  marched  to  Jackson  port,  and  afterward  established  himself  at  Helena 
on  the  Mississippi.  In  September  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  depart 
ment  of  Missouri,  which  included  that  State,  Arkansas,  and  the  Indian  Terri 
tory.  There  were  many  minor  engagements,  and  the  Unionists  succeeded  in 
keeping  the  Confederates  from  regaining  their  former  foothold  in  Missouri  and 
north  of  Arkansas.  It  may  be  said  that  all  the  fighting  in  that  section  pro 
duced  not  the  slightest  effect  on  the  war  as  a  whole.  The  best  military  leaders 
of  the  Confederacy  advised  President  Davis  to  withdraw  all  his  forces  beyond 
the  Mississippi  and  concentrate  them  in  the  East,  but  he  rejected  their  counsel, 
and  his  stubbornness  greatly  weakened  the  Confederacy. 

Having  given  an  account  of  military  operations  in  the  West,  it  now  remains 
to  tell  of  the  much  more  important  ones  that  occurred  on  the  coast  and  in  the 
East,  for  they  were  decisive  in  their  nature,  and  produced  a  distinct  effect 
upon  the  progress  of  the  war  for  the  Union. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    MERRIMAC. 

It  has  been  stated  that  early  in  the  war  the  Norfolk  navy  yard  was  burned 
to  prevent  its  falling  into  the  possession  of  the  Confederates.  Among  the 
vessels  sunk  was  the  frigate  Merrimac,  which  went  down  before  much  injury 
was  done  to  her.  She  was  a  formidable  craft  of  3,500  tons,  300  feet  in  length, 
and  had  mounted  40  guns.  The  Confederates  succeeded  in  raising  her,  and 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  MERRIMAC. 


309 


proceeded  to  work  marvelous  changes  in  her  structure,  by  which  she  was  turned 
into  the  first  real  armor-clad  ever  constructed.  She  was  protected  by  layers  of 
railroad  iron,  which  sloped  like  the  roof  of  a  house,  and  was  furnished  with  a 
prow  of  cast  iron  which  projected  four  feet  in  front.  Pivot  guns  were  so  fixed 
as  to  be  used  for  bow  and  stern  chasers,  and  the  pilot-house  was  placed  forward 
of  the  smoke-stack  and  armored  with  four  inches  of  iron.  She  carried  ten 
guns,  one  at  the  stern,  one  at  the  bow,  and  eight  at  the  sides,  and  fired  shells 


SECRETABY   STANTON'S    OPINION   ABOUT  THE   MERBIMAC. 

"  The  whole  character  of  the  war  will  be  changed." 

Her  iron  armor  sloped  down  at  the  sides,  so  that  she  looked  like  an  enormous 
mansard-roof  moving  through  ,  the  water.  Her  commanding  officer  was  Com 
modore  Franklin  Buchanan,  formerly  of  the  United  States  navy,  while  under 
him  were  Lieutenant  Catesby  R  Jones,  the  executive  officer,  six  other  lieuten 
ants,  six  midshipmen,  surgeons,  engineers,  and  subordinate  officers,  in  addition 
to  a  crew  of  300  men.  She  was  rechristened  the  Virginia,  but  will  always  be 
remembered  as  the  Merrimac. 

Of  necessity  this  craft,  being  the  pioneer  of  its  kind,  had  many  defects.     She 


310  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

could  move  only  very  slowly,  and  her  great  length  of  300  feet  and  poor  steering 
apparatus  required  a  half-hour  for  her  to  make  a  complete  turn,  while  her  draft 
of  22  feet  confined  her  to  the  narrow  channel  of  the  Roads.  Still  she  could  go 
faster  than  an  ordinary  sailing  vessel,  and  her  resistless  momentum  and  iron 
prow  enabled  her  to  crush  any  vessel  afloat  as  if  it  were  an  egg-shell. 

Great  pains  were  taken  by  the  Confederates  to  keep  secret  the  particulars  of 
her  building  ;  but  it  was  known  in  Washington  that  a  strange  craft  was  in 
course  of  construction  at  Norfolk,  with  which  it  was  expected  to  capture  Wash 
ington  and  devastate  the  leading  cities  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  Ericsson, 
the  famous  Swedish  inventor,  was  engaged  near  New  York  in  building  a  smaller 
vessel  upon  the  same  principle,  and  he  was  pressed  to  make  all  possible  haste  in 
finishing  it  ;  for,  though  the  government  did  not  suspect  the  terrible  effective 
ness  of  the  Merrimac,  they  meant  to  take  all  reasonable  precautions  against  it. 

AWFUL    WORK    OF   THE   MERRIMAC. 

There  were  lying  at  Hampton  Roads  at  that  time  five  Union  vessels,  which, 
being  so  close  to  the  dangerous  craft,  were  on  the  alert  day  and  night  for  her 
appearance.  About  noon  on  March  8th  a  column  of  dark  smoke  in  the  direc 
tion  of  the  Norfolk  navy  yard,  followed  by  the  forging  into  sight  of  the  huge 
hulk,  left  no  doubt  that  the  long-expected  Merrimac  was  coming  forth  upon  her 
errand  of  death  and  destruction.  In  her  company  were  three  gunboats  ready 
to  aid  her  in  any  way  possible.  The  steam  frigate  Minnesota  and  Roanoke  and 
the  sailing  frigates  Congress,  Cumberland,  and  St.  Lawrence  immediately  cleared 
their  decks  for  action. 

The  Minnesota  and  Roanoke  moved  out  to  meet  the  Merrimac,  but  both 
got  aground.  In  the  case  of  the  Minnesota  this  was  due  to  the  treachery  of  the 
pilot,  who  was  in  the  employ  of  the  Confederates.  The  Cumberland  swerved 
so  as  to  bring  her  broadsides  to  bear,  and  opened  with  her  pivot  guns,  at  the 
distance  of  a  mile.  The  aim  was  accurate,  but  the  iron  balls  which  struck  tiie 
massive  hide  of  the  Merrimac  bounded  off  like  pebbles  skipping  over  the  water. 
Then  the  Congress  added  her  broadsides  to  those  of  the  Cumberland,  but  the 
leviathan  shed  them  all  as  if  they  were  tiny  hailstones,  and,  slowly  advancing  in 
grim  silence,  finally  opened  with  her  guns,  quickly  killing  four  marines  and 
five  sailors  on  the  Cumberland.  Then  followed  her  resistless  broadsides,  which 
played  awful  havoc  with  officers  and  men.  Swinging  slowly  around,  the  Merri 
mac  next  steamed  a  mile  up  the  James,  and,  turning  again,  came  back  under  full 
speed.  Striking  the  Cumberland  under  the  starboard  bow,  she  smashed  a  hole 
into  her  through  which  a  horse  might  have  entered.  The  ship  keeled  over 
until  her  yardarms  were  close  to  the  water.  The  terrific  force  broke  off  the 
prow  of  the  Merrimac,  but  her  frightful  shots  riddled  the  Cumberland  and  set 


THE  MONITOR,  311 

her  on  fire.  The  flames  were  extinguished,  and  the  Cumberland  delivered 
broadside  after  broadside,  only  to  see  the  enormous  missiles  fly  off  and  spin 
harmlessly  hundreds  of  feet  away. 

Lieutenant  George  U.  Morris,  of  the  Cumberland,  ran  up  the  red  flag 
meaning  "  no  surrender,"  and  with  a  heroism  never  surpassed  maintained  the 
unequal  fight,  if  fight  it  can  be  called  where  there  was  absolutely  no  hope  for 
him.  Finally  the  Cumberland  went  down  to  her  cross-trees,  in  fifty-four  feet  of 
water.  Lieutenant  Morris  succeeded  in  saving  himself  by  swimming,  but  of 
the  crew  of  376,  121  lost  their  lives. 

The  Cumberland  being  destroyed,  the  Merrimac  headed  for  the  Congress, 
which  had  run  aground.  She  replied  with  her  harmless  broadsides,  but  the 
Merrimac  held  her  completely  at  her  mercy,  raking  her  fore  and  aft,  and  killing 
100  of  the  crew,  including  the  commander.  It  being  evident  that  not  a  man 
could  escape,  the  white  flag  was  run  up  in  token  of  surrender.  The  hot  firing 
from  the  shore  preventing  Commodore  Buchanan  from  taking  possession  of  the 
Congress,  whereupon  he  fired  her  with  hot  shot. 

During  the  fighting,  Commodore  Buchanan  fearlessly  exposed  himself  on 
the  upper  deck  of  the  Merrimac,  and  was  badly  wounded  in  the  thigh  by  a 
Union  sharpshooter,  whereupon  the  command  was  assumed  by  Lieutenant  Jones. 
By  that  time  it  was  growing  dark  and  the  Merrimac  steamed  back  to  Sewall's 
Point,  intending  to  return  the  next  morning  and  complete  her  appalling  work 
of  destruction. 

CONSTERNATION    IN    THE    NORTH. 

The  news  of  what  she  had  done  caused  consternation  throughout  the 
North.  President  Lincoln  called  a  special  cabinet  meeting,  at  which  Secretary 
Stan  ton  declared,  in  great  excitement,  that  nothing  could  prevent  the  monster 
from  steaming  up  the  Potomac,  destroying  Washington,  and  laying  the  prin 
cipal  northern  cities  under  contribution.  The  alarm  of  the  bluff  secretary  was 
natural,  but  there  was  no  real  ground  for  it, 

THE    MONITOR. 

The  Swedish  inventor,  John  Ericsson,  had  completed  his  Monitor,  which 
at  that  hour  was  steaming  southward  from  New  York.  Although  an  iron-clad 
like  the  Merrimac,  she  was  as  different  as  can  be  conceived  in  construction. 
She  resembled  a  raft,  the  upper  portion  of  which  was  172  feet  long  and  the 
lower  124  feet.  The  sides  of  the  former  were  made  of  oak,  twenty-five  inches 
thick,  and  covered  with  five-inch  iron  armor. 

The  turret  was  protected  by  eight-inch  plates  of  wrought  iron,  increasing 
in  thickness  to  the  port-holes,  near  which  it  was  eleven  inches  through.  It 
was  nine  feet  high,  with  a  diameter  of  twenty-one  feet.  She  drew  only  ten  feet 


312 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 


of  water,  and  was  armored  with  two  eleven-inch  Dahlgren  guns,  smooth  bore, 
firing  solid  shot  weighing  180  pounds. 

The  pilot-house  was  made  of  nine-inch  plates  of  forged  iron,  rose  four 
feet  above  the  deck,  and  would  hold  three  men  by  crowding.  The  Monitor  was 
one-fifth  the  size  of  the  Jferrimac,  and  her  appearance  has  been  likened  to  that 
of  a  cheese-box  on  a  raft.  She  was  in  command  of  Lieutenant  John  L.  Worden, 
with  Lieutenant  S.  Dana  Green  as  executive  officer.  Her  crew  consisted  of 
>ixtirii  officers  :md  forty-two  men,  and  she  left  New  York  on  the  morning  of 

March  6th,  in  tow  of  a  tug-boat. 
The  greatest  difficulty  was  en 
countered  in  managing  her,  the 
men  narrowly  escaping  being 
smothered  by  gas,  and,  had  not 
the  weather  been  unusually  favor 
able,  she  would  have  foundered  ; 
but  providentially  she  steamed 
into  Hampton  Roads,  undiscov 
ered  by  the  enemy,  and  took  her 
position  behind  the  Minnesota, 
ready  for  the  events  of  the  mor 
row. 

The  Merrimac  was  promptly 
on  time  the  next  morning,  and 
was  accompanied  by  two  gun 
boats;  but  while  steaming  toward 
the  remaining  Union  vessels  the 
Monitor  darted  out  from  behind 
the  Minnesota  and  boldly  advanced 
to  meet  her  terrible  antagonist. 
They  silently  approached  each 
other  until  within  a  hundred 
yards,  when  the  Monitor  fired  a  shot,  to  which  the  Merrimac  replied.  The 
firing  was  rapid  for  a  time  and  then  became  slower,  with  the  intervening 
space  varying  from  fifty  yards  to  four  times  that  distance.  A  number  of  the 
Merrimac' s  shots  struck  the  Monitor's  pilot-house  and  turret,  the  crash  doing  no 
harm  except  almost  to  deafen  the  men  within.  Most  of  the  shells,  however, 
missed  or  skipped  over  the  low  deck  of  the  smaller  boat. 

The  latter  was  able  to  dodge  the  rushes  of  the  larger  craft  and  play  all 
around  her,  but  the  terrible  pounding  worked  damage  to  both,  the  Monitor  suf 
fering  the  most.  The  iron  plate  of  the  pilot-house  was  lifted  by  a  shell,  which 


JOHN   ERICSSON. 

The  famous  constructor  of  the  Monitor. 


CAPTURE   OF  NEW  ORLEANS.  313 

blinded  Lieutenant  Worden,  and  so  disabled  him  that  he  was  forced  to  turn 
over  the  command  to  Lieutenant  Green.  Worden,  who  lived  to  become  an 
admiral,  never  fully  recovered  from  his  injuries.  The  firing,  dodging,  ramming, 
and  fighting  continued  for  four  hours,  but  the  Herrimac  was  unable  to  disable 
her  nimble  antagonist,  and  slowly  steamed  back  to  Norfolk,  while  the  Monitor 
returned  to  her  former  position,  and  was  carefully  kept  in  reserve  by  the  govern 
ment  against  future  perils  of  a  similar  character. 

FATE    OF    THE    MERRIMAC    AND    MONITOR. 

Neither  of  the  vessels  was  permitted  to  do  further  service.  Some  months 
later,  upon  the  evacuation  of  Norfolk,  the  Merrimac  was  blown  up  to  prevent 
her  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Unionists,  and  the  Monitor  foundered  off  Hat- 
teras  in  December,  1862.  The  battle  wrought  a  complete  revolution  in  naval 
warfare.  The  days  of  wooden  ships  ended,  and  all  the  navies  of  the  world  are 
now  made  up  mainly  of  ironclads. 

More  important  work  was  done  by  the  Union  fleets  during  this  year.  The 
government  put  forth  every  energy  to  build  ships,  with  the  result  that  hundreds 
were  added  to  the  naval  force,  many  of  which  were  partial  and  others  wholly 
ironclad. 

OTHER    COAST    OPERATIONS. 

A  month  before  the  fight  between  the  Monitor  and  Merrimac,  a  formidable 
naval  expedition  under  Commodore  Goldsborough  and  General  Ambrose  E. 
Burnside  passed  down  the  Atlantic  coast  and  captured  Roanoke  Island.  St. 
Augustine  and  a  number  of  other  places  in  Florida  were  captured  by  troops  from 
Port  Eoyal.  Siege  was  laid  to  Fort  Pulaski,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Savannah 
River,  and  it  surrendered  April  llth.  The  advantage  of  these  and  similar  cap 
tures  was  that  it  gave  the  blockading  fleets  control  of  the  principal  harbors,  and 
made  it  easier  to  enforce  a  rigid  blockade.  There  were  two  ports,  however, 
which  the  Union  vessels  were  never  able  to  capture  until  the  close  of  the  war. 
They  were  Charleston  and  Wilmington,  North  Carolina.  The  latter  became 
the  chief  port  from  which  the  Confederate  blockade-runners  dashed  out  or  en 
tered  and  were  enabled  to  bring  the  most-needed  medical  and  other  supplies  to 
the  Confederacy,  while  at  the  same  time  the  owners  and  officers  of  the  ships 
reaped  fortunes  for  themselves. 

CAPTURE    OF    NEW    ORLEANS. 

One  of  the  primal  purposes  of  the  war  was  to  open  the  Mississippi,  which 
was  locked  by  the  enemy  at  Vicksburg  and  New  Orleans.  As  a  necessary  step 
in  the  opening  of  the  great  river,  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  for  the  capture 
of  New  Orleans.  Well  aware  of  what  was  coming,  the  Confederates  had  done 


314  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

all  they  could  to  strengthen  the  defenses  of  the  city.  Thirty  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi  were  the  powerful  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  on  op 
posite  sides  of  the  river.  They  mounted  100  heavy  guns,  and  six  powerful 
chains  were  stretched  across,  supported  by  an  immense  raft  of  cypress  logs. 
Thus  the  river  was  closed  and  no  fleet  could  approach  New  Orleans  until  these 
obstructions  were  removed  or  overcome.  When  this  should  be  done,  it  was  still 
seventy-five  miles  to  New  Orleans. 

Above  the  boom  of  hulks  and  logs  was  a  fleet  of  fifteen  Confederate  ves 
sels,  including  the  ironclad  ram  Manassas,  and  a  partly  completed  floating  bat 
tery  armored  with  railroad  iron,  and  known  as  the  Louisiana.  It  has  been 
stated  that  the  ironclads  of  those  days  were  only  partly  protected  by  armor. 

The  naval  and  military  expedition  which  sailed  for  New  Orleans  in  the 
spring  of  18G2  consisted  of  six  sloops  of  war,  sixteen  gunboats,  five  other  ves 
sels,  and  twenty-one  mortar-schooners,  the  last  being  under  charge  of  Captain 
David  D.  Porter,  while  Commodore  David  G.  Farragut  had  command  of  the 
fleet,  The  troops,  mostly  from  New  England,  were  commanded  by  General 
B.  F.  Butler. 

Farragut  crossed  the  bar,  April  8th,  and  spent  several  days  in  making  his 
preparations  for  bombarding  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip.  The  bombardment 
began  April  27th,  1,400  shells  being  thrown  in  one  day.  Farragut  then  called 
his  captains  together  and  told  them  he  had  resolved  to  run  by  the  forts.  The 
only  question,  therefore,  was  as  to  the  best  means  of  doing  it.  It  was  decided 
to  make  the  attempt  at  night.  The  darkness,  however,  was  of  little  benefit, 
since  the  enemy's  huge  bonfires  on  both  shores  lit  up  the  river  as  if  it  were 
noonday.  Previous  to  this,  Lieutenant  C.  H.  B.  Caldwell,  in  the  gunboat  Itasca, 
had  ascended  the  river  undiscovered  in  the  darkness  and  opened  a  way  through 
the  boom  for  the  fleet. 

Farragut  arranged  the  fleet  in  two  columns,  his  own  firing  upon  Fort  Jack 
son,  while  the  other  poured  its  broadsides  into  Fort  St.  Philip.  The  flagship 
Hartford  led  the  way  under  cover  of  Porter's  mortar-boats  and  the  others  fol 
lowed.  There  was  a  furious  fight  between  the  fleets,  but  every  Confederate  was 
either  captured  or  destroyed. 

Farragut  steamed  on  to  the  city,  silencing  the  batteries  along  the  banks, 
and,  at  noon,  a  messenger  was  sent  ashore  with  a  demand  for  the  surrender  of 
the  city.  General  Lovell  was  in  command  of  3,000  troops,  intended  for  the 
defense  of  New  Orleans,  but  he  fled.  The  mayor  refusing  to  haul  down  the 
secession  flag,  the  Union  troops  took  possession,  raised  the  Union  banner  over 
the  mint,  and  placed  the  city  in  charge  of  General  Butler.  The  citizens  were  in 
such  a  savage  mood  that  Commodore  Farragut  had  to  bring  them  to  their  senses 
by  a  threat  to  bombard  the  city. 


THE  ADVANCE  AGAINST  RICHMOND. 


315 


General  Butler  ruled  with  great  strictness,  and  virtually  held  New 
Orleans  under  martial  law.  A  Confederate  won  the  applause  of  his  friends  by 
climbing  to  the  top  of  the  mint,  hauling  down  the  flag,  dragging  it  through  the 
mud,  and  then  tearing  it  to  shreds.  Butler  brought  him  to  trial  before  a  military 
commission,  and,  being  found  guilty  of  the  unpardonable  insult  to  the  flag,  he 
was  hanged. 

The  fall  of  New  Orleans,  one  of  the  leading  cities,  was  a  severe  blow  to  the 
Confederacy.  The  only  points  where  the  Mississippi  was  strongly  held  by  the 
enemy  were  at  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson,  and  attention  was  already  turned 
to  them.  Farragut  having  completed  his  work,  for  the  time  took  command  in 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  most  momentous  events  of  the  year  occurred  in  the  east  and  marked 


LIBBY  PRISON  IN  1865. 

the  struggle  between  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  the  Confederate  Army  of 
Northern  Virginia,  as  it  came  to  be  called. 

THE    ADVANCE   AGAINST    RICHMOND. 

McClellan  continued  to  drill  and  train  his  army  through  the  fall  of  1861, 
and  well  into  the  following  year.  It  numbered  nearly  200,000  men  and  was 
one  of  the  finest  organizations  in  the  world.  In  reply  to  the  expressions  of 
impatience,  the  commander  invariably  replied  that  a  forward  movement  would 
soon  be  begun,  but  the  weeks  and  months  passed  and  the  drilling  went  on,  and 
nothing  was  done.  Finally,  the  government  gave  the  commander  to  understand 
that  he  must  advance. 

McClellan's  plan  was  to  move  against  Richmond,  from  the  lower  part  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  by  way  of  Urbana  on  the  Rappahannock.  While  this  had 


316 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 


many  advantages,  its  fatal  objection  in  the  eyes  of  the  President  was  that  it 
would  leave  Washington  unprotected.  He  issued  an  order  on  the  27th  of  Jan 
uary  directing  that  on  the  22d  of  February  there  should  be  a  general  land  and 
naval  movement  against  the  enemy's  position  on  the  Potomac,  and  that,  after 
providing  for  the  defense  of  Washington,  a  force  should  seize  and  occupy  a 
point  upon  the  railway  to  the  southwest  of  Manassas  Junction.  McClellan  was 
offended  by  the  act  of  the  President  and  protested,  but  Mr.  Lincoln  clung  in 
the  main  to  his  plan,  and,  since  the  delay  continued,  he  issued  orders  directing 
the  formation  of  the  army  into  corps  and  naming  the  generals  to  command 
them.  Another  order  made  arrangements  for  the  intended  advance,  and  it  was 
left  to  McClellan  to  carry  them  out. 


LIBBY  PRISON  IN  1884,   BEFORE   ITS  REMOVAL   TO   CHICAGO. 


Reliable  information  reached  Washington   that  General  Joseph  E.  John 
ston,  commander  of  the  Confederate  forces  at  Manassas,  was  engaged  in  with 
drawing  his  lines  with  a  view  of  taking  a  stronger  position  nearer  Richmond. 
General   McClellan  began  a  forward  movement  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
on  the  10th  of  March.     The  truth  was  that  Confederate  spies  in  Washington 
had  apprised  Johnston  of  the  intended  advance  of  McClellan  from  the  lower 
Chesapeake,  and  his  action  was  with  a  view  of  checkmating  the  Union  corn- 
Instead  of  carrying  out  this  plan,  McClellan  marched  to  Centreville 
and  occupied  the  vacated  intrenchments  of  the  enemy.     The  general  hope  was 
that  Johnston  would  be  forced  to  give  battle,  but  the  roads  in  Virginia,  at  that 


THE  ADVANCE  AGAINST  RICHMOND.  317 

season,  were  one  sea  of  mud,  which  made  progress  so  slow  that  the  Confederates 
had  time  in  which  to  withdraw  at  their  leisure. 

Crossing  the  Potomac  into  Virginia,  with  the  main  army,  McClellan  made 
his  first  headquarters  at  Fairfax  Court-House.  About  that  time  he  received 
news  that  he  was  relieved  of  the  command  of  the  other  departments,  his  authority 
being  confined  to  the  direction  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  was  directed 
by  the  President  to  garrison  Manassas  securely,  see  that  Washington  was  pro 
tected,  and,  with  the  rest  of  his  force,  assume  a  new  base  at  Fort  Monroe,  or 
"  anywhere  between  here  and  there,"  and,  above  all  things,  to  pursue  the  enemy 
"  by  some  route." 

McClellan's  four  corps  commanders  were  Sumner,  McDowell,  Heintzel- 
man,  and  Keyes,  and  they  and  he  agreed  upon  a  plan  of  campaign.  The 
difficulties  of  transporting  nearly  100,000  men  to  Fort  Monroe  were  so  great 
that  two  weeks  were  occupied  in  completing  the  transfer.  In  order  to  prevent 
the  Confederates  from  getting  in  his  rear,  McClellan  directed  Banks  to  rebuild 
the  railroad  from  Washington  to  Manassas  and  Strasburg,  thus  keeping  open 
communication  with  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  where  the  enemy  were  in  force,  a 
fact  which  caused  the  government  much  uneasiness  for  the  national  capital. 
Indeed,  it  was  a  part  of  the  effective  plan  of  Johnston  to  embarrass  the  cam 
paign  against  Richmond. 

Banks  occupied  Winchester  about  the  middle  of  March  and  sent  a  force 
under  Shields  to  Strasburg.  He  found  Stonewall  Jackson  there  with  such  a 
strong  force  that  he  fell  back  to  Winchester,  where,  after  the  withdrawal  of  the 
main  body  by  Banks,  he  was  attacked  by  Jackson,  who  was  repulsed. 

In  pursuance  of  the  new  plan  of  campaign,  McClellan  made  Fort  Monroe 
his  first  base  of  operations,  using  the  route  through  Yorktown  and  West  Point 
for  the  advance  to  Richmond.  He  expected  to  fight  a  great  battle  on  the  way 
thither,  for  the  enemy  could  not  fail  to  read  the  meaning  of  his  movements. 
McClellan  reasoned  that  this  battle  would  take  place  between  West  Point  and 
Richmond,  and  his  intention  was  to  advance  without  delay  to  the  former  posi 
tion  and  use  it  as  his  chief  depot  for  supplies.  His  plan  was  to  make  a  com 
bined  naval  and  military  attack  on  Yorktown,  send  a  strong  force  up  the  York 
River,  aided  by  the  gunboats,  and  thus  establish  his  new  base  of  operations 
within  twenty-five  miles  of  the  Confederate  capital. 

It  was  not  long  before  he  began  calling  for  reinforcements,  and  the  govern 
ment,  instead  of  aiding  him,  took  away  piecemeal  many  of  the  troops  upon 
which  the  commander  had  counted  to  aid  him  in  his  campaign.  He  wanted 
150,000  men  and  a  large  increase  of  cannon.  The  10,000  men,  composing 
Blenker's  division,  were  detached,  as  the  President  informed  him,  to  support 
Fremont,  but  Mr.  Lincoln  promised  to  withdraw  no  more  from  the  main  army. 


318  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN.. 

McClellan  remained  at  his  headquarters  near  Alexandria  until  most  of  his 
forces  were  well  on  the  road  to  the  Yorktown  peninsula.  He  left  on  the  1st  of 
April  and  the  troops  were  landed  three  days  later.  Then  a  force  of  56,000 
men  with  100  guns  started  for  Yorktown. 

But  for  the  inherent  timidity  and  distrust  of  McClellan,  he  might  have 
captured  Richmond,  by  marching  straight  ahead  to  the  city,  for  the  Confederate 
force  opposed  to  him  was  but  a  fragment  of  his  own,  and  could  have  been 
trampled  underfoot.  The  Confederate  intrenchments  were  a  dozen  miles  in 
length,  and  were  defended  by  Magruder  with  a  force  that  allowed  less  than  a 
thousand  men  for  each  mile. 

Instead  of  pushing  on,  McClellan  began  a  regular  siege  of  Yorktown. 
Immense  siege  guns  were  dragged  through  the  muddy  swamps,  and  the  musket 
was  laid  aside  for  the  spade  and  shovel,  which  the  men  applied  week  after  week, 
until  worn  out  and  with  thousands  prostrated  by  sickness.  The  delay,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  was  improved  by  the  Confederates  in  strengthening  the 
defenses  of  their  capital.  At  the  end  of  a  month,  the  Union  army  advanced, 
whereupon  Magruder  fell  back  to  other  fortifications  nearer  Richmond.  The 
whole  month  had  been  worse  than  thrown  away  by  McClellan,  for  it  had  given 
the  enemy  all  the  time  they  needed  to  complete  their  defenses. 

The  Confederate  army  was  increased,  and  reinforcements  were  sent  to 
McClellan,  whose  forces  were  fully  20,000  in  excess  of  those  under  Johnston, 
but  the  Union  leader  magnified  the  strength  of  the  enemy  and  continued  to  call 
for  more  troops.  It  was  this  unvarying  demand  that  brought  the  impatient 
remark  from  Secretary  of  War  Stanton  : 

"  If  I  gave  McClellan  a  million  men,  he  would  swear  the  rebels  had  two 
millions,  and  sit  down  in  the  mud  and  refuse  to  move  until  he  had  three 
millions." 

The  Confederates  fell  back  to  Williamsburg,  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the 
peninsula,  between  the  James  and  York  Rivers,  and  began  fortifying  their  posi 
tion.  The  Union  gunboats  ascended  to  Yorktown,  where  the  Federal  depots 
were  established.  Longstreet,  in  command  of  the  Confederate  rear,  halted  and 
gave  battle  with  a  view  of  protecting  his  trains. 

The  engagement  took  place  on  May  5th.  The  Unionists  were  repulsed  at 
first,  but  regained  and  held  their  ground,  the  night  closing  without  any  decided 
advantage  to  either  army.  Longstreet,  however,  had  held  the  Federals  in  check 
as  long  as  was  necessary,  and  when  he  resumed  his  retreat  McClellan  did  not 
attempt  to  pursue  him. 

The  Confederates  continued  falling  back,  with  McClellan  cautiously  follow 
ing.  The  delay  secured  by  the  enemy  enabled  them  to  send  their  baggage  and 
supply  trains  into  Richmond,  while  the  army  stripped  for  the  fray.  They  aban- 


THE  ADVANCE  AGAINST  RICHMOND. 


319 


doned  the  Yorktown  peninsula  altogether  and  evacuated  Norfolk,  which  was 
occupied  by  General  Wool.  It  was  this  movement  which  caused  the  blowing 
up  of  the  Merrimac,  referred  to  elsewhere. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  both 
shores  of  the  James  were  in  possession 
of  the  Union  forces.     The  Confederate 
army  withdrew  within  the  defenses  of 
Richmond  on  the  10th 
of  May,  and  the  Fed 
eral    gunboats,    after 
steaming  up  the  river 
to  within  twelve  miles 
of  the  city,  were  com 
pel  1  e  d    to    withdraw 
before    the    plunging 
shots  of  the  batteries, 


which    stood    on    the 
tops  of  the  high  bluffs. 
Following  the  line 
of    the      Pamunkey, 
_  McClelland    advance- 

~*  |  guard  reached  the  Chickahominy 
on  the  21st  of  May,  and  could  plainly 
see  the  spires  and  steeples  of  Rich 
mond,  which  was  thrown  into  a  state 
of  great  alarm.  Rain  fell  most  of 
the  time,  and  the  rise  of  the  Chicka 
hominy  carried  away  the  bridges, 
made  the  surrounding  country  a 
swamp,  and  badly  divided  the  Union 
army. 

MOZST  WEATHEB  AT  THE  TOONT.  °"e  °f   tllG  m°St  effeCtiV6  ^^ 

employed  by  the  Confederate  com 
mander  against  the  Union  advance  was  by  creating  a  diversion  in  the  Shenan- 
doah  Valley  and  fear  for  the  safety  of  Washington.  Rather  than  lose  that, 
our  government  would  have  sacrificed  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  General 
Johnston  had  sent  Stonewall  Jackson  into  the  Valley,  where  Banks  was  in 


320  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

command.  He  was  another  of  the  political  generals,  wholly  unfitted  for  the 
responsibilities  placed  in  his  hands. 

At  the  opening  of  hostilities,  Banks  was  so  confident  that  he  telegraphed 
the  government  that  Jackson  was  on  the  eve  of  being  crushed ;  but  it  proved 
the  other  way.  Banks  was  completely  outgeneraled  and  sent  flying  toward 
Washington.  His  troops  marched  more  than  thirty  miles  a  day,  and  would 
have  been  captured  or  destroyed  to  a  man  had  Jackson  continued  his  pursuit, 
but  his  forces  were  fewer  in  numbers,  and  he  allowed  the  exhausted  and  panic- 
stricken  fugitives  to  find  refuge  in  Washington. 

This  routing  of  Banks  frightened  Washington  again,  and  McDowell  was 
hastily  called  from  Fredericksburg  to  the  defense  of  the  capital.  This  was  the 
very  thing  for  which  the  Confederates  had  planned,  since  it  kept  those  rein 
forcements  away  from  McCIellan,  who  was  ordered  by  President  Lincoln  to 
attack  at  once  or  give  up  his  plan.  Still  cautious  and  wishing  to  feel  every  foot 
of  the  way,  McCIellan  pushed  a  reconnoissance  in  the  direction  of  Hanover  Court- 
House. 

When  fire  was  opened  on  the  Confederates  most  of  them  fell  back  to 
Richmond,  General  Jo  Johnston,  p^rueiving  that  the  Union  army  was  divided 
by  the  swollen  Chickahominy,  quickly  took  advantage  of  it,  and  prepared  to 
hurl  a  force  of  50,000  against  the  Union  corps,  which  numbered  a  little  more 
than  half  as  many.  A  violent  rain  so  interfered  with  his  plans  that  10,000  of 
his  troops  were  unable  to  take  part  in  the  battle.  In  the  disjointed  struggle 
which  followed,  the  Confederates  were  successful  at  what  is  known  as  the  battle 
of  Seven  Pines,  but  were  defeated  at  Fair  Oaks.  Both  were  fought  on  June  1st. 

GENERAL    LEE    BECOMES    CONFEDERATE   COMMANDER. 

In  the  fighting  on  the  morrow,  General  Johnston,  while  directing  the  at 
tack  of  the  right,  was  desperately  wounded  by  an  exploding  shell,  which  broke 
several  ribs  and  knocked  him  from  his  horse.  General  G.  W.  Smith  succeeded 
him  in  command,  but  three  days  later  gave  way  to  General  R.  E.  Lee,  who  in 
time  became  the  supreme  head  of  the  military  forces  of  the  Confederacy,  and 
retained  his  command  to  the  last. 

M'CLELLAN'S  TARDINESS. 

The  corps  commanders  believed  that  if  McCIellan  would  press  matters 
Richmond  could  be  captured,  but  the  Union  leader  devoted  several  weeks  to 
building  bridges.  It  rained  incessantly  and  the  health  of  the  men  suffered. 
Many  more  died  from  disease  than  from  bullets  and  wounds,  and  McClellan's 
tardiness  gave  the  enemy  the  time  they  needed  in  which  to  make  their  combinations 
as  strong  as  possible.  Stonewall  Jackson,  although  placed  in  a  perilous  position 


THE  SEVEN  DAYS'  FIGHT.  321 

in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  skillfully  extricated  himself  and  united  his  corps 
with  the  troops  that  were  defending  Richmond. 

GENERAL   STUART'S   RAID. 

While  McClellan  was  engaged  in  constructing  bridges  over  the  Chicka- 
hominy,  and  no  important  movement  was  made  by  either  army,  General  J.  E. 
B.  Stuart,  the  famous  cavalry  leader,  left  Richmond,  June  13th,  with  a  strong 
mounted  force,  and,  by  rapid  riding  and  his  knowledge  of  the  country,  passed 
entirely  around  the  Federal  army,  cutting  telegraph  wires,  burning  bridges, 
capturing  wagons  and  supplies,  frightening  McClellan,  and  returning  to  Rich 
mond,  after  two  days'  absence,  with  the  loss  of  only  a  single  man. 

The  Union  commander  was  discouraged  by  the  withdrawal  of  McDowell 
to  the  defense  of  Washington,  by  the  uncertainty  regarding  the  disposition  of  the 
enemy's  corps,  and  by  the  belief  that  they  were  much  more  numerous  than  was 
the  fact.  He  decided  to  change  the  base  of  his  operations  from  the  Pamunkey 
to  the  James.  Both  he  and  Lee  fixed  upon  the  same  day — June  26th — for  an 
offensive  movement;  but  Lee  was  the  first  to  act.  On  the  afternoon  of  that  day 
a  vehement  attack  was  made  upon  the  Union  right.  The  assault  was  repulsed, 
after  a  furious  struggle,  and  it  marked  the  beginning  of  that  fearful  series  of 
battles  known  as  the  Seven  Days'  Fight. 


THE    SEVEN   DAYS*   FIGHT. 


Feeling  insecure,  McClellan  fell  back,  and  the  terrific  fighting,  beginning 
June  26th,  at  Mechanicsville,  continued  with  scarcely  any  intermission  until 
July  1st.  Both  armies  were  well  handled  and  fought  bravely,  but  McClellan 
kept  steadily  falling  back.  Lee  was  not  satisfied  with  simply  defeating  the 
Union  army;  he  strained  every  nerve  to  destroy  it,  but  he  was  defeated  in  his 
purpose,  and,  as  the  hot  afternoon  of  June  30th  was  drawing  to  a  close,  the  last 
wagon  train  of  the  Union  army  reached  Malvern  Hill,  and  preparations  were 
hurriedly  made  to  resist  the  assault  that  every  one  knew  would  soon  come. 

Malvern  Hill  was  a  strong  position.  In  addition  the  Federals  had  the  aid 
of  the  gunboats.  Indeed,  the  place  was  so  well-nigh  impregnable  that  the 
warmest  admirers  of  General  Lee  must  condemn  his  furious  and  repeated 
assaults  upon  it.  He  suffered  a  disastrous  repulse,  and  in  the  end  withdrew  to 
i  the  defenses  of  Richmond,  while  McClellan  took  position  at  Harrison's  Land 
ing.  All  the  Union  troops  had  arrived  by  the  night  of  July  3d,  and  their 
commander  began  to  study  out  a  new  plan  for  another  advance  against  the  Con 
federate  capital.  Before  anything  could  be  done,  he  was  peremptorily  ordered 
to  withdraw  his  army  from  the  peninsula.  The  movement  was  begun  with  the 

21 


322  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

purpose  of  uniting  the  troops  with  those  of  General  Pope,  who  was  to  the  south 
east  of  Washington,  and  placing  them  all  under  his  command. 

Pope  had  40,000  troops  between  Fredericksburg  and  Washington.  Learn 
ing  the  situation,  Lee  kept  enough  men  to  hold  Richmond,  and  sent  the  rest, 
under  Stonewall  Jackson,  against  Pope  in  the  north.  Jackson  executed  the 
task  intrusted  to  him  in  his  usual  meteoric  fashion.  Despite  the  risk  involved, 
he  threw  himself  between  Pope  and  Washington  and  struck  here,  there,  and 
everywhere  so  rapidly  that  the  Union  general  became  bewildered,  his  associate 
officers  disgusted,  and  everything  was  involved  in  inextricable  confusion. 

SECOND    BATTLE   OF    BULL    RUN. 

The  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  or  Manassas,  opened  early  on  August  29th 
and  lasted  until  dusk.  The  fighting  was  desperate,  Jackson  standing  mainly  on 
the  defensive  and  waiting  for  Longstreet,  who  was  hurrying  forward  through 
Thoroughfare  Gap.  At  night  Jackson  withdrew  so  as  to  connect  with  Long- 
street.  Believing  the  movement  meant  a  retreat,  Pope  telegraphed  to  that  effect 
to  Washington.  But  he  was  grievously  mistaken,  for  the  Confederates  were 
rapidly  reinforced,  as  was  discovered  the  next  day,  when  the  battle  was  renewed 
and  pressed  resistlessly  against  the  Federals.  In  the  afternoon  Lee  arrived  on 
the  ground,  and,  taking  command,  ordered  an  advance.  Pope  retreated,  and 
that  night  crossed  Bull  Run  and  took  position  behind  the  field  works  at  Centre- 
ville.  Other  corps  joined  him,  and  on  the  1st  of  September  Lee  made  a  demon 
stration  against  the  Union  right  flank.  Pope  now  became  terrified,  as  he  saw 
that  Washington  was  threatened,  and  he  began  a  tumultuous  retreat  toward  the 
capital,  pursued  and  harassed  by  the  Confederates,  until  at  last  the  whole 
disorganized  army  found  rest  and  safety  behind  the  fortifications  at  Washing 
ton.  Pope  had  been  disastrously  defeated,  and  the  second  campaign  against 
Richmond  was  one  of  the  worst  failures  conceivable. 

M'CLELLAN  RECALLED  TO  COMMAND. 

Pope  had  done  the  best  he  knew  how,  but  the  task  was  beyond  his  ability, 
and  he  was  glad  enough  to  be  relieved  of  his  command,  which  was  assumed 
once  more  by  McClellan,  who  still  retained  a  great  deal  of  his  popularity  with 
the  rank  and  file.  Pope's  division  had  been  styled  the  Army  of  Virginia,  but 
the  name  was  now  dropped,  and  the  consolidated  forces  adopted  the  title  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  by  whicb  it  was  known  to  the  close  of  the  Avar. 

The  success  of  the  Confederates  had  been  so  decisive  that  the  Richmond 
authorities  now  decided  to  assume  the  aggressive  and  invade  the  North.  It  was 
a  bold  plan  thus  to  send  their  principal  army  so  far  from  its  base,  and  General 
Lee  did  not  favor  it,  but  the  opportunity  was  too  tempting  for  his  superiors  to 


THE   CONFEDERATE  ADVANCE  INTO  MARYLAND.  323 

disregard.  One  great  incentive  was  the  well-founded  belief  that  if  the  Confed 
eracy  gained  a  marked  advantage,  England  and  France  would  intervene  and 
thus  secure  the  independence  of  the  South. 

The  neighboring  State  of  Maryland  was  viewed  with  longing  and  hopeful 
eyes  by  Lee  and  his  army.  It  was  a  slave  State,  had  furnished  a  good  many 
men  to  the  Confederate  armies,  and,  had  it  been  left  to  itself,  probably  would 
have  seceded.  What  more  likely,  therefore,  than  that  its  people  would  hasten 
to  link  their  fortunes  with  the  Confederacy  on  the  very  hour  that  its  most 
powerful  army  crossed  her  border  ? 

THE   CONFEDERATE   ADVANCE   INTO    MARYLAND. 

The  Confederate  army  began  fording  the  Potomac  at  a  point  nearly  oppo 
site  the  Monocacy,  and  by  the  5th  of  September  all  of  it  was  on  Maryland  soil. 
The  bands  struck  up  the  popular  air,  "Maryland,  my  Maryland,"  the  exultant 
thousands  joining  in  the  tremendous  chorus,  as  they  swung  off,  all  in  high  spirits 
at  the  belief  that  they  were  entering  a  land  "flowing  with  milk  and  honey," 
where  they  would  find  abundant  food  and  be  received  with  outspread  arms. 

Frederick  City  was  reached  on  the  6th,  and  two  days  later  Lee  issued  an 
address  to  the  people  of  Maryland,  inviting  them  to  unite  Avith  the  South,  but 
insisting  that  they  should  follow  their  free-will  in  every  respect.  The  document 
was  a  temperate  one,  and  the  discipline  of  the  troops  was  so  excellent  that 
nothing  in  the  nature  of  plundering  occurred. 

But  it  did  not  take  Lee  long  to  discover  he  had  made  a  grievous  mistake  by 
invading  Maryland.  If  the  people  were  sympathetic,  they  did  not  show  it  by 
anything  more  than  words  and  looks.  They  refused  to  enlist  in  the  rebel  army, 
gave  Lee  the  "cold  shoulder,"  and  left  no  doubt  that  their  greatest  pleasure 
would  be  to  see  the  last  of  the  ragged  horde. 

While  at  Frederick,  Lee  learned  that  the  Union  Colonel  Miles  was  at 
Harper's  Ferry  with  12,000  troops,  held  there  by  the  direct  order  of  General 
Halleck,  who  was  the  acting  commander-in-chief  of  the  United  States  forces. 
Lee  determined  to  capture  the  whole  body,  and,  detaching  Stonewall  Jackson 
with  three  divisions,  ordered  him  to  do  so  and  return  to  him  with  the  least  pos 
sible  delay. 

Military  critics  have  condemned  this  act  of  Lee  as  one  of  the  gravest  blun 
ders  of  his  career.  His  advance  thus  far  had  been  resistless,  and  it  was  in  his 
power  to  capture  Baltimore,  and  probably  Philadelphia  and  Washington ;  but 
the  delay  involved  in  awaiting  the  return  of  Jackson  gave  McClellan,  who  was 
a  skillful  organizer,  time  to  prepare  to  meet  the  Confederate  invasion. 

Jackson  lost  not  an  hour  in  capturing  Harper's  Ferry,  the  defense  of  which 
was  so  disgraceful  that  had  not  Colonel  Miles  been  killed  just  as  the  white  flag 


324  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

was  run  up  he  would  have  been  court-martialed  and  probably  shot.  Many  sus 
pected  him  of  treason,  but  the  real  reason  was  his  cowardice  and  the  fact  that  he 
was  intoxicated  most  of  the  time.  Be  that  as  it  may,  Harper's  Ferry  surren 
dered  with  its  garrison  of  11,500  men,  who  were  immediately  paroled.  The 
Confederates  obtained  seventy-two  cannon,  13,000  small  arms,  and  an  immense 
amount  of  military  stores. 

Scarcely  had  the  surrender  taken  place,  when  Jackson,  who  had  hardly 
slept  for  several  days  and  nights,  received  orders  from  Lee  to  join  him  at  once. 
He  started  without  delay,  but  he  and  his  men  were  almost  worn  out.  It  is  likely 
that  by  this  time  Lee  was  aware  of  the  mistake  he  had  made  when  he  stopped 
for  several  days  while  his  leading  assistant  went  off  to  capture  a  post  that  was 
of  no  importance  to  either  side. 

M'CLELLAN'S  PURSUIT  OF  LEE. 

Leaving  a  strong  garrison  to  defend  Washington,  McClellan,  at  the  head 
of  100,000  troops,  set  out  to  follow  Lee,  who  had  about  70,000  under  his  im 
mediate  command.  The  Union  leader  reached  Frederick  on  the  12th  of  Sep 
tember,  and  there  a  curious  piece  of  good  fortune  befell  him. 

In  the  house  which  had  been  used  as  the  headquarters  of  General  D.  H. 
Hill  was  found  a  copy  of  an  order  issued  by  General  Lee,  which  detailed  his 
projected  movements,  and  contained  his  instructions  to  his  various  leaders.  It 
was  priceless  information  to  General  McClellan,  who  made  good  use  of  it. 

Lee  manoeuvred  to  draw  McClellan  away  from  Washington  and  Baltimore, 
that  he  might  attack  them  before  the  Union  commander  could  return  to  their 
defense.  Lee  left  Frederick  on  September  10th,  after  Jackson  had  started  for 
Harper's  Ferry,  and,  marching  by  South  Mountain,  aimed  for  Boonsboro'. 
Stuart  and  his  cavalry  remained  east  of  the  mountains  to  watch  McClellan, 
who  was  advancing  with  every  possible  precaution.  Lee  expected  Harper's 
Ferry  would  fall  on  the  13th,  but  the  surrender  did  not  take  place  until  two 
days  later.  The  Confederate  army  being  divided,  McClellan  tried  to  take 
advantage  of  the  fact,  hoping  to  save  Colonel  Miles  at  Harper's  Ferry.  It  did 
not  take  Lee  long  to  perceive  from  the  actions  of  the  Union  commander  that 
in  some  way  he  had  learned  of  his  plans. 

It  would  not  be  interesting  to  give  the  details  of  the  many  manoeuvres  by 
each  commander,  but  before  long  Lee  saw  he  could  not  hold  his  position  at 
South  Mountain,  and  he  retreated  toward  Sharpsburg,  near  the  stream  of  water 
known  as  Antietam  Creek.  He  was  thus  on  the  flank  of  any  Federal  force 
that  might  attempt  to  save  Harper's  Ferry.  Naturally  he  held  the  fords  of  the 
Potomac,  so  that  in  case  of  defeat  the  way  to  Virginia  was  open. 

Still  Lee  and  Jackson  were  separated  by  a  wide  stretch  of  mountain,  river, 


GENERAL   LEE'S    INVASION    OF  THE    NORTH 

The  Confederate  army  under  General  Lee  twice  invaded  the  North.    The  first  invasion  was  brought  to  a  disastrous  end  bv  the  Battle 

of  Antietam,  September  17,  1862.     The  second  invasion  ended  with  greater  disaster  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863. 

Gettysburg  was  the  greatest  and  Antietam  the  bloodiest  battles  of  the  war. 


BATTLE   OF  ANTIETAM  OR  SHARPSBURG. 


325 


and  plain,  and  McClellan  was  aware  of  the  fact.  He  had  the  opportunity  to 
cut  off  each  division  in  detail,  but  lacked  the  nerve  and  dash  to  do  it.  There 
were  subordinates  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  who  yearned  for  just  such  a 
chance,  but  McClellau's  timidity  and  excessive  caution  deprived  him  of  another 
golden  opportunity,  as  it  had  done  before  and  was  soon  to  do  again. 

The  position  of  Lee  was  among  a  range  of  hills,  which,  following  the  form 
of  a  crescent,  extended  from  the  lower  point  of  Antietam  Creek  to  a  bend  in 
the  Potomac.  Jackson  was  straining  every  nerve  to  join  Lee,  but  his  men  were 


A.NTIETAM   BRIDGE. 


taxed  beyond  endurance,  and  many  of  them  fell  by  the  roadside  from  utter 
exhaustion,  only  a  portion  reaching  Sharpsburg  on  the  16th.  The  full  Confed 
erate  army  did  not  exceed  40,000,  while  McClellan,  who  arrived  on  the  opposite 
side  of  Antietam  Creek,  that  afternoon,  had  70,000.  Instead  of  attacking  at 
once,  he  waited  two  days,  and  thus  gave  Lee  time  to  gather  many  thousand 
stragglers. 

BATTLE   OF   ANTIETAM    OR   SHARPSBURG. 

Finally,  when  McClellan  had  no  excuse  for  further  delay,  and  the  enemy 
was  in  fine  form,  he  opened  the  attack  on  the  morning  of  the  17th.     To  reach 


326  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

Lee  the  Union  commander  bad  to  cross  the  creek,  which  was  spanned  by  three 
bridges,  each  defended  by  Confederate  batteries. 

The  first  attack  was  by  Hooker  on  the  enemy's  left,  where  he  drove  Jack 
son  back,  after  he  had  been  reinforced  by  Hood,  cleared  the  woods,  and  took 
possession  of  the  Dunker  Church,  which  stood  slightly  north  of  Sharpsburg. 
A  little  way  beyond  the  Confederates  made  a  stand,  and,  being  reinforced, 
recovered  most  of  the  ground  they  had  lost.  General  Mansfield  was  killed  and 
Hooker  received  a  painful  wound  in  the  foot.  When  their  two  corps  were 
retreating  in  confusion,  Simmer  arrived,  rallied  them,  and  made  a  successful 
stand.  Seeing  the  critical  situation,  Lee  hurried  every  available  man  to  that 
point.  This  left  only  2,500  troops  in  front  of  the  bridge,  where  Burnside  had 
14,000.  McClellan  sent  repeated  orders  for  him  to  advance,  but  he  paid  no 
attention  until  one  o'clock,  when  he  crossed  without  trouble,  and  then  remained 
idle  for  three  more  hours.  The  heights  were  soon  captured,  and  a  position 
secured  from  which  the  rebel  lines  could  be  enfiladed.  A.  P.  Hill  arrived  at 
this  juncture  from  Harper's  Ferry  with  4,000  men,  and  drove  Burnside  in  a 
panic  to  the  creek.  Fighting  soon  ceased,  both  sides  too  much  exhausted 
to  keep  up  the  terrific  struggle,  the  position  of  the  two  armies  being  much  the 
same  as  at  first. 

This  fierce  battle  had  wrenched  and  disorganized  both  armies,  but  McClel 
lan,  who  had  much  the  larger  body,  could  have  destroyed  or  captured  those  in 
front  of  him,  had  he  followed  the  urgent  advice  of  his  officers,  and  given  the 
enemy  no  rest.  But  he  decided  to  await  reinforcements,  which  arrived  to  the 
number  of  14,000  that  night.  Then  he  resumed  his  preparations,  and  on  the 
morning  of  the  19th  advanced  against  the  enemy,  only  to  find  there  was  none 
in  front  of  him. 

LEE'S    RETREAT. 

The  retreat  of  Lee  was  deliberate.  Having  accurately  gauged  the 
commander  in  front  of  him,  he  spent  all  of  the  18th  in  completing  his 
preparations,  and  made  no  move  until  the  next  morning.  Then,  protected  by 
batteries  on  the  opposite  bank,  he  crossed  the  Potomac,  and  on  the  20th  drove 
back  a  Union  reconnoissance.  The  government,  impatient  with  McClellan's 
tardiness,  urged  and  almost  ordered  him  to  follow  up  Lee,  but  the  commander 
preferred  to  guard  against  being  followed  up  himself  by  the  Army  of  Northern 
Virginia.  Thus  again  a  golden  opportunity  slipped  away  unimproved. 

Naturally  each  side  claimed  a  victory  at  Antietam  or  Sharpsburg,  as  it  is 
called  in  the  South,  but  such  a  claim  in  either  case  is  hardly  justifiable.  It 
may  be  said,  on  the  one  hand,  that  Lee's  invasion  of  the  North  was  brought  to 
a  disastrous  end  by  his  check  at  Antietam,  but  the  claim  of  Lee  was  that  his 
failure  to  secure  the  expected  recruits  from  Maryland,  and  his  distance  from  the 


McCLELLAN  SUPERSEDED  BY  BURNSIDE.  327 

base  of  supplies,  necessitated  such  a  withdrawal  on  his  part,  for  it  is  established 
that  he  was  opposed  to  the  northward  advance  from  the  first. 

On  the  other  hand,  he  had  received  a  serious  check,  but  his  army  remained 
intact  and  was  as  well  prepared  as  ever  to  contest  the  campaign  against  Richmond, 
a  campaign  which  had  to  be  pushed  to  a  successful  conclusion  before  the  war 
could  end.  The  one  grand  opportunity  of  General  McClellan's  life  was 
presented  to  him  at  the  close  of  the  battle  of  Antietam,  and,  failing  to  seize 
it,  it  never  came  again,  and  his  military  career  ended  with  failure. 

Antietam  was,  in  comparison  to  numbers  engaged,  the  bloodiest  battle  of 
the  Civil  War.  The  Union  loss  was  2,108  killed  ;  9,549  wounded  ;  753  missing; 
total,  12,410.  The  Confederate  loss  was  1,886  killed;  9,348  wounded;  1,367 
captured  and  missing;  total,  12,601. 

The  government  was  insistent  that  McClellan  should  push  his  advance 
against  Richmond,  but  the  favorable  autumn  wore  away  and  the  wet  season 
arrived  before  a  plan  of  campaign  was  formulated.  This  was  to  cross  the 
Blue  Ridge  Mountains  from  Harper's  Ferry,  following  the  southeastern  side  of 
the  range,  leaving  detachments  to  guard  all  the  passes,  and  thus  threaten  the 
Confederate  communications  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 


M'CLELLAN  SUPERSEDED  BY  BURNSIDE. 


Accordingly,  on  the  25th  of  October,  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  once  more 
faced  toward  the  Confederate  capital.  In  the  course  of  a  week,  it  held  the 
whole  region  southwest  of  the  Blue  Ridge  and  was  near  the  army  of  General  Lee, 
who  fell  back,  caut:ously  followed  at  a  safe  distance  by  the  Union  commander. 
On  the  night  of  November  7th,  while  McClellan  was  talking  in  his  tent  with 
Burnside,  a  messenger  arrived  from  Washington  with  an  official  order,  relieving 
McClellan  of  the  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  appointing  Burnside 
as  his  successor.  McClellan  promptly  turned  over  the  care  of  the  army  to  him, 
and,  as  directed,  proceeded  to  Trenton,  N.  J.,  to  await  further  orders. 

It  may  be  added  that  General  McClellan  never  served  again  in  the  army. 
He  resigned  in  1864,  and  was  nominated  the  same  year  for  President  of  the 
United  States,  but  received  only  21  electoral  votes.  He  was  Democratic  governor 
of  New  Jersey  1878-1881,  and  died  at  his  home  in  Orange,  N.  J.,  October  29, 
1885. 

Burnside,  although  a  fine  corps  commander,  was  not  qualified  to  command 
the  splendid  body  over  which  he  was  thus  placed.  He  devoted  a  number 
of  days  to  acquainting  himself  with  his  vastly  enlarged  duties.  The  six  corps 
were  united  into  three  divisions  of  two  corps  each,  Sumner  commanding  the 
right,  Hooker  the  centre,  and  Franklin  the  left,  while  General  Sigel  had  charge 
of  a  body  of  reserve. 


328  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

After  consulting  with  General  Halleck,  it  was  decided  that  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  should  make  a  rapid  march  down  the  Rappahannock,  cross  by 
ponton-bridges  at  Fredericksburg,  and  then  advance  upon  Richmond  by  way  of 
Hanover  Court-House. 

Everything  depended  upon  initiating  the  movement  before  it  was  dis 
covered  by  the  enemy,  but  the  delays,  which  perhaps  were  unavoidable,  revealed 
the  truth  to  Lee.  When  Simmer's  division  reached  a  point  opposite  Fredericks- 
burg  they  saw  the  Confederates  on  the  other  side  awaiting  them.  Still  the  force 
was  so  meagre  that  Sumner  wished  to  cross  and  crush  it,  but  Burnside  would 
not  permit.  The  delay  gave  Lee  time  to  bring  up  his  whole  army  and  make  his 
position  impregnable.  He  stationed  a  battery  some  miles  below  the  town  to 
prevent  any  Union  gunboats  coming  up  stream,  while  every  ford  was  closely 
guarded. 

Burnside  faltered  before  the  position  that  was  like  a  mountain  wall,  but  the 
North  was  clamorous  for  something  to  be  done,  and  he  decided  to  make  the 
hopeless  attack.  One  hundred  and  forty-seven  cannon  were  posted,  on  the  night 
of  December  10th,  so  as  to  command  the  town  and  cover  the  crossing  of  the 
river.  Unable  to  prevent  this,  Lee  made  his  preparations  to  annihilate  the 
Unionists  after  they  had  crossed. 

UNION    DISASTER    AT    FREDERICKSBURO. 

In  the  lace  of  a  brisk  fire,  a  force  was  sent  over  the  river  and  occupied  the 
town,  while  Franklin  laid  his  bridges  two  miles  below  and  crossed  without 
trouble.  When  the  cold,  foggy  morning  of  December  13th  broke,  the  whole 
Army  of  the  Potomac  was  on  the  southern  shore  and  the  Confederate  army  was 
on  the  heights  behind  Fredericksburg. 

As  the  fog  had  cleared  to  some  extent,  General  Franklin  advanced 
against  the  Confederate  right,  but,  misunderstanding  Burnside's  order,  he  made 
only  a  feint.  Fighting  was  kept  up  throughout  the  day,  and  once  General 
Meade  forced  a  gap  in  the  enemy's  line,  but  he  was  not  reinforced,  and  was 
driven  back  with  severe  loss. 

The  attack  on  the  right  having  failed,  Sumner  threw  himself  against  the 
left.  This  required  the  seizure  of  Marye's  Hill,  and  was  hopeless  from  the  first. 
As  the  Union  troops  emerged  from  the  town  they  were  in  fair  range  of  an 
appalling  fire  that  mowed  down  scores.  Still  they  pressed  on  with  a  courage 
that  could  not  be  surpassed  until  one-half  lay  dead  and  dying,  when  the  rest 
staggered  backward  out  of  the  furnace-blast  of  death.  The  gallant  Hancock 
gathered  up  the  fragments  of  the  shattered  line,  and,  uniting  them  with  his  own 
men,  numbering  5,000  in  all,  he  led  a  charge,  which  in  a  brief  while  stretched  2,000 
dead  or  wounded.  Still  the  survivors  held  their  ground  and  were  joined  by 


UNION  DISASTER  AT  FREDERICKSBURG. 


329 


others,  who  fell  so  fast  that  it  was  soon  evident  that  every  man  would  be  killed. 
Then  grimly  remarking,  "  I  guess  we  have  had  enough  killed  to  satisfy  Burn- 
side,"  Hancock  ordered  the  brave  fellows  to  fall  back. 

Burnside  was  frantic  over  the  repeated  failures.  He  was  determined  that 
the  heights  should  be  carried,  and  ordered  Hooker,  his  only  remaining  general, 
to  do  it.  Hooker  went  across  with  his  three  divisions,  made  a  careful  reconnois- 
sance,  and  saw  that  to  carry  out  the  command  meant  the  massacre  of  all  his 
troops.  He  returned  to  Burnside  and  begged  him  to  recall  his  order.  He  re 
fused,  and  Hooker  attempted  to  obey,  leading  4,000  of  as  brave  men  as  ever 
shouldered  a  musket ;  but  before  they  could  reach  —  the  stone  wall  1,700  lay 
helpless  on  the  icy  earth  and  the  remainder  fled. 

Had  not  night  been  at  hand,  Burnside  would  ||  have  ordered  another 
charge  and  sacrificed 
hundreds  of  more 
lives,  but  he  con 
cluded  to  let  the  men 
live  until  the  next 
morning.  Already 
1,200  had  been 
killed,  almost  10,000 
wounded,  and  sev 
eral  thousand  were 
missing.  The  com 
manders  gathered 
a  r  o  u  n  d  Burnside 
and  insisted  that  the 
army  should  be 
brought  across  the 

river  before  it  was  annihilated,  but  he  refused.  He  was  resolved  on  sacrificing 
several  thousand  more  under  the  ghastly  name  of  a  "  charge."  At  last,  how 
ever,  he  became  more  reasonable  and  listened  to  his  officers.  Perhaps  the 
shrieks  of  the  wounded,  who  lay  for  two  days  and  nights  where  they  had  fallen 
without  help,  produced  some  effect  in  awaking  him  to  a  sensp  of  his  horrible 
blundering  and  incompetency,  for,  when  the  bleak,  dismal  morning  dawned, 
the  intended  "  charge  "  was  not  ordered.  The  Army  of  the  Potomac  had  been 
wounded  so  well-nigh  unto  death  that  it  could  not  stand  another  similar 
blow. 

On  the  cold,  rainy  night  of  December  loth,  the  wretched  forces  tramped  back 
over  the  river  on  the  ponton-bridges,  having  suffered  the  worst  defeat  in  the 
army's  whole  history.  It  was  in  the  power  of  Lee  to  destroy  it  utterly,  but  it 


LATEST  MODEL  OF  GATLINQ  GUN. 


330  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

slipped  away  from  him,  just  a^  it  had  slipped  away  from  McClellan  after  the 
battle  of  An  detain. 

The  Union  losses  at  Fredericksbnrg  were:  Killed,  1,284  ;  wounded,  9,600 ; 
missing,  1,769 ;  total,  12,653.  The  Confederate  losses  were :  Killed,  596 ; 
wounded,  4,068  ;  captured  and  missing,  651.  Total,  5,315. 

SUMMARY    OF    THE   YEAR'S   OPERATIONS. 

The  eventful  year  had  been  one  of  terrible  fighting.  It  had  opened  with 
the  Union  successes  of  Forts  Henry  ana  Donelson,  followed  by  Pea  Ridge, 
Pittsburg  Landing,  and  Corinth  in  the  West,  the  naval  battle  between  the 
Merrimac  and  Monitor,  the  capture  of  Roanoke  Island  and  of  New  Orleans. 
Bragg's  invasion  of  Kentucky  was  injurious  to  the  Union  cause,  while,  as  w^ 
have  seen,  the  campaign  against  "Richmond  had  been  a  series  of  disastrous 
failures.  Still,  taken  as  a  whole,  the  year  showed  a  decisive  step  forward.  The 
Union  line  had  been  advanced  across  the  State  of  Tennessee,  substantial 
progress  had  been  made  in  opening  the  Mississippi,  and  the  blockade  was 
enforced  with  a  rigidity  that  caused  great  distress  in  the  Confederacy. 

Both  sides  felt  the  terrific  strain  of  the  war.  The  Confederacy  in  April 
passed  a  conscription  act,  which  made  all  able-bodied  males  between  the  ages  of 
eighteen  and  thirty-five  years  soldiers  for  the  war.  All  such  were  taken  from 
the  control  of  the  State  of  which  they  were  residents  and  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  President  Davis  until  the  close  of  the  war.  This  conscription  act  was  soon 
made  much  more  severe  in  its  provisions. 

THE   CONFEDERATE    PRIVATEERS. 

One  source  of  help  to  the  Confederacy  was  her  privateers,  which  wrought 
immense  damage  to  northern  shipping.  England  assisted  in  fitting  them  out. 
Despite  the  protests  of  Minister  Adams,  many  of  these  were  allowed  to  put  to 
sea.  One  of  the  first  was  the  Oreto,  afterward  known  as  the  Florida.  She 
succeeded  in  eluding  the  blockade  at  Mobile,  through  flying  the  British  flag, 
delivered  her  valuable  freight,  received  her  armament,  and  came  forth  again  in 
the  latter  part  of  December  and  began  her  wholesale  destruction  of  American 
merchantmen. 

The  privateer  Sumter  was  driven  into  Gibraltar,  and  so  closely  watched  by  the 
Tuscarora  that  Captain  Semtnes,  her  commander,  sold  her,  and  made  his  way  to 
England,  where  the  English  built  for  him  the  most  famous  privateer  the  Con 
federacy  ever  had — the  Alabama — of  which  much  more  will  be  told  further  on. 

THE    EMANCIPATION    PROCLAMATION. 

The  national  government  had  learned  by  this  time  the  full  measurement 


THE  EMANCIPATION  PROCLAMATION. 


331 


of  the  gigantic  task  before  it.  By  the  close  of  the  year,  1,300,000  volunteers 
had  been  called  for,  and  the  daily  expenses  amounted  to  $3,000,000.  The 
conviction,  too,  was  growing  that  slavery  was  the  real  cause  of  the  war,  and  the 
time  had  come  to  treat  it  with  less  consideration  than  many  leading  officers  and 
men  whose  patriotism  could  not  be  doubted  were  disposed  to  show  toward  the 
"peculiar  institution."  President  Lincoln  was  one  of  the  wisest  men  who  ever 
sat  in  the  executive  chair,  and  none  read  so  unerringly  the  signs  of  the  times  as 
he.  The  Abolitionists  were  impatient  with  his  slowness,  while  many  of  the 


UNITED  STATES   MILITARY  TELEGRAPH  WAGON 

doubting  thought  he  went  too  fast.     He  waited  until  the  right  hour,  and  then 
issued  his  Emancipation  Proclamation. 

This  appeared  soon  after  the  battle  of  Antietam,  and  it  is  said  was  the  ful 
fillment  of  the  pledge  President  Lincoln  had  made  to  heaven  that,  if  Lee's 
invasion  was  turned  back,  he  would  issue  the  great  paper,  which,  in  effect,  would 
see  free  4,000,000  bondsmen.  In  it  he  warned  the  seceding  States  that  in  every 
one  which  failed  to  return  to  its  allegiance  by  the  first  of  January,  1863,  he 
would  declare  the  slaves  free.  The  warning  was  received  with  scorn,  as  was 


332  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

expected.  From  the  date  named,  therefore,  all  the  armed  forces  of  the  Union 
treated  the  slaves  as  free  wherever  encountered.  Before  long  colored  men  were 
enlisted  as  soldiers  and  sailors,  and  they  bore  no  inconsiderable  part  in  the 
prosecution  of  the  war. 


"GREENBACKS." 


It  will  be  understood  that  the  revenue  of  the  government  was  altogether 
unequal  to  the  vast  demands  upon  it.  Taxation  was  increased,  and,  in  1862, 
the  government  began  the  issue  of  its  own  paper  money.  The  backs  of  the 
bills  being  printed  in  green  ink,  these  bills  were  known  as  " greenbacks."  They 
were  made  a  legal  tender,  despite  considerable  opposition  to  the  measure.  The 
law  gave  any  person  owing  a  debt,  no  matter  if  contracted  in  gold  and  silver,  the 
right  to  pay  the  same  with  greenbacks.  Since  it  is  impossible  to  regulate  the 
value  of  money  except  by  the  law  of  supply  and  demand,  the  bills,  as  compared 
with  gold,  depreciated  a  good  deal  in  value. 

The  act  of  February  25,  1862,  authorized  the  issue  of  $150,000,000,  and 
further  issues  were  made  on  June  11,  1862,  and  March  3,  1863.  The  depre 
ciation  of  greenbacks  was  such  that  the  price  of  gold  averaged  2.20  through 
out  1864,  and  at  one  time  reached  2.85.  In  other  words,  a  greenback  dollar  was 
worth  only  thirty-five  cents.  Another  method  of  raising  money  was  through 
the  sale  of  bonds,  of  which  many  millions  were  issued.  To  encourage  their 
sale,  the  National  Banking  System  was  established  in  1863.  This  required  all 
banks  that  issued  currency  to  deposit  a  slightly  larger  amount  of  bonds  in 
Washington.  Thus  the  banks  were  compelled  to  help  the  government  by 
loaning  it  money. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

ADMINISTRATION   OK    LINCOLN   (CONTINUED), 

1861-1865. 

\VAR   KOR   THK   UNION   (CONTINUKD),   1863. 

The  Military  Situation  in  the  West — Siege  and  Capture  of  Vicksburg — The  Mississippi  Opened — Battle  of 
Chickamauga — "  The  Rock  of  Chickaniauga  " — The  Battle  Above  the  Clouds — Siege  of  Knoxville — 
General  Hooker  Appointed  to  the  Command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac — His  Plan  of  Campaign 
Against  Richmond— Stonewall  Jackson's  Stampede  of  the  Eleventh  Corps — Critical  Situation  of  the 
Union  Army— Death  of  Jackson— Battle  of  Chancellors ville— Defeat  of  Hooker— The  Second  Con 
federate  Invasion— Battle  of  Gettysburg— The  Decisive  Struggle  of  the  War— Lee's  Retreat— Sub 
sequent  Movements  of  Lee  and  Meade — Confederate  Privateering — Destruction  of  the  Nashville — 
Failure  of  the  Attacks  on  Charleston— The  Military  Raids— Stuart's  Narrow  Escape— Stoneman's 
Raid — Morgan's  Raid  in  Indiana  and  Ohio. 

THERE  were  now  such  immense  armies  in  the  field  and  military  operations 
were  conducted  on  so  vast  a  scale  that  the  reader  must  carefully  study  the 
situation  in  order  to  gain  an  intelligent  idea  of  the  progress  of  the  momentous 
events.  We  will  give  our  attention  first  to  operations  in  the  West. 

THE   SITUATION    IJsT    THE    WEST. 

There  were  four  Union  armies  in  that  section.  The  first  was  the  one  under 
Rosecrans,  which,  on  the  opening  days  of  the  year,  won  the  victory  at 
Murfreesboro'  or  Stone  River,  an  account  of  which  is  given  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  The  second  was  near  Holly  Springs,  under  General  Grant ;  a  third 
was  in  New  Orleans,  under  General  Banks,  who  had  succeeded  General  Butler; 
and  the  fourth  was  in  Arkansas.  The  main  object  of  all  these  armies  was  to 
open  the  Mississippi.  When  that  should  be  accomplished,  the  Confederacy 
would  be  split  in  two.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  beeves  were  drawn  from 
Texas  and  the  country  beyond  the  Mississippi,  and  to  shut  off  this  supply 
would  be  one  of  the  most  effective  blows  that  could  be  struck  against  the 
rebellion. 

GRANT    BEFORE   VICKSBURG. 

General  Sherman  had  failed  to  capture  Vicksburg,  and  General  Grant 
assumed  command  of  the  forces  besieging  it.  He  saw  that  the  defenses  facing 
the  Mississippi  and  the  lower  part  of  the  Yazoo  were  too  powerful  to  be  taken 

(333) 


334 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 


by  storm.  He  decided  as  a  consequence  to  turn  the  rear  of  the  lines,  and, 
securing  an  entrance  into  the  upper  part  of  the  Yazoo,  reach  the  rear  of  the 
batteries  at  Haines'  Bluff. 

In  this  important  work  he  received  valuable  help  from  the  ironclads  of 
Admiral  Porter.  AVith  one  of  them  he  opened  communication  with  the 
squadron  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Mississippi  and  disabled  a  Confederate 
steamer  under  the  guns  of  Vicksburg.  Two  of  the  boats  groped  their  way 
through  the  swamps  and  wooded  creeks,  where  nothing  more  than  canoes  and 
dugouts  had  ventured  before,  obtained  a  great  deal  of  cotton  and  burned  much 
more,  disregarded  the  torpedoes  and  fought  the  rebels  along  the  banks,  explored 
new  routes,  and  in  the  end  both  were  captured  by  the  enemy. 

Several  ingenious  plans  were 
tried  to  capture  these  formidable 
fortifications.  One  was  an  attempt 
to  force  a  passage  into  the  Upper 
Yazoo.  Another  was  to  open  a 
new  channel  for  the  Mississippi. 
Both  were  failures,  but  the  levees 
along  the  Yazoo  were  cut  and 
many  acres  in  the  rear  of  Yicks- 
burg  overflowed,  while  a  great  deal 
of  Arkansas  and  Louisiana  was 
flooded.  The  object  of  all  this  was 
to  shut  off  the  supplies  of  Vicks 
burg.  Admiral  Farragut  now 
strove  to  pass  from  the  lower  Mis 
sissippi  by  the  Port  Hudson  bat 
teries  to  Vicksburg.  The  effort 

was  made  on  the  night  of  March  14th,  which  was  of  inky  darkness.  The 
approach  was  discovered  by  the  enemy,  who  kindled  large  bonfires  on  the  bank 
which  revealed  the  passing  vessels.  The  latter  opened  on  the  batteries  with 
great  effect,  but  only  two,  including  the  flagship,  were  able  to  get  past,  the 
thirteen  being  forced  to  turn  back.  The  Mississippi  ran  aground  and  was  set 
on  fire  and  abandoned.  With  the  two  vessels  in  hand,  Farragut  blockaded 
the  mouth  of  the  Red  River  and  gave  valuable  help  to  General  Grant,  but  the 
land  forces  advancing  from  Baton  Rouge  to  aid  in  the  attack  on  Vicksburg 
turned  back  upon  learning  of  the  failure  of  Farrngut's  fleet  to  run  past  the 
batteries. 

General  Grant  had  set  out  to  capture  Vicksburg  and  nothing  could  turn 
him  from  his  purpose.  His  aim  was  to  sever  the  Confederate  communications 


ADMIRAL   POHTER. 


RUNNING    THE  BATTERIES. 


335 


with  the  east  by  turning  the  defenses  of  the  Yazoo  and  the  Mississippi.  General 
McClernand  was  sent  in  the  latter  part  of  March  to  occupy  New  Carthage  to 
the  south,  while  General  Banks,  by  advancing  from  New  Orleans,  threatened 
Port  Hudson  in  conjunction  with  the  fleet  lying  near. 

Banks'  force  was  so  large  that  the  most  the  enemy  could  do  was  to  delay 
his  advance  by  burning  bridges  and  obstructing  the  river.  In  the  latter  part 
of  April,  he  established  himself  at  Simmsport,  near  the  junction  of  the 
Atchafalaya  and  the  Mississippi.  Admiral  Porter,  who  was  lying  with  his 
fleet  above  Vicksburg,  now  made  the  attempt  to  join  Farragut  below,  and  it 
proved  one  of  the  most  exciting  ex 
periences  of  the  war. 

RUNNING    THE    BATTERIES. 

Naturally  a  dark  night— April 
16th — was  selected,  and  eight  gun 
boats,  three  transports,  and  several 
barges  loaded  with  supplies  silently 
dropped  down  the  river  in  the  im 
penetrable  mist,  while  the  thousands 
of  Union  troops  intently  watched  the 
hulls  as  they  melted  from  sight  ii, 
the  gloom.  The  hope  was  general 
that  they  would  be  able  to  float  past 
undiscovered,  and,  when  an  hour  of 
intense  stillness  went  by,  the  watch 
ers  and  listeners  began  to  breathe 
more  freely,  though  their  anxiety 
was  only  partly  lifted. 

Suddenly  two  crimson  lines  of 
fire  flamed  along  the  river  front,  and 
the  earth  trembled  under  the  stu 
pendous  explosion.  The  ships  had  been  detected,  and  the  river  was  swept  by 
a  tempest  of  shot  and  shell  that  it  seemed  must  shatter  to  fragments  every  one 
of  the  craft.  It  should  be  remembered  that  these  batteries  extended  for  a  long 
distance  along  the  shore,  and  they  opened  one  after  the  other,  as  the  ships  came 
opposite.  Thus  the  fleet  became  the  target  of  battery  after  battery,  and  had 
a  continuous  and  extended  gantlet  to  run  before  reaching  safety. 

The  gunboats  returned  the  fire  as  they  swept  by,  and  many  of  their  shots 
were  effective,  but  in  such  a  duel  the  advantage  is  always  with  the  land  batteries. 
One  of  the  transports  was  disabled,  and  another,  directly  behind  her,  had  to 


DAVID   G.   FARRAGUT. 


336  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

stop  to  avoid  running  into  the  injured  craft.  The  crew  of  the  former,  finding 
themselves  the  centre  of  a  terrific  fire,  launched  the  yawl,  and,  leaping  into  it, 
pulled  for  the  shore.  They  had  scarcely  left  their  vessel  when  it  was  fired  by 
a  shell,  and,  aflame  from  stem  to  stern,  it  drifted  down  stream.  Meanwhile,  the 
transport  that  had  grounded  was  towed  out  of  danger.  With  this  exception, 
the  whole  fleet  got  safely  past,  the  loss  being  only  one  man  killed  and  two 
wounded  on  Porter's  flagship. 

General  Grant  was  greatly  pleased  with  this  success.  A  few  nights  later 
a  second  attempt  was  successful.  He  was  thus  enabled  to  send  supplies  to  the 
army,  with  which  he  intended  to  attack  Vicksburg  on  the  south.  Gradually 
shifting  his  own  position,  he  reached  a  point  opposite  Grand  Gulf,  a  short 
distance  below  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Black  River. 

CAPTURE   OF    GRAND    GULF. 

Although  Grand  Gulf  was  strongly  fortified  its  quick  capture  was  a  neces 
sity.  McClernand  had  been  ordered  several  times  to  attack  it,  but  he  was  so 
laggard  that  Grant  himself  undertook  the  task.  It  proved  one  of  extreme 
difficulty,  and  he  was  obliged  to  make  a  change  of  plans,  but  he  handled  his 
troops  with  admirable  skill  and  with  such  effect  that  the  Confederate  com 
mander's  position  at  Grand  Gulf  became  untenable  and  he  withdrew.  Grant 
rode  into  town  and  found  the  place  in  the  possession  of  Admiral  Farragut. 

The  success  was  so  brilliant  that  Pemberton,  the  Confederate  general  com 
manding  the  forces  at  Vicksburg,  became  alarmed  and  telegraphed  to  General 
Jo  Johnston  for  reinforcements,  but  Johnston  was  too  much  occupied  with  Rose- 
crans  in  Tennessee  to  spare  any  of  his  men,  and  about  all  he  could  do  was  to 
send  encouraging  words  to  his  subordinate. 

GRANT'S  FINE  GENERALSHIP. 

General  Grant  never  displayed  his  great  genius  more  strikingly  than  in 
the  operations  before  Vicksburg.  For  days  and  nights  he  seemed  scarcely  to 
eat  or  sleep.  He  was  here,  there,  and  everywhere,  and  was  familiar  with  all 
the  minute  details  of  his  momentous  enterprise.  General  Pemberton  confessed 
in  his  reports  that  the  amazing  activity  of  Grant  "embarrassed  him." 

Grand  Gulf  was  made  the  base  of  operations,  and,  well  aware  that  rein 
forcements  would  be  hurried  to  the  garrison,  Grant  hastened  his  movements. 
While  pressing  his  attack  he  learned  that  Johnston  was  at  Jackson  with  a 
strong  force,  with  which  to  reinforce  Pemberton.  He  immediately  dispatched 
McPherson  and  Sherman  thither,  and,  after  a  fierce  fight,  Jackson  was  captured. 
Grant  learned  from  deserters  that  Johnston,  the  chief  Confederate  commander 
in  that  section,  had  sent  peremptory  orders  to  Pemberton  to  leave  Vicksburg 


GRANT'S  FINE   GENERALSHIP. 


337 


and  attack  him  in  the  rear.  The  latter,  with  his  usual  promptness,  met  this 
danger,  and,  by  decisively  defeating  the  enemy  at  Champion  Hill,  he  accom 
plished  the  splendid  feat  of  keeping  Johnston  out  of  Vicksburg  and  Pemberton 
in.  It  was  a  great 
exploit,  for  Jo  John 
ston  was  one  of  the 
ablest  generals  of 
the  war,  and  the 
fi  n  e  campaign 
which  he  had  plan 
ned  was  brought  to 
naught.  Not  only 
was  he  kept  out  of 
Vicksburg,  but  it 
was  made  impossi 
ble  for  him  to  send 
any  help  to  Pember 
ton,  around  whom 
the  Union  com 
mander  was  draw 
ing  the  coils  more 
tightly  each  day. 

Still  the  de 
fenses  of  Vicksburg 
were  too  powerful  to 
be  captured  by 
storm,  and  Grant 
did  the  only  thing 
possible — he  be 
sieged  the  city.  The 
siege  began  about 
the  middle  of  May. 
The  garrison  had 
provisions  for  barely 
two  months,  from  QRANT  AFTER  THE  BATTLE  QF  BELMONT. 

which  they  had  to 

supply  the  inhabitants  of  the  town.  Jo  Johnston  saw  the  peril  and  set  to  work 
with  such  vigor  to  raise  a  force  to  send  to  the  relief  of  Pemberton,  that  Grant 
was  hurried  into  making  an  assault  on  the  rebel  works.  This  took  place  before 
daylight  on  the  morning  of  May  19th.  Though  successful  at  first,  the  Federals 

22 


338  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN.. 

were  repulsed.  A  grand  assault  was  undertaken  three  days  later  and  pressed 
with  the  utmost  bravery,  but  it  resulted  in  another  repulse,  in  which  the  loss  of 
the  assailants  was  three  times  greater  than  that  of  the  defenders.  Porter  tried 
to  help  with  his  fleet,  but  his  vessels  were  so  baldy  injured  by  the  batteries  that 
they  were  compelled  to  withdraw  from  action. 

This  failure  showed  that  it  was  useless  to  try  to  capture  Vicksburg  except 
through  a  regular  siege,  which  was  pressed  henceforth  without  intermission. 
Shells  were  thrown  into  the  doomed  city  night  and  day  ;  the  people  lived  in 
caves,  on  short  rations,  and  underwent  miseries  and  sufferings  which  it  is  hard 
to  comprehend  in  these  days.  All  the  time  Grant  was  edging  closer  and  closer. 
Parallels  and  approaches  were  constructed ;  mines  sunk  and  countermining 
done.  Several  attempts  were  made  to  relieve  Vicksburg,  but  the  bulldog-like 
grip  of  Grant  could  not  be  loosened,  and  the  condition  of  the  garrison  became 
much  like  that  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown  in  1781 

FALL    OF   VICKSBURG. 

The  defenders  displayed  the  greatest  bravery  and  endurance,  and  held  out 
until  the  time  came  when  it  was  apparent  that  it  was  a  choice  between  surrender 
and  starving  to  death.  That  man  who  prefers  to  starve  rather  than  submit  to 
a  magnanimous  foe  is  a  fool.  Pemberton  had  21,000  troops  under  his  command, 
but  6,000  were  in  the  hospitals,  while  Grant  had  fully  60,000  soldiers  waiting 
and  eager  to  make  the  assault.  On  the  3d  of  July,  a  flag  of  truce  was  displayed 
in  front  of  Vicksburg,  and  a  message  was  sent  to  the  Union  commander,  ask 
ing  for  an  armistice  with  a  view  of  arranging  for  the  capitulation  of  Vicks 
burg.  Grant's  reply  was  his  usual  one,  that  the  only  terms  he  could  accept 
were  unconditional  surrender,  and  he,  therefore,  declined  to  appoint  commis 
sioners. 

The  commanders  then  met  between  the  lines,  and  Grant  agreed  that  the 
garrison  should  be  paroled  and  allowed  to  go  to  their  homes,  and  that  the  city, 
stores,  arms,  and  supplies  should  belong  to  the  conquerors.  Although  the  Union 
commander's  terms  "unconditional  surrender"  sounded  harsh,  they  always 
proved  of  a  generous  nature.  There  was  a  good  deal  of  criticism  in  the  South 
of  Pemberton  for  selecting  the  4th  of  July  for  making  his  submission,  since  the 
Union  people  would  be  sure  to  make  a  greater  ado  over  it.  Pemberton's 
explanation  was  that  he  believed  Grant  would  be  more  disposed  to  give  him 
liberal  terms  on  that  date  than  on  any  other,  and  it  would  not  be  strange  if  he 
was  partly  right. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  CAPTURE. 

The  capture  of  Vicksburg  was  one  of  the  most  important  Union  successes 
of  the  war.  In  his  official  report.  Grant  thus  summarized  the  results  of  his 


ROSECRANS'    CAMPAIGN.  339 

campaign:  "The  defeat  of  the  enemy  in  five  battles  outside  of  Vicksburg;  the 
occupation  of  Jackson,  the  capital  of  Mississippi ;  and  the  capture  of  Vicksburg, 
its  garrison  and  munitions  of  war;  a  loss  to  the  enemy  of  37,000  prisoners,  at 
least  10,000  killed  and  wounded,  and  hundreds,  perhaps  thousands,  who  can 
never  be  collected  or  reorganized.  Arms  and  munitions  of  war  for  an  army 
of  60,000  men  have  fallen  into  our  hands,  beside  a  large  amount  of  other  public 
property  and  much  that  was  destroyed  to  prevent  our  capturing  it." 

Thus  one  of  the  great  objects  of  the  war  was  accomplished.  The  Mississippi 
was  opened  throughout  its  entire  length  and  the  Confederacy  cut  in  twain.  That 
President  Davis  felt  the  gravity  of  the  blow  (to  which  one  still  more  decisive  was 
added  about  the  same  time)  was  proven  by  his  proclamation  calling  into  service 
all  persons  in  the  Confederacy  not  legally  exempt,  who  were  between  the  ages 
of  eighteen  and  forty-five  years.  He  also  appointed  the  21st  of  August  as  a 
day  of  fasting,  humiliation,  and  prayer. 

Grant's  magnificent  success  greatly  increased  his  popularity  in  the  North. 
His  praises  were  in  every  one's  mouth ;  he  was  declared  to  be  the  ablest  military 
leader  that  had  yet  appeared,  and  more  than  one  saw  in  him  the  coming  saviour 
of  the  Union. 

Perhaps  it  is  slightly  premature  to  say  that  the  Mississippi  was  opened 
from  the  hour  of  the  surrender  of  Vicksburg.  Port  Hudson  held  out,  but  its 
fall  was  a  corollary  of  that  of  the  more  important  city.  It  had  stoutly  resisted 
several  attacks,  but,  realizing  the  hopelessness  of  his  situation,  the  Confederate 
commander  surrendered  on  the  9th  of  July,  and  the  opening  of  the  Mississippi 
was  fully  completed. 

ROSECRANS'    CAMPAIGN. 

The  reader  will  recall  that  the  battle  of  Murfreesboro'  took  place  at  the 
very  beginning  of  the  year.  Kosecrans,  the  Union  commander,  never  repeated 
the  brilliant  skill  he  had  shown  in  fighting  Bragg  on  Stone  River.  He  seemed 
to  think  that  that  repulse  of  the  enemy  was  sufficient  to  last  a  good  while,  for 
he  remained  idle  throughout  the  several  months  that  followed.  There  were  a 
number  of  brisk  skirmishes  and  fights,  but  none  was  of  importance.  When 
June  arrived  without  anything  of  account  having  been  accomplished,  the 
government  suggested  to  Rosecrans  that  it  was  time  he  took  steps  to  drive 
Bragg  into  Georgia  and  thus  secure  Eastern  Tennessee,  where  the  sentiment 
was  strongly  Union. 

Rosecrans  hesitated,  but  upon  receiving  a  stronger  intimation  that  he  ought 
to  be  up  and  doing,  he  began  a  series  of  movements,  in  the  latter  part  of  June, 
which  caused  Bragg  to  withdraw  to  Chattanooga,  where  he  intrenched  himself. 
Burnside  then  advanced  from  Ohio  into  Eastern  Tennessee,  but  was  so  delayed 
that  Bragg  was  heavily  reinforced  from  Virginia.  To  protect  his  communi- 


340  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

cations,  he  fell  back,  however,  upon  tjie  approach  of  the  Federal  army,  which 
occupied  Chattanooga. 

Unaware  of  the  increased  strength  of  the  enemy,  Rosecrans  divided  his 
army  into  three  columns,  separated  by  wide  spaces  of  mountains,  and  marched 
in  loose  order  against  his  foe,  observing  which  Bragg  determined  to  overwhelm 
each  of  the  columns  in  detail. 

The  first  demonstration  was  against  General  George  H.  Thomas,  who 
commanded  the  Federal  left,  and  was  encamped  at  the  foot  of  Lookout 
Mountain.  That  splendid  officer  eluded  the  enemy  launched  against  him, 
and  effected  a  junction  with  the  other  two  corps. 

At  the  same  time  the  centre  of  the  three  columns  was  attacked,  but  the 
assault  was  repulsed,  and  the  reunited  Union  army  on  the  18th  of  September 
stood  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Chickamauga,  which  stream  was  well  named, 
for  the  Indian  word  means  "the  river  of  death."  The  position  was  twelve  miles 
from  Chattanooga,  and  it  was  a  perilous  one,  for,  as  has  been  stated,  Bragg  had 
been  heavily  reinforced,  and  Longstreet  with  a  powerful  column  of  veterans 
from  Lee's  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  was  approaching.  He,  therefore, 
decided  to  make  an  attempt  to  recover  Chattanooga, 

BATTLE    OF   CHICKAMAUGA. 

The  Confederates  crossed  the  Chickamauga,  and,  on  the  morning  of  the 
19th,  Rosecrans  opened  the  battle  by  attacking  the  enemy's  right  wing.  The 
entire  armies  were  soon  involved,  and  the  fighting  lasted  until  nightfall,  with 
the  result  in  favor  of  the  Confederates.  Although  forced  from  several  positions, 
they  gained  and  held  the  road  leading  to  Chattanooga,  and  the  Union  troops 
were  driven  almost  to  the  base  of  Missionary  Ridge. 

Late  that  night,  Longstreet  arrived  with  his  fire-seasoned  veterans.  He 
was  one  of  Lee's  best  lieutenants,  and  it  was  arranged  that  the  battle  should  be 
renewed  the  next  morning  at  daybreak,  with  Longstreet  commanding  the  left 
wing.  From  some  cause,  the  Confederate  attack  was  delayed  until  ten  o'clock, 
the  delay  giving  the  Federals  time  to  throw  up  a  number  of  breastworks. 
Against  these  Bragg  repeatedly  charged  with  his  right  wing,  but  was  repulsed 
each  time. 

Thomas,  in  command  of  the  Union  left,  also  repelled  a  sharp  attack,  but 
Longstreet  routed  Rosecrans,  and,  discerning  a  gap  caused  by  the  transfer  of 
the  Union  centre  to  strengthen  the  left,  Longstreet  led  his  men  impetuously 
into  the  opening,  thus  splitting  the  Union  army  in  two.  Striking  in  both 
directions,  he  threw  the  two  divisions  into  such  disorder  and  confusion  that  the 
frightened  Rosecrans  galloped  in  hot  haste  to  Chattanooga  to  secure  his  supply 
train  and  the  ponton-bridges  over  the  Tennessee.  At  the  same  time,  he 


SUPERSEDURE   OF  R08ECRANS  BY  THOMAS. 


341 


telegraphed  the  terrifying  tidings  to  Washington  that  the  whole  Union  army 
had  been  beaten. 


"THE  ROCK  OF  CHICKAMAUGA.' 


At  a  crisis  in  the  tremendous  battle,  General  Hood,  one  of  the  Confederate 
leaders,  was  wounded,  and  a  halt  was  made  until  another  officer  could  be 
brought  up  to  take  his  place.  Short  as  was  the  delay,  it  gave  the  Unionists 
time  to  rally  and  strengthen  their  endangered  points.  Despite  this  advantage, 
the  telegram  of  Rosecrans  would  have  been  verified  and  the  magnificent  army 
destroyed  except  for  one  man.  He  was  George  H.  Thomas,  the  heroic 
commander  of  the  Union  left.  Long- 
street  launched  his  veterans  against 
him  again  and  again,  but  he  beat 
them  back  in  every  instance.  Never 
did  men  fight  more  bravely  than 
those  Americans,  arrayed  against 
each  other,  and  never  was  finer  gen 
eralship  displayed  than  by  General 
Thomas,  whose  wonderful  defense 
that  day  won  for  him  the  name  by 
which  he  will  always  be  remembered 
-"The  Rock  of  Chickamauga." 

Holding  his  heroes  well  in  hand, 

O 

Thomas  was  ready  to  renew  the  battle 
the  next  day,  but  Bragg  did  not 
molest  him.  The  Confederates,  how 
ever,  had  Avon  a  victory,  for  they 
drove  the  Federals  from  the  field  and 
retained  possession  of  it.  Thomas 
fell  slowly  back  toward  Chattanooga, 
presenting  a  firm  front  to  the  enemy. 
Chicknmau2;a  ranks  as  one  of 

O 

the  great  battles  of  the  war.  The  Union  losses  were:  killed,  1,656;  wounded, 
9,749;  missing,  4,774;  total,  16,179.  The  Confederate  losses  were:  killed, 
2,268;  wounded,  13,613;  captured  and  missing,  1,090;  total,  16,971. 

SUPERSEDURE    OF    ROSECRANS    BY    THOMAS. 

Rosecrans'  conduct  of  this  battle  caused  his  supersedure  by  Thomas,  while 
several  division  commanders  were  suspended,  pending  an  inquiry  into  their 
course.  President  Davis  removed  General  Leonidas  Polk,  who  was  thought  to 
have  shown  hesitancy  of  action  at  critical  points.  Bragg,  however,  was  the 


GEORCJE   H.  THOMAS. 

"The  Rock  of  Chickamauga." 


342  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

most  blainable,  for,  with  the  advantage  overwhelmingly  in  his  favor,  he  refused 
to  permit  Longstreet  to  follow  up  his  success.  One  of  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Confederate  President  was  his  strong  likes  and  dislikes.  He  was  a  personal 
enemy  of  Jo  Johnston,  and  more  than  once  humiliated  him,  but  he  was  also  a 
friend  of  Bragg,  and,  in  the  face  of  indignant  protests,  retained  him  in  chief 
command  in  the  southwest. 

As  soon  as  the  Union  army  reached  Chattanooga  intrenchments  were 
thrown  up.  Bragg  appeared  before  the  town  on  the  23d,  and,  finding  the  posi 
tion  too  strong  to  be  carried  by  assault,  he  laid  siege  to  it.  The  situation  of  the 
army  became  so  dangerous  that  great  uneasiness  was  felt  in  Washington,  where 
the  wise  step  was  taken  of  sending  General  Grant  thither,  with  his  appoint 
ment  to  the  command  of  the  entire  West.  Abundant  reinforcements  were  hurried 
to  the  imperiled  point,  the  entire  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Corps  from  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  forming  the  principal  commands.  The  Federals  became  much 
the  stronger,  but  Bragg  did  not  abandon  his  siege  of  Chattanooga. 

Recalling  the  advance  of  Burnside  from  the  Ohio  to  the  relief  of  Rose- 
crans,  it  should  be  stated  that  he  did  not  arrive  in  time  to  take  part  in  the  battle 
of  Chickamauga,  but  occupied  Knoxville  on  the  9th  of  September.  Bragg  sent 
Longstreet  with  a  strong  force  to  attack  Burnside,  the  Confederate  commander 
thereby  weakening  his  army,  which  could  ill  stand  it.  Grant  arrived  at  Chat 
tanooga  on  the  night  of  October  20th,  and  telegraphed  Burnside  to  hold  Knox 
ville  at  all  hazards,  while  he  gave  his  attention  to  Bragg. 

Sherman  came  up  with  his  troops  November  15th,  and  a  week  later  Grant 
had  an  army  of  80,000  men  on  the  ground,  while  the  removal  of  Longstreet 
left  Bragg  with  only  50,000.  His  line,  twelve  miles  long,  embraced  two  eleva 
tions  commanding  a  view  of  Chattanooga  Valley.  Lookout  Mountain  was  on 
the  south,  while  Missionary  Ridge  on  the  east  was  not  quite  so  high.  The  Con 
federate  left  wing  rested  on  the  former,  and  the  right  on  Missionary  Ridge,  with 
the  Chattanooga  flowing  between.  Bragg  was  justified  in  considering  his  posi 
tion  impregnable. 

THE  BATTLE  ABOVE  THE  CLOUDS. 

Grant,  however,  held  a  different  opinion.  On  the  night  of  the  23d  the 
enemy's  picket  lines  were  forced  back  and  an  improved  position  secured.  The 
following  morning,  Hooker,  having  already  crossed  the  river,  was  ordered  to 
attack  the  position  on  Lookout  Mountain.  His  movements  were  hidden  for  a 
time  by  a  dense  fog,  and  it  was  his  intention  to  stop  as  soon  as  the  enemy's  rifle- 
pits  at  the  base  were  captured;  but,  when  this  was  accomplished,  the  men  were 
carried  away  by  their  enthusiasm,  noting  which  Hooker  ordered  them  to  charge 
the  Confederate  position.  Up  the  mountain  the  cheering,  eager  fellows  swept 
with  irresistible  valor.  The  Stars  and  Stripes  was  planted  on  the  crest  and 


BURNSIDE  SUPERSEDED  BY  HOOKER.  343 

2,000  of  the  fleeing  Confederates  were  made  prisoners.  The  fog  still  lay  heavy 
in  the  valley  below,  a  fact  which  has  led  to  the  battle  being  called  the  "Battle 
above  the  Clouds." 

DEFEAT    OF    THE    CONFEDERATES. 

The  following  morning  was  also  foggy,  but,  when  it  lifted,  Sherman's  corps 
was  seen  advancing  against  the  Confederate  right,  close  to  Chickaimiuga  station. 
In  the  face  of  a  heavy  artillery  fire  the  Federals  pressed  on,  but  at  the  end  of 
an  hour  they  were  compelled  to  retreat.  By  order  of  Grant  the  attack  was 
renewed,  but  another  severe  repulse  followed.  Next  a  general  movement 
against  the  left  centre  was  ordered,  and  this  was  successful.  The  enemy  was 
driven  in  confusion  toward  Ring-gold,  to  the  southeast,  while  a  large  number  of 
prisoners  and  a  vast  amount  of  supplies  were  captured. 

General  Hooker  pursued  and  drove  the  Confederates  out  of  Binggold,  but 
they  assumed  so  strong  a  position  at  Taylor's  Ridge  that  Grant  ordered  him  not 
to  attack,  but  to  remain  and  hold  Ring-gold,  Sherman,  in  the  meantime,  march 
ing  against  Longstreet.  .  Bragg  had  blundered  so  much  in  conducting  this 
disastrous  campaign  that  President  Davis  was  forced  to  replace  him  with 
Hardee. 

RAISING    OF    THE    SIEGE    OF    KNOXVILLE. 

Meanwhile,  Longstreet  was  besieging  Burnside  at  Knoxville,  where  the 
15,000  Union  troops  were  threatened  with  starvation.  The  town  was  invested 
November  17th,  and  the  next  day  some  of  the  outworks  were  carried.  Well 
aware  that  Grant,  after  his  defeat  of  Bragg,  would  hurry  to  the  relief  of  Knox 
ville,  Longstreet  attacked  on  the  29th,  but  suffered  a  bloody  repulse.  He  stub 
bornly  held  his  ground  until  he  learned  that  Sherman  was  close  upon  him,  when 
he  withdrew  and  started  on  his  march  to  Virginia.  The  campaign  soon  ended  in 
Tennessee,  which  was  virtually  recovered  to  the  Union. 

The  reader  will  note  that  we  have  described  the  leading  events  in  the  West 
and  Southwest  from  the  opening  of  the  year  to  its  close.  Once  more  it  is  neces 
sary  to  return  to  January,  1863,  in  order  to  give  a  history  of  the  most  important 
campaign  of  all — that  against  Richmond,  which  was  defended  by  the  formidable 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia,  under  the  command  of  General  Robert  E.  Lee. 

BURNSIDE   SUPERSEDED    BY    HOOKER. 

Burnside's  management  of  the  attack  on  Fredericksburg  in  December, 
1862,  was  so  incompetent  and  disastrous  that  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  retain 
the  chief  command.  Knowing  that  several  of  his  generals  had  severely  criti 
cised  him,  Burnside  sent  a  list  of  names  to  Washington,  giving  the  government 
the  choice  of  removing  them  or  accepting  his  resignation.  Prominent  on 


344  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

Burnside's  "black  list  "was  the  name  of  Hooker.  On  the  26th  of  January 
Burnside's  resignation  was  accepted,  and  Hooker  was  made  his  successor. 

The  morale  of  the  grand  organization  had  been  injured  by  its  wretched 
leadership,  but  the  material  itself  could  not  have  been  finer.  Hooker  set 
resolutely  to  work,  and,  by  the  1st  of  May,  the  army  was  well  trained  and 
disciplined,  and  numbered  130,000  men,  of  whom  fully  12,000  were  cavalry. 
Lee  had  about  half  as  many  troops. 

Knowing  it  would  not  do  to  remain  idle  when  the  beautiful  spring  weather 
came,  Hooker  had  been  carefully  planning  for  another  campaign  against 
Richmond.  He  had  won  a  fine  reputation  for  himself  as  a  fighter  and  skillful 
corps  commander,  and  the  hopes  were  high  that  he  would  lead  his  superb  army 
directly  into  the  rebel  capital.  Everything  seemed  to  be  in  his  favor,  and  the 
campaign  opened  promisingly. 

THE    NEW    CAMPAIGN    AGAINST    RICHMOND. 

Hooker's  plan  was  to  assail  Lee  at  two  points.  The  Rappahannock  and 
Rapidan  were  to  be  crossed  a  short  distance  west  of  Fredericksburg,  and  the 
left  wing  attacked.  While  this  was  going  on,  Hooker's  own  left  wing  was  to 
occupy  the  heights  and  secure  possession  of  the  Richmond  Railroad.  The 
powerful  Union  cavalry  were  to  ride  around  Lee's  position  and  cut  off  his 
retreat  to  Richmond.  This  involved  the  destruction  of  the  railroads  and 
bridges  over  the  North  and  South  Anna  Rivers. 

This  important  movement  was  begun  April  27th.  The  main  portion  of  the 
corps  of  Meade,  Howard,  and  Slocum,  numbering  36,000  men,  marched  thirty 
miles  up  the  Rappahannock  and  crossed  the  stream  without  resistance.  A  force 
then  moved  ten  miles  down  the  other  side  of  the  river,  driving  away  several 
Confederate  detachments,  and  opened  the  way  for  Couch  with  12,000  men  to 
cross  and  join  the  other  three  corps.  Taking  different  routes,  the  48,000 
advanced  toward  Chancellorsville,  which  had  been  named  as  the  rendezvous. 
They  were  soon  followed  by  Sickles  with  18,000  men. 

It  was  not  until  the  Union  movement  had  progressed  thus  far  that  Lee  read 
its  purpose.  He  hastily  called  in  his  divisions,  and,  on  the  forenoon  of  May  1st, 
the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  was  drawn  up  in  battle-line  in  front  of  that 
dense-wooded  district  known  as  the  Wilderness. 

Exultingly  confident,  Hooker  ordered  an  advance  that  day  from  near 
Chancellorsville  toward  Fredericksburg.  Hardly  had  he  started  when  he 
learned  that  Lee  was  moving  against  him;  he,  therefore,  paused  and  threw  up 
defenses.  His  aim  was  to  flank  Lee,  and,  to  prevent  it,  the  Confederate 
commander  took  desperate  chances.  Keeping  up  a  rattling  demonstration  in 
front,  ha  sent  Stonewall  Jackson  with  30,000  men  around  the  right  of  the  Union 


DEATH  OF  STONEWALL  JACKSON.  345 

army.     Had  Hooker  known  of  this  daring  movement,  he  could  easily  have 
crushed  each  division  in  detail. 

STONEWALL   JACKSON'S    FLANK    MOVEMENT. 

Jackson  carried  out  his  programme  with  fearful  completeness.  Without 
his  purpose  being  suspected,  he  traveled  fifteen  miles,  reaching  the  road  leading 
from  Orange  to  Fredericksburg,  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Rapidan.  He  was 
thus  within  two  miles  of  General  Howard's  Eleventh  Corps.  The  men  were 
preparing  supper  with  no  thought  of  danger,  when  the  air  was  suddenly  split 
by  thousands  of  "rebel  yells,"  and 
the  graybacks  rushed  out  of  the 
woods  and  swept  everything  before 
them.  The  whole  Eleventh  Corps 
broke  into  a  wild  panic,  and  ran  for 
their  lives  toward  Chancel! orsville. 
The  German  division  especially, 
under  the  command  of  Carl  Schurz, 
were  irrestrainable  in  their  terror. 

The  majority,  however,  stood 
their  ground  bravely,  and  their  com 
manders  put  forth  every  effort  to  stop 
the  wild  stampede.  A  partial  success 
was  attained,  and  the  artillery  poured 
in  a  fire  which  checked  the  pursuit, 
Fortunately  night  was  at  hand,  and 
the  fighting  soon  ceased.  The  po 
sition  of  the  Union  army  was  critical 
in  the  extreme.  It  was  squeezed  in 
between  Chancellorsville  and  the 
fork  of  the  two  rivers.  What  fate 

.,      ,    .,  ,,  THOMAS   J.  ("STONEWALL")  JACKSON. 

awaited  it  on  the  morrow  ? 

At  this  juncture,  the  Confederate  cause  received  the  severest  blow  in  its 
history.  That  remarkable  man,  Stonewall  Jackson,  was  confident  that  the 
destruction  of  the  Union  army  was  at  hand,  and  he  was  impatient  for  the  morrow 
that  he  might  complete  the  fearful  work.  In  the  dusk  of  early  evening  he 
rode  forward,  accompanied  by  several  of  his  staff,  to  reconnoitre  the  Union 
position.  Passing  beyond  the  outer  line  of  skirmishers,  the  party  halted  in  the 
gloom  and  peered  toward  the  Federal  lines.  Dimly  discerned  by  a  South 
Carolina  regiment;  they  were  mistaken  for  the  enemy,  and  a  volley  was  fired  at 
them.  One  of  the  staff  was  killed  and  two  wounded.  Comprehending  the 


346 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 


blunder,  Jackson  wheeled  and  galloped  into  the  woods,  but  before  the  shelter 
could  be  reached,  the  South  Carolinans  fired  a  second  time. 

Jackson  was  struck  twice  in  the  left  arm  and  once  in  the  right  hand.  His 
frightened  horse  whirled  about  and  plunged  away.  A  limb  knocked  t)ff  his 
hat  and  came  near  unseating  him,  but  he  managed  to  keep  in  the  saddle  and 
guide  his  steed  into  the  road,  where  one  of  his  staff  helped  him  to  the  ground 
and  supported  him  to  the  foot  of  a  tree  where  he  was  laid  down.  He  was 
suffering  so  keenly  that  he  could  not  walk,  and  was  carried  on  a  litter  to  the 


HOUSE    IN    WHICH   STONEWALL  JACKSON  DIEJX 

rear.     For  a  part  of  the  way,  all  were  exposed  to  such  a  hot  artillery  fire  that 
they  had  to  pause  several  times  and  lie  down. 

The  wound  grew  so  bad  that  the  arm  was  amputated,  but  pneumonia 
followed,  and  Jackson  died  on  Sunday,  May  10th.  His  last  words,  uttered  in 
his  delirium,  were :  "Let  us  cross  over  the  river  and  rest  under  the  shadow  of 
the  trees." 

BATTLE   OF   CHANCELLORSVILLE. 

The  fighting  at  Chancellorsville  was  renewed  at  daylight,  May  3d. 
General  Stuart  succeeded  to  the  command  of  Jackson's  corps.  The  superior 


THE  SECOND    CONFEDERATE  INVASION.  347 

numbers  of  the  Union  army  and  its  compact  formation  gave  it  all  the 
advantage.  It  needed  but  one  thing  to  insure  overwhelming  success  :  that  was 
competent  leadership,  and  that  was  the  one  thing  which  it  did  not  have. 

With  the  weaker  army  still  separated,  it  forced  the  Federals  back  toward 
the  river,  where  Hooker  was  compelled  to  form  a  second  line.  Holding  him 
there,  Lee  turned  toward  Sedgwick,  who  was  at  Fredericksburg  with  25,000 
men.  He  had  a  good  opportunity  to  assail  Lee  in  the  rear,  but  failed  to  do  so, 
and  gave  his  efforts  to  capturing  Marye's  Heights,  which  was  defended  by  a 
weak  garrison.  It  was  easily  taken,  and  Sedgwick  sent  a  column  in  the 
direction  of  Chancellorsville.  On  the  road  it  encountered  some  breastworks, 
thrown  up  by  the  force  which  Lee  had  dispatched  to  check  Sedgwick's  advance. 
He  was  driven  back,  and  the  rebels,  having  been  reinforced,  recaptured  Marye's 
Heights.  Sedgwick  made  a  hurried  retreat,  and  thenceforward  formed  no  factor 
in  the  battle. 

Having  disposed  of  him,  Lee  turned  again  upon  Hooker.  Early  on  the 
5th,  he  placed  a  number  of  his  guns  within  range  of  United  States  Ford 
and  dropped  a  few  shells  among  the  wagon  trains.  Nothing,  however,  was 
accomplished  on  this  day,  except  that  the  dry  and  parched  woods  were  set  on 
fire,  and  many  of  the  wounded  who  were  unable  to  help  themselves  were 
burned  to  death.  Every  horror  that  can  be  conceived  as  to  war  was  added  to 
the  awful  scene. 

RETREAT    OF    THE    UNION    ARMY. 

A  heavy  rainstorm  caused  the  Rapidan  and  Rap pahan nock  to  rise  so 
rapidly  that  Hooker  decided,  after  consulting  his  officers,  to  get  back  while  he 
had  the  chance  to  do  so.  The  bridges  were  covered  with  pine  boughs,  and,  with 
the  noise  of  the  wheels  deadened  by  the  crashing  thunder,  the  wagons  and 
artillery  made  the  passage  without  discovery.  By  the  following  morning,  the 
entire  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  once  more  across  the  Rappahannock  and 
marching  back  to  its  old  camp  at'Falmouth,  and  once  more  the  advance  against 
Richmond  had  ended  in  woeful  disaster. 

The  losses  of  the  Unionists  at  Chancellorsville  were:  killed,  1,606; 
wounded,  9,762;  missing,  5,919;  total,  17,287.  The  losses  of  the  Confederates 
were:  killed,  1,665;  wounded,  9,081;  captured  and  missing,  2,018;  total,  12,764. 

THE    SECOND    CONFEDERATE    INVASION. 

After  such  a  frightful  Union  defeat,  it  was  no  wonder  that  the  Confederates 
again  decided  to  invade  the  North.  Lee  was  not  favorable  to  the  plan,  but  he 
must  have  felt  that  the  prospect  of  success  was  better  than  ever  before.  He 
made  his  preparations  with  great  care,  and  strengthened  his  army  to  75,000 
men,  divided  into  three  corps,  commanded  respectively  by  Longstreet,  Ewell. 


348 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 


and  A.  P.  Hill.     He  had  in  addition   lo,000  cavalry  under  General  J.  E.  B. 
("Jeb")  Stuart. 

The  northward  march  was  begun  the  first  week  in  June.  Longstreet  and 
Ewell  advanced  upon  Culpeper,  while  Hill  remained  near  Fredericksburg, 
aiming  to  deceive  Hooker  as  to  his  intentions.  Hooker  quickly  perceived  that 
most  of  the  rebel  army  had  disappeared  from  his  front,  but  it  was  a  mystery  to 
him  where  it  had  gone.  A  reconnoissance  developed  the  direction  taken  by  the 
two  missing  corps.  Unsuspicious  of  the  grand  project  that  was  in  the  mind  of 
the  Confederate  commander,  Hooker  moved  down  the  Shenandoah  Valley, 

taking  the  same  course  as  Lee,  but 
with  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  be 
tween  them. 

LEE'S   PRELIMINARY    MOVEMENTS. 

Passing  through  the  defiles  in 
this  range,  Lee  dropped  down  on 
Milroy  at  Winchester  before  he 
dreamed  of  danger.  Most  of  his 
7,000  men  were  captured,  but  Mil 
roy  and  a  few  escaped  by  a  hurried 
flight  at  night,  All  doubt  now  had 
vanished  as  to  the  intentions  of  Lee; 
^^^^^  he  was  aiming  for  Pennsylvania,  at 

Mffitafc  /  the  head  of  a  powerful,  well-organ- 

"^•K-T  -J£y*'  -^y1'*-!     i/e(l  army;  Washington   and   prob- 

*JjJE^  ably    Philadelphia    were    in    peril. 

The  only  check  that  could  block  its 
A  way  was  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 

ami  Hooker  lost  no  time  in  moving. 
He  readied  Fairfax  Court-House  on 
the  night  of  the  14th,  thus  placing 
himself  on  the  flank  of  Ewell.  The  Confederates,  however,  held  the  mountain 
passes  securely,  and  nothing  effective  could  be  done. 

On  the  !>2d  the  headquarters  of  Lee  were  at  Beverly,  ten  miles  from  Win 
ter,  with  which  Lee  kept  up  communication  through  A.  P.  Hill's  corps, 
which  was  between   Culpeper  and  Front  Royal.     Ewell,   without  hesitation,' 
forded  the  Potomac  into  Maryland,  while  his  cavalry  pushed  on  into  Pennsyl 
vania. 

By  this  time  the  government  was  so  alarmed  that  President  Lincoln,  on  the 
by  proclamation  on  the  governors  of  Ohio,  Pennsylvania, 


Ntfjfc: 


••% 


ROBERT  E.   LEE. 
Confederate  commander-in-chlef  at  Gettysburg. 


MOVEMENTS   OF  GENERAL  MEADE.  349 

Maryland,  and  West  Virginia  to  furnish  100,000  militia  for  the  protection  of 
those  States.  Pennsylvania,  the  one  in  greatest  danger,  was  so  laggard  that  she 
asked  New  Jersey  to  come  to  her  help,  and  that  little  State  gallantly  did  so. 

GENERAL    MEADE    APPOINTED    TO    THE    COMMAND    OF    THE    ARMY    OF    THE    POTOMAC. 

Hooker  deserved  credit  for  appreciating  his  own  unfitness  for  the  command 
of  the  army  that  was  again  to  fight  Lee.  He  crossed  the  Potomac  June  26th, 
making  a  movement  which  threatened  Lee's  communications,  and  resigned 
the  next  day,  At  Frederick,  on  the  28th,  he  published  an  order  to  the 
effect  that  the  army  had  been  placed  in  charge  of  Major-General  George  G. 
Meade. 

This  was  an  excellent  appointment.  Although  Meade  was  born,  in  1815, 
in  Cadiz,  Spain,  he  was  an  American,  because  his  father  was  the  United  States 
naval  agent  at  the  time.  Meade  was  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1835,  and 
won  distinction  in  the  war  with  the  Seminoles  and  with  Mexico.  The  appoint 
ment  was  a  surprise  to  him,  but  it  pleased  everybody,  and  he  modestly  took 
hold,  resolved  to  do  the  best  he  could. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  GENERAL  MEADE. 

He  adhered  to  the  general  plan  of  Hooker.  His  army  numbered  about 
100,000,  and  no  braver  men  lived  anywhere.  Nearly  all  of  Lee's  troops  were 
north  of  the  Potomac,  partly  in  Maryland  and  partly  in  Pennsylvania.  On 
the  27th  of  June  the  whole  army  was  at  Chambersburg,  Pennsylvania ;  but 
Lee  was  greatly  hampered  by  the  absence  of  Stuart  and  his  cavalry.  That 
dashing  officer  was  very  fond  of  making  raids,  and,  giving  a  wider  meaning  to 
the  permission  of  Lee  than  that  general  intended,  he  was  off  on  another  of  his 
bold  ventures,  with  no  certainty  as  to  when  he  would  return.  It  was  upon  him 
that  Lee  was  obliged  to  depend  for  news  of  the  Union  army.  Receiving  none, 
he  was  on  the  point  of  advancing  against  Harrisburg,  the  capital  of  Pennsylva 
nia,  when  he  paused  upon  receiving  the  first  reliable  news  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac. 

Meade  had  pushed  his  advance  beyond  Middleton,  where  his  left  was  lying 
when  he  took  command  of  the  army  at  Frederick.  This  action  of  the  Union 
commander  looked  as  if  he  intended  to  cross  the  mountains  and  attack  the 
Confederate  rear.  EwelFs  corps  was  at  York  and  Carlisle,  but  still  there  was 
no  knowledge  whatever  of  the  whereabouts  of  Stuart. 

Lee  now  attempted  to  draw  Meade  away  from  the  Potomac  by  concentrating 
his  army  to  the  east  of  the  mountains.  Hill  and  Longstreet  advanced  to 
Gettysburg,  while  Ewell  was  ordered  to  do  the  same.  Lee  himself  lagged  in 
die  hope  that  Stuart  would  join  him,  and  because  of  that,  Meade,  who  was 


350  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

keenly  on  the  alert,  arrived  in  the  neighborhood  of  Gettysburg  first.  On  the 
last  day  of  June,  he  was  within  a  few  miles  of  the  town,  while  Lee  was  somewhat 
to  the  north  and  making  for  the  same  place. 

Stuart  and  his  cavalry  had  harassed  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  Virginia, 
but,  unable  to  stay  its  advance,  they  crossed  the  Potomac,  and,  moving  to  the 
east  of  Meade.  entered  Carlisle  shortly  after  Ewell  had  left  for  Gettysburg. 
Stuart's  delay  was  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  did  not  know  Lee's  whereabouts. 

THE    FIKST    DAY    AT   GETTYSBURG. 

The  two  mighty  armies  were  now  within  striking  distance  of  each  other. 
It  was  yet  early  in  the  day  when  a  collision  took  place  between  a  Confederate 
division  and  Reynolds'  Corps  on  the  western  side  of  the  town.  Reynolds  was 
one  of  the  best  officers  in  the  Union  army.  He  was  engaged  in  directing  the 
movements  of  his  troops  when  he  was  struck  in  the  head  by  a  rifle  bullet  and 
instantly  killed.  General  Doubleday  succeeded  him  in  command,  but  was 
unable  to  drive  back  the  enemy.  Howard  arrived  with  the  Eleventh  Corps 
early  in  the  afternoon  and  took  charge  of  the  whole  force.  These  were  mainly 
composed  of  Germans,  who  were  so  overwhelmingly  -stampeded  by  Stonewall 
Jackson  at  Chancellorsville.  They  did  not  appear  to  have  recovered  from 
that  panic,  for  they  fled  pell-mell  through  Gettysburg,  with  the  enemy  whoop 
ing  at  their  heels.  Nearly  all  who  did  not  run  were  cut  down  or  they  surren 
dered. 

Meade  had  sent  Hancock  to  take  chief  command,  and,  aided  by  Howard, 
he  rallied  the  shattered  corps  on  the  crest  of  Gulp's  Hill,  behind  the  town. 
The  keen  eye  of  Hancock  was  quick  to  see  that  it  was  here  the  decisive  struggle 
must  take  place,  and  he  sent  an  urgent  message  to  Meade,  fifteen  miles  away, 
to  lose  not  an  hour  in  hurrying  his  troops  forward.  Meade  followed  the 
counsel.  Some  of  his  men  arrived  that  night,  some  the  next  morning,  while 
those  from  the  greatest  distance  did  not  come  in  until  the  following  after 
noon. 

The  line  as  formed  by  Hancock  extended  along  Cemetery  Hill  on  the  west 
and  south  of  Gettysburg.  It  was  a  formidable  position,  and  Lee,  after  carefully 
studying  it,  decided  to  await  the  arrival  of  Longstreet  and  Ewell  with  their 
corps  before  making  his  attack.  Events  proved  that  the  decision  was  a  disastrous 
mistake  on  the  part  of  the  Confederate  commander. 

When  the  sultry  first  day  of  July  drew  to  a  close,  the  Federal  right  held 
Gulp's  Hill,  the  centre  Cemetery  Hill,  the  left  was  along  Cemetery  Ridge,  and 
the  reserve  on  the  right.  This  line  curved  in  the  form  of  a  horseshoe,  with  the 
projecting  portion  facing  Gettysburg.  Sedgwick,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  riot 


THE  SECOND  DAY. 


351 


arrived,  but  the  force  was  composed  of  a  hundred   thousand  veterans  who  had 
200  cannon  at  command. 

That  night  the  Confederates  were  in  Gettysburg  and  a  part  of  the  country 
to  the  east  and  west.  Ewell  formed  the  left  and  held  the  town;  Seminary 
Ridge  was  occupied  by  Hill's  Corps,  and  confronted  the  centre  and  left  of  the 
Union  line  on  Cemetery  Ridge.  When  Pickett's  division  came  up  on  the  3d, 
it  was  placed  on  the  right  of  Hill's  position  and  faced  Round  Top. 

Most  of  the  succeeding  day  was  spent  by  both  armies  in  preparing  for  the 
tremendous  death-grapple.  At  about  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  having 
become  convinced  that  the  left  and 
left  centre  of  the  Union  line  were 
the  weakest  points,  Lee  directed  his 
efforts  against  them.  They  were 
held  by  Sickles,  who  made  a  blunder 
by  advancing  a  portion  of  his  force 
beyond  the  battle-line  and  seizing  a 
ridge.  It  was  because  of  this  blun 
der  that  the  first  Confederate  attack 
was  made  at  that  point, 

Longstreet  and  Ewell  opened  with 
a  sharp  cannonade,  under  cover  of 
which  Hood's  division  impetuously 
assaulted  Sickles'  left.  He  drove  his 
right  wing  between  Sickles  left  and 
Little  Round  Top,  and  was  steadily 
succeeding  in  his  purpose,  when  one 
of  those  apparently  trifling  things, 
for  which  no  one  can  account,  in 
terfered  and  brought  about  moment 
ous  results. 

Little  Round  Top  was  the  key 
to  the  position,  and  yet  it  had  no  real  defenders.  Had  Hood  known  this,  he 
could  have  seized  it  without  the  slightest  difficulty.  Perceiving  its  importance, 
he  began  working  his  way  toward  it,  and  only  some  extraordinary  interference 
could  prevent  it  speedily  falling  into  his  possession. 

But  General  Gouverneur  Warren,  chief  engineer,  and  his  officers  had 
climbed  Little  Round  Top  and  were  using  it  as  a  signal  station.  Soon  the 
shots  began  flying  so  fast  about  them  that  they  made  hurried  preparations  to 
leave.  Warren,  however,  saw  the  importance  of  holding  the  hill,  and  told  his 


GEORGE  G.  MEADE. 

The  Union  comraander-in-chief  at  Gettysburg. 


352  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

associates  to  make  a  pretense  of  doing  so,  while  he  looked  around  for  a  force  to 
bring  to  the  spot. 

Fortunately,  a  large  body  of  reinforcements  were  hurrying  past  to  Sickles, 
who  had  sent  an  urgent  call  for  them.  Without  hesitation,  General  Warren 
detached  a  brigade  for  the  defense  of  Little  Round  Top.  They  ran  up  the 
slope,  dragging  a  battery  with  them.  Hardly  had  they  done  so,  when  Hood 
made  a  fierce  charge.  The  fighting  was  of  the  most  furious  nature,  and  it 
looked  for  a  time  as  if  the  yelling  Texans  would  carry  the  hill,  but  they  were 
forced  back,  and,  pressing  their  way  up  the  ravine  at  the  foot,  turned  the  left 
Union  flank,  but  were  forced  again  to  retire  by  a  bayonet  charge. 

Sickles  called  for  reinforcements  when  attacked  by  Longstreet,  but  with 
their  aid  he  could  not  hold  his  position.  He  was  rushed  back  by  the  terrific 
fighter,  and  Longstreet  gained  and  held  the  key-point  of  the  line  against  the 
repeated  assaults  of  the  Union  troops.  Not  only  that,  but  he  was  resistlessly 
advancing,  when  more  reinforcements  arrived  and  attacked  him  just  as  he  reached 
a  wheatfield  and  grove  of  woods  on  the  western  side  of  Plum  Run.  The  Confed 
erates  were  beginning  to  give  way,  when  Hood,  having  carried  Sickles'  extreme 
left,  arrived.  A  vehement  charge  carried  Hood  through  two  divisions  that  were 
doubled  back  on  their  main  line  on  Cemetery  Ridge ;  Sickles'  left  having  been 
crushed,  his  centre  and  right  were  assailed,  and  the  latter  was  driven  back.  In 
the  fighting  Sickles  lost  a  leg  as  well  as  his  entire  advanced  position. 

The  close  of  the  2d  of  July  brought  brilliant,  but  only  partial,  success  to 
the  Confederates.  After  reaching  Cemetery  Ridge,  Longstreet's  men  were 
repulsed  by  Hancock.  The  Confederate  commander  fell  back  to  the  western 
side  of  the  wheatfield,  where  he  remained  until  morning.  Ewell,  impetuously 
attacking  the  Union  right  centre  at  Cemetery  and  Gulp's  Hill,  kept  back 
Federal  reinforcements  from  reaching  the  left,  which  Longstreet  was  pounding, 
drove  out  the  Federal  artillery  and  infantry,  and  held  the  works.  This  was  a 
most  important  success,  and,  if  Ewell  could  maintain  his  position  throughout 
the  morrow,  General  Lee  would  have  a  chance  of  taking  Meade's  line  in 
reverse.  The  conclusion  of  the  second  day,  therefore,  left  matters  in  dubious 
shape  for  both  sides.  While  the  Confederates  had  made  gains,  they  were  not 
decisive.  Still  they  were  such  as  to  cause  grave  concern  on  the  part  of  Meade 
and  his  brother  officers,  who  held  a  long,  anxious  consultation,  and  discussed 
the  question  whether  it  was  not  wise  to  fall  back  and  assume  a  new  and  stronger 
position.  The  decision  was  to  remain  where  they  were. 

THE    THIRD    DAY. 

Naturally  Lee  strengthened  his  force  near  where  Ewell  had  secured  a 
lodgment  within  the  breastworks  of  Gulp's  Hill,  with  the  purpose  of  making 


PICKETT'S   CHARGE.  353 

his  main  attack  there ;  but  Meade  could  not  fail  to  see  the  utmost  importance  of 
driving  out  the  enemy  from  his  position.  He  shelled  it  at  daylight  on  the  3d, 
and  sent  a  strong  body  of  infantry  against  the  intruders.  The  Confederates 
made  a  desperate  resistance,  but  in  the  end  were  expelled,  and  the  Union  line 
re-established. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  miscalculation  of  Lee  compelled  him  to  change  his 
plans.  Sitting  on  his  horse,  riding  back  and  forth,  often  halting  and  scanning 
the  battlefield  through  his  glasses,  and  continually  consulting  his  officers,  he 
finally  decided  to  direct  his  supreme  effort  against  the  Union  centre.  Success 
there  meant  the  defeat  and  rout  of  the  Union  army,  for,  if  the  two  wings  could 
be  wedged  apart,  they  would  be  overwhelmed  and  destroyed  by  the  charging 
Confederates. 

But  the  impressive  fact  was  as  well  known  to  the  Federals  as  to  their 
enemies,  and  nothing  was  neglected  that  could  add  to  the  strength  of  their 
position.  All  night  long  troops  kept  arriving,  and  in  the  moonlight  were 
assigned  to  their  positions  for  the  morrow.  It  took  Lee  several  hours  to  com 
plete  his  preparations  for  the  assault  upon  the  Union  centre.  At  noon  he  had 
145  cannon  posted  on  Seminary  Ridge,  opposite  Meade's  centre,  while  Meade 
had  80  pieces  of  artillery  lined  along  the  crest  of  Cemetery  Hill. 

PICKETT'S  CHARGE. 

At  noon  the  Confederates  opened  with  all  their  cannon,  their  object  being 
to  silence  the  batteries  in  front,  to  clear  the  way  for  the  charge  against  the 
Union  centre.  The  eighty  Federal  pieces  replied,  and  for  two  hours  the  earth 
rocked  under  the  most  prodigious  cannonade  ever  heard  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic.  Then  the  Union  fire  gradually  ceased,  and,  as  the  vast  volume  of 
smoke  slowly  lifted,  a  column  of  5,000  gray-coated  men  were  seen  to  issue  from 
the  Confederate  lines  more  than  a  mile  away  and  advance  at  a  steady  stride 
toward  the  Union  intrenchments.  Their  bayonets  shone  in  the  afternoon  sun, 
and  their  fluttering  battle-flags,  the  splendid  precision  of  their  step,  and  their 
superb  soldierly  appearance  made  so  thrilling  a  picture  that  an  involuntary 
murmur  of  admiration  ran  along  the  Union  lines,  even  though  these  same  men 
were  advancing  to  kill  and  wound  them. 

They  formed  the  division  of  General  George  E.  Pickett,  and  no  more 
magnificent  charge  was  ever  made.  They  advanced  in  a  double  line,  their  own 
artillery  ceasing  firing  as  they  gradually  passed  within  range  with  beautiful 
regular  step,  which  seemed  to  hasten,  as  if  even  with  their  perfect  discipline 
they  could  not  restrain,  their  eagerness  to  join  in  the  death-grapple. 

The  Union  artillery  remained  silent  until  half  the  space  was  crossed, 
when  it  burst  forth,  and  the  Confederates  went  down  by  the  score.  The  gaps 

23 


354 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 


could  be  seen  from  every  point  of  the  immense  field,  but  those  who  were  unhurt 
immediately  closed  up  and  continued  their  dauntless  advance  without  a  tremor. 
Coming  still  closer  under  the  murderous  artillery  fire,  they  broke  into  the 
double-quick,  and  it  looked  as  if  nothing  could  check  them. 

Waitiiiir  until  within   a  few  hundred   yards,  the  artillery  and   musketry 


blazed   forth 


again. 


Through 


a   misconception    of  orders,    the    Confederate 


CUSHING'S    LAST    SHOT. 


line  had  become  disjointed,  and  the  supports  of  Pickett  were  repelled  and 
a  large  number  killed  or  taken  prisoners,  but  Pickett's  own  division  came  on 
unfalteringly,  let  fly  with  a  volley  at  the  breastworks  in  front  of  them,  and 
then,  with  their  resounding  yells,  dashed  up  the  crest  of  Cemetery  Ridge  and 
drove  out  the  defenders  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet, 

Immediately  the  hand-to-hand  fighting  became  like  that  of  so  many  tigers. 
Guns  were  clubbed,  men  wrestled  and  fought  and  struck  with  their  bare  fists, 
while  a  fire  was  converged  upon  the  assailants  of  so  murderous  a  nature  that 
even  the  daring  Pickett  saw  that  every  one  of  his  men  would  be  killed,  if  they 


Drawn  by  W.  B.  DAVIS. 


PICKETT'S  RETURN  FROM  HIS  FAMOUS  CHARGE. 
"  General,  mv  noble  division  is  swept  away." 


356  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

remained.  He  gave  the  order  to  fall  back,  and  the  survivors  broke  into  a  run 
down  the  slope  for  their  own  lines. 

Pickett's  charge  ranks  among  the  famous  in  modern  history,  and  was  one 
of  the  most  striking  incidents  of  the  war.  The  double  column  which  marched 
across  that  fire-swept  field  numbered  5,000  of  the  flower  of  the  Confederate  army. 
Thirty-five  hundred  were  killed,  wounded,  or  taken  prisoners.  Of  the  three 
brigade  commanders,  one  was  killed,  the  second  mortally  wounded,  and  the 
third  badly  hurt.  One  only  of  the  fourteen  field  officers  returned,  and  out  of 
the  twenty-four  regimental  officers,  only  two  were  unhurt.  The  ferocity  of  the 
charge  resulted  in  many  deaths  among  the  Unionists,  and  General  Hancock 
was  painfully  wounded,  but  refused  to  leave  the  field  until  the  struggle  was 
over. 

And  all  this  valor  had  gone  for  naught.  The  Southerners  had  attempted 
an  impossible  thing,  and  the  penalty  was  fearful.  Unspeakably  depressed, 
General  Lee  saw  the  return  of  the  staggering,  bleeding  survivors,  and,  riding 
among  them,  he  did  all  he  could  to  cheer  the  mute  sufferers  by  his  sympathetic 
words.  He  insisted  that  the  failure  was  wholly  his  own  fault,  and  that  not  a 
word  of  censure  should  be  visited  upon  anyone  else. 

The  expectation  of  the  Confederates  was  that  the  Federals  would  follow  up 
this  repulse  with  an  immediate  advance,  and  preparations  were  hurriedly  made 
to  repel  it ;  but  the  ammunition  was  low  on  Cemetery  Ridge,  and  the  furious 
struggle  had  exhausted  the  defenders.  Day  was  closing  and  the  great  battle  of 
Gettysburg  was  ended. 

THE    FEARFUL    LOSSES. 

The  Union  losses  were:  killed,  3,070;  wounded,  14,497;  missing,  5,434; 
total,  23,001.  The  Confederate  losses  were:  killed,  2,592;  wounded,  12,706; 
captured  and  missing,  5,150;  total,  20,448.  To  quote  from  Fox's  "Regimental 
Losses  in  the  American  Civil  War:"  "Gettysburg  was  the  greatest  battle  of  the 
war;  Antietam  the  bloodiest;  the  largest  army  was  assembled  by  the  Confederates 
in  the  Seven  Days'  Fight;  by  the  Unionists  at  the  Wilderness.'1 

THE    DECISIVE    BATTLE    OF    THE    WAR. 

^  Gettysburg  has  been  styled  the  Waterloo  of  the  Southern  Confederacy. 
"Highest  tide"  was  reached  by  its  fortunes  during  those  three  first  days  in 
July,  1863.  Lee  put  forth  his  supreme  effort,  and  the  result  was  defeat.  He 
and  his  leading  generals  clearly  saw  that  their  cause  had  received  its  death-blow, 
and,  as  one  of  them  expressed  it,  the  fighting  thenceforward  was  for  terms.  They 
were  not  yet  conquered,  and  severe  work  remained  to  be  done,  but  never  again 
did  the  Lost  Cause  come  so  near  success.  Its  sun,  having  reached  meridian, 
must  now  go  down  until  it  should  set  forever  in  gloom,  disaster,  and  ruin. 


LEE'S  RETREAT. 


357 


General  Lee  could  not  fail  to  perceive  that  all  that  remained  to  him  was  to 
leave  the  country  before  overtaken  by  irretrievable  disaster.  He  withdrew 
Swell's  Corps  that  night  from  Gettysburg  and  posted  it  on  Seminary  Ridge, 
where  intrenchments  were  thrown  up.  The  town  was  occupied  by  Meade,  and 
the  dismal  morrow  was  spent  by  the  Confederates  in  burying  their  dead  and 
removing  their  wounded.  At  night  the  retreat  was  begun  by  the  Chambers- 
burg  and  Fail-field  roads,  which  enter  the  Cumberland  Valley  through  the 
South  Mountain  range.  Great  battles  always  produce  violent  storms,  and  one 
of  these  added  to  the  unspeakable  wretchedness  of  the  homeward  march. 
Finding  Lee  was  retreating,  Meade  sent  Sedg- 
wick  in  pursuit.  The  rear  guard  was  §  over- 


ENTRANCE    TO    GETTYSBURG    CEMETERY. 


taken  on  the  night  of  the  6th,  but  its  position  was  too  strong  to  be  attacked 
and  the  Union  army  took  a  route  parallel  to  that  of  the  Confederate.  There 
was  considerable  skirmishing,  but  nothing  decisive  occurred,  and  the  retiring 
army  reached  Hagerstown,  where  it  found  the  fords  of  the  Potomac  so  swollen 
as  to  be  impassable.  Lee,  therefore,  intrenched,  and  stayed  where  he  was  until 
the  13th,  by  which  time  the  river  had  fallen  sufficiently  to  be  forded,  and  he  once 
more  re-entered  Virginia.  Meade,  fearful  that  the  great  prize  was  about  to  escape 
him,  made  strenuous  efforts  to  intercept  him,  but  failed,  and  returned  to  the 
Rappahan nock,  while  Lee  established  himself  in  the  neighborhood  of  Culpeper. 
A  period  .of  inactivity  now  followed.  Both  Meade  and  Lee  sent  strong 


358  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

detachments  from  their  armies  to  the  southwest,  where,  as  we  have  seen,  they 
had  the  most  active  kind  of  service  at  Chickamauga,  Missionary  Ridge, 
Knoxville,  and  other  places.  When  Lee  had  considerably  depleted  his  forces, 
Meade  thought  the  prospect  of  success  warranted  his  making  a  move  against 
him.  Accordingly,  he  sent  his  cavalry  across  the  Rappahannock,  whereupon 
Lee  withdrew  to  a  position  behind  the  Rapidan,  which  was  so  strong  that 
Meade  dared  not  attack,  and  he,  therefore,  attempted  a  flank  movement. 
Before,  however,  it  could  be  carried  out,  he  was  called  upon  to  send  two  more 
of  his  corps  to  the  southwest,  because  of  the  defeat  of  Rosecrans  at  Chickamauga. 
These  corps  were  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  under  the  command  of  Hooker. 

This  withdrawal  compelled  Meade  to  give  up  his  purpose,  and  he  remained 
on  the  defensive.  By-and-by,  when  the  troops  were  returned  to  him,  he 
prepared  once  more  to  advance,  but  Lee  anticipated  him  by  an  effort  to  pass 
around  his  right  flank  and  interpose  between  him  and  Washington.  Crossing 
the  Rapidan  on  the  9th  of  October,  he  moved  swiftly  to  Madison  Court-House, 
without  detection  by  Meade,  who  did  not  learn  of  it  until  the  next  day,  when 
his  outpost  was  attacked  and  driven  back  on  the  main  army  at  Culpeper.  This 
was  proof  that  the  Union  right  flank  had  been  turned,  and  Meade  immediately 
started  his  trains  toward  the  Rappahannock,  following  a  few  hours  later  with 
his  army.  On  the  further  side  of  Bull  Run,  he  fortified  himself  so  strongly 
that  Lee  saw  it  was  useless  to  advance  further,  and,  on  the  18th  of  October,  he 
returned  to  the  line  of  the  Rappahannock. 

Meade  started  for  Richmond  on  the  7th  of  November.  The  Confederates 
were  found  occupying  earthworks  on  the  north  of  the  Rappahannock.  An 
impetuous  assault  drove  them  out  and  across  the  river.  Meade  pushed  on  to 
Culpeper,  and  Lee  hurriedly  retreated  across  the  Rapidan. 

Meade's  judgment  was  that  no  further  advance  should  be  made,  but  the 
clamor  of  the  North  forced  him  to  try  another  of  the  many  attempts  to  capture 
Richmond.  He  crossed  the  river  on  the  26th  and  27th  of  November,  his  aim 
being  to  divide  the  Confederate  army  by  a  rapid  march  on  Orange  Court-House. 
But  it  seemed  as  if  the  flood-gates  of  heaven  were  then  opened.  The  rain  fell 
in  torrents  day  and  night,  and  the  country  became  a  sea  of  mud  and  water. 
Bridges  had  to  be  laid  to  connect  different  portions  of  the  army,  and  all  offensive 
movements  were  for  a  while  out  of  the  question.  The  delay  gave  Lee  time  to 
form  his  troops  into  a  compact  mass,  so  that  when  the  Unionists  were  ready  to 
attack,  it  was  so  evident  that  another  Fredericksburg  massacre  would  follow 
that  the  plan  was  abandoned. 

In  truth,  Lee  felt  so  strong  that  he  was  disposed  to  advance  himself,  but 
was  dissuaded  by  the  belief  that  some  blunder  of  the  Union  commander  would 
give  him  a  better  opportunity,  but  Meade  was  too  wise  to  do  so.  On  the  1st  of 


FAILURE   OF  THE  ATTACKS  ON  CHARLESTON.  359 

December  he  returned  to  his  old  quarters  on  the  Rapidan.     The  weather  had 
become  extremely  cold,  and  both  armies  went  into  winter  quarters. 

The  principal  military  movements  of  this  year  have  now  been  described, 
but  it  remains  to  tell  of  the  operations  on  the  seacoast  and  of  the  leading  mili 
tary  raids. 

PRIVATEERING! 

The  Confederates  displayed  great  activity  and  ingenuity  in  the  construction 
of  ironclads  and  in  running  the  blockade.  Their  vessels  continually  dodged  in 
and  out  of  a  few  of  the  leading  ports,  the  principal  one  being  Wilmington, 
North  Carolina.  The  profits  in  a  single  cargo  of  a  blockade-runner  were  so 
enormous  that  the  owners  were  enriched  by  several  successful  voyages,  while  a 
single  one  would  reimburse  them  for  the  loss  of  their  ship.  Under  such 
^circumstances  it  was  no  wonder  that  they  took  desperate  chances,  and  firms 
were  organized  who  paid  liberal  salaries  to  the  officers  of  vessels,  who  adver 
tised  among  their  friends  the  regular  dates  of  their  departure,  and,  the  worst  of 
it  was,  they  were  very  regular  in  keeping  them. 

The  Alabama  and  other  privateers  were  busy  on  the  ocean,  and  the  Con 
federates  strained  every  nerve  to  send  others  to  sea.  The  Nashville  was  a  fine 
steamer  that  was  in  the  Ogeechee  River,  Georgia,  waiting  for  a  chance  to  slip 
out  and  join  the  commerce  destroyers.  She  had  a  valuable  cargo  of  cotton,  and 
the  Federal  cruisers  were  alert  to  prevent  her  escape.  They  would  have  gone 
up  the  river  after  her,  but  there  were  too  many  torpedoes  waiting  for  them,  and 
the  guns  of  Fort  McAllister  were  too  powerful. 

Captain  Worden,  of  the  old  Monitor,  was  now  in  command  of  the 
Montauk,  and  he  was  delighted  on  the  night  of  February  27th  to  observe  the 
Nashville  lying  stuck  fast  in  shallow  water  above  Fort  McAllister.  The  oppor 
tunity  was  too  tempting  to  be  neglected,  and  the  next  morning,  despite  a  hot 
attack  from  the  fort,  he  fired  into  the  Nashville  until  she  broke  into  flames  and 
soon  after  blew  up. 

FAILURE    OF    THE    ATTACKS    OX    CHARLESTON. 

Naturally  the  desire  was  strong  in  the  North  to  humble  Charleston,  where 
the  baleful  secession  sentiment  was  born  and  brought  all  the  woe  upon  the 
country.  General  Beau  regard  was  in  command  of  that  department,  and  he 
made  every  preparation  for  the  attack,  which  he  knew  would  soon  come.  In  a 
proclamation  he  urged  the  removal  of  all  non-combatants,  and  called  upon 
the  citizens  to  rally  to  the  defense  of  the  city. 

A  fleet  of  ironclads  was  always  lying  outside  of  Charleston,  watching  for 
an  opportunity  to  give  its  attention  to  the  forts  or  city.  One  tempestuous  night 
in  January  a  couple  of  rams  dashed  out  of  the  harbor,  and,  in  a  ferociously 
vicious  attack,  scattered  the  ironclads,  and  compelled  a  gunboat  to  surrender. 


360  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

Thereupon  the  Confederates  claimed  that  the  blockade  had  been  raised,  but  no 
one  paid  any  attention  to  the  claim. 

An  expedition  was  carefully  organized  for  the  capture  of  Charleston,  and 
placed  in  command  of  Admiral  Samuel  F.  Dupont.  The  fleet,  numbering  a 
hundred  vessels,  left  the  mouth  of  the  North  Edisto  River  on  the  6th  of  April, 
and  on  the  same  day  crossed  the  bar  and  entered  the  main  channel  on  the  coast 
of  Morris  Island. 

A  dense  haze  delayed  operations  until  the  following  day,  when  a  line  of 
battle  was  formed  by  the  ironclads,  the  wooden  vessels  remaining  outside  the 
bar.  A  raft  was  fastened  to  the  front  of  the  Weehawken,  with  which  it  was 
intended  to  explode  the  torpedoes.  The  cumbrous  contrivance  greatly  delayed 
the  progress  of  the  fleet,  which  advanced  slowly  until  the  Weehawken  had 
passed  the  outer  batteries  and  was  close  to  the  entrance  to  the  inner  harbor. 
Then  Fort  Moultrie  fired  a  gun,  instantly  followed  by  that  of  Fort  Sumter,  and 
the  batteries  on  Sullivan  and  on  Morris  Island.  Then  a  hawser,  which  the 
Confederates  had  stretched  across  the  channel  with  the  purpose  of  clogging  the 
screws  of  the  propellers,  was  encountered,  the  Weehawken  was  compelled  to 
grope  around  for  a  better  passage,  and  everything  went  wrong.  The  New 
Ironsides  made  an  attempt  to  turn  but  became  unmanageable,  two  other  ironclads 
ran  afoul  of  her,  and  matters  were  in  a  bad  way  when  Admiral  Dupont  signaled 
for  each  one  to  do  the  best  it  could. 

After  a  time,  eight  ironclads  secured  position  in  front  of  Fort  Sumter,  at 
distances  varying  from  a  third  to  half  a  mile.  This  placed  them  in  direct  range 
of  300  heavy  guns  which  concentrated  their  appalling  fire  upon  them,  the  shots 
following  one  another  as  rapidly  as  the  ticking  of  a  watch.  The  Keokuk,  which 
ran  close  to  Fort  Sumter,  was  struck  ninety  times,  in  the  course  of  half  an  hour, 
in  the  .hull  and  turrets,  and  nineteen  shots  pierced  her  sides  close  to  and  below 
the  water-line.  Her  commander  with  great  difficulty  extricated  her  from  her 
perilous  position,  and  she  sank  the  next  day. 

The  fight  was  another  proof  of  the  fact  that,  in  all  such  engagements,  the 
preponderating  advantage  is  with  the  land  batteries.  The  ships  of  the  squadron 
were  severely  injured,  but  they  inflicted  no  perceptible  damage  upon  the  forts. 
Admiral  Dupont  had  gone  into  the  battle  against  his  judgment,  and  he  now 
signaled  for  the  ships  to  withdraw.  All  with  the  exception  of  the  New  Iron 
sides  returned  to  Port  Royal  on  the  12th  of  April. 

This  failure  caused  great  disappointment  in  the  North  and  to  the  govern 
ment.  Admiral  Dupont  was  ordered  to  hold  his  position  inside  of  Charleston  bar, 
and  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  erecting  any  new  defenses  on  Morris  Island. 
The  admiral  replied  that  he  was  ready  to  obey  all  orders,  but,  in  his  judgment, 
he  was  directed  to  take  an  unwise  and  dangerous  step.  Thereupon  he  was 


FAILURE   OF  THE  ATTACKS   ON  CHARLESTON.  361 

superseded   by   Rear-Admiral   Dahlgren,  and  preparations   were  begun   for  a 
combined  land  and  naval  attack  upon  Charleston. 

One  of  the  best  engineer  officers  in  the  service  was  General  Quincy  A. 
Gillmore,  who  had  captured  Fort  Pulaski  at  Savannah  the  previous  year.  He 
was  summoned  to  Washington,  and  helped  the  government  to  arrange  the  plan 
of  attack  upon  Charleston.  The  most  feasible  course  seemed  to  be  for  a  military 
force  to  seize  Morris  Island  and  bombard  Fort  Sumter  from  that  point,  the  fleet 
under  Dahlgren  giving  help.  There  was  hope  that  the  monitors  and  ironclads 
would  be  able  to  force  their  way  past  the  batteries  and  approach  nigh  enough 
to  strike  Charleston. 

Accordingly,  a  sufficient  detachment  was  gathered  on  Folly  Island,  which 
lies  south  of  Morris  Island,  and  batteries  were  erected  among  the  wroods.  On 
the  10th  of  July,  General  Strong  with  2,000  men  attacked  a  force  of  South 
Carolina  infantry  at  the  southern  part  of  Morris  Island,  and  drove  them  to 
Fort  Wagner  at  the  opposite  end.  The  Confederates  were  reinforced,  and,  in 
the  attack  on  Fort  Wagner,  the  Federals  were  repulsed  and  obliged  to  retreat, 
with  heavy  loss. 

On  the  night  of  the  18th,  in  the  midst  of  a  violent  thunderstorm,  a 
determined  assault  was  made  upon  Fort  Wagner,  one  of  the  newly  formed  negro 
regiments  being  in  the  lead.  The  fighting  was  of  the  most  furious  character, 
but  the  Federals  suffered  a  decisive  defeat,  in  which  their  losses  were  five  times 
as  great  as  those  of  the  defenders. 

General  Gillmore  carried  parallels  against  the  fort,  and  the  ironclads 
assisted  in  the  bombardments;  but,  though  it  continued  for  weeks,  the  city  of 
Charleston  seemed  to  be  as  far  from  surrender  as  ever.  A  part  of  the  time  the 
weather  was  so  intolerably  hot  that  operations  were  suspended. 

Gillmore,  however,  was  so  near  Charleston  that  he  was  able  to  reach  it  with 
his  heaviest  guns,  and  he  prepared  to  do  so.  His  principal  piece  was  a  Parrott, 
which  threw  a  100-pound  ball,  and  was  christened  the  "Swamp  Angel/' 

The  first  shot  was  fired  at  midnight,  August  22d.  As  the  screeching  shell 
curved  over  and  dropped  into  the  sleeping  city,  witli  its  frightful  explosion,  it 
caused  consternation.  The  people  sprang  from  their  beds  and  rushed  into  the 
streets,  many  fleeing  to  the  country.  Beauregard  sent  an  indignant  remonstrance, 
telling  Gillmore  that  all  civilized  nations,  before  bombarding  a  city,  gave  warning 
that  the  non-combatants  might  be  removed.  Gillmore  explained  his  reason  for 
his  course,  and  agreed  to  wait  until  the  following  night  before  renewing  the 
bombardment. 

At  that  hour  it  was  resumed,  with  the  promise  of  grave  results,  but  at  the 
thirty-sixth  discharge  the  Swamp  Angel  exploded,  and  thus  terminated  its  own 
career.  General  Gillmore  continued  to  push  his  parallels  against  Fort  Wagner. 


362  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

Although  the  ironclads  could  not  pass  the  obstructions  to  the  inner  harbor  so  as 
to  help,  Gillmore  persevered,  and  finally  rendered  Forts  Wagner  and  Gregg 
untenable.  The  evacuation  occurred  on  the  night  of  September  Gth.  As  soon 
as  the  Federals  took  possession,  they  had  to  make  all  haste  to  repair  the  ramparts 
to  protect  themselves  against  the  fire  from  Fort  Moultrie  and  James  Island, 
whose  guns  were  immediately  turned  upon  them. 

By  this  time,  Fort  Sumter  was  in  ruins,  its  artillery  could  not  be  served, 
and  its  garrison  comprised  only  a  detachment  of  infantry.  Upon  being 
summoned  to  surrender  by  Dahlgren,  the  commander  invited  the  admiral  to 
come  and  take  the  fort.  The  effort  to  do  so  was  made  by  a  military  force  and 
the  ironclads  on  the  9th  of  September,  but  failed.  No  more  important  attempts 
followed.  The  result  had  shown  that  the  defenses  of  Charleston  were  practically 
impregnable,  and,  though  shells  were  occasionally  sent  into  the  forts  and  city, 
the  latter  was  not  captured  until  near  the  end  of  the  war,  and  then  it  was 
brought  about,  as  may  be  said,  by  the  collapse  of  the  Confederacy  itself. 

When  the  war  began  the  Southerners  were  the  superiors  of  the  Northerners 
as  regarded  their  cavalry.  Horseback  riding  is  more  common  in  the  South  than 
in  the  North,  but  it  did  not  take  the  Union  volunteers  long  to  acquire  the  art, 
and,  as  the  war  progressed,  the  cavalry  arm  was  greatly  increased  and 
strengthened.  One  of  the  natural  results  of  this  was  numerous  raids  by  both 
sides,  some  of  which  assumed  an  importance  that  produced  a  marked  effect  on 
the  military  campaigns  in  progress,  while  in  other  cases,  the  daring  excursions 
were  simply  an  outlet  to  the  adventurous  spirit  which  is  natural  to  Americans 
and  which  manifests  itself  upon  every  opportunity  and  occasion. 

ONE   OF    GENERAL   STUART'S    RAIDS. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  embarrassment  caused  General  Lee  during 
his  Gettysburg  campaign  by  the  absence  of  Stuart  with  his  calvary  on  one  of 
his  raids.  In  the  autumn,  Stuart  started  out  on  a  reconnoissance  to  Catlett's 
Station,  where  he  observed  French's  column  in  the  act  of  withdrawing  from  the 
river,  whereupon  he  turned  back  toward  Warren  ton.  Taking  the  road  leading 
from  that  town  to  Manassas,  he  found  himself  unexpectedly  confronting  the 
corps  of  General  Warren.  Thus  he  was  caught  directly  between  two  fires  and 
in  imminent  clanger  of  defeat  and  capture,  for  his  force  was  but  a  handful 
compared  with  either  column  of  the  Federals.  Fortunately  for  the  raider,  he 
and  his  men  were  in  a  strip  of  woods,  and  had  not  been  seen,  but  discovery 
seemed  certain,  for  their  enemies  were  on  every  hand,  and  the  slightest  inad 
vertence,  even  such  as  the  neighing  of  a  horse,  was  likely  to  betray  them. 

Stuart  called  his  officers  around  him  to  discuss  what  they  could  do  to 
extricate  themselves  from  their  dangerous  situation.  No  one  proposed  to 


ONE  OF  GENERAL  STUART'S  RAIDS 


363 


surrender,  and  it  looked  as  if  they  would  be  obliged  to  abandon  their  nine 
pieces  of  horse  artillery  and  wait  until  night,  when  they  might  cut  their  way 
out. 

Stuart  did  not   like  the   idea  of 

losing    his    guns.       At   any    rate,    he  Jlf 

would  not  consent,  until  another  plan 
which  had  occurred  to  him  was  tried. 
Several  of  his  men  were 
dismounted,    and    each 


I 


THE   SWAMP  ANGEL   BATTERY  BOMBARD 
ING  CHARLESTON. 

was     furnished    with    a     musket    and 
infantry  knapsack.     The  uniform  was 

not  likely  to  attract  notice  in  the  darkness,  in  case  they  met  any  Federals. 
These  messengers  were  ordered  to  pick  their  way  through  the  Union  lines  to 
Warrenton,  where  they  would  find  General  Lee,  who  was  to  be  told  of  the  danger 
in  which  Stuart  was  placed.  The  Confederate  commander  could  be  counted 


364  ADMINISTRATION   OF  LINCOLN. 


upon  to  send  prompt  help.  Fortunately  for  Stuart,  two  of  his  men  succeeded 
in  getting  through  the  Union  lines  and  reaching  Lee. 

At  the  best,  however,  the  night  must  pass  before  help  could  arrive,  and  it 
need  not  be  said  that  the  hours  were  long  and  anxious  ones  to  the  troopers 
hiding  in  the  woods,  with  the  Federal  camp-fires  burning  on  every  side,  and 
the  men  moving  about  and  likely  to  come  among  them  at  any  moment.  They 
were  so  close,  indeed,  that  their  laughter  and  conversation  were  plainly  heard. 

The  alert  horsemen  suddenly  observed  two  Union  officers  coming  toward 
them.  Their  careless  manner  showed  they  had  no  thought  of  danger,  and  they 
were  strolling  along,  when  several  dark  figures  sprang  up  from  the  ground, 
shoved  their  pistols  in  their  faces,  and  warned  them  if  they  made  the  least 
outcry  they  would  be  instantly  shot.  The  prisoners  saw  the  shadowy  forms  all 
around  them,  and  were  sensible  enough  to  submit  and  give  no  trouble.  The 
night  gradually  wore  away,  and  just  as  it  was  growing  light,  and  while  the 
Union  division  on  the  heights  of  Cedar  Run,  where  they  were  posted  to  protect 
the  rear  of  General  Warren,  were  preparing  breakfast,  they  were  alarmed  by 
the  firing  of  musketry  from  the  advance  of  a  Confederate  column  coming  uj> 
the  Warren  ton  road. 

'  That  means  that  Uncle  Bob  has  sent  us  help!"  was  the  gratified  exclama 
tion  of  Stuart  to  his  delighted  friends  ;  "  we  must  take  a  hand  in  this  business." 
The  cavalry  opened  fire  on  the  Union  lines,  which  were  thrown  into  some 
confusion,  during  which  Stuart  limbered  up  his  guns  and  quickly  rejoined 
Ewell. 

STONEMAN'S  RAID. 

As  has  been  stated,  General  Hooker  at  the  opening  of  the  battle  of  Chan- 

rsville  was  confident  that  he  was  going  to  defeat  Lee.     In  order  to  cut  off 

etreat,  he  sent  General  Stoneman,  with  2,300  cavalry,  on  April  28th    to 

the  rear  of  the  Confederate  army.     Stoneman   crossed  the  Rappahannock  at 

Ford,  where  his  force  was  divided.     One-half,  led  by  General  Averill, 

for  the  Orange  Railroad,  a  little  way  above  Culpeper,  then  occupied  by 

zbugh  Lee,  with  a  force  of  500  men.     He  was  attacked  with  such  vigor  that 

>  hurriedly  retreated   across  the  Rapidan,  burning  the   bridges   behind  him. 

11,  instead  of  pursuing,  turned  about  and  made  his  way  back  to  Hooker 

to  accompany  him  in  his  retreat  to  the  northern  bank  of  the  Rappa- 

bannock. 

Meanwhile,  Stoneman  crossed  the  Rapidan  on  the  1st  of  May,  and  galloped 

>tat.on,  on  the  Virginia  Central  Railroad,  a  dozen  miles  to  the  east 

There  he  paused  and  sent  out  several   detachments,  which 

wrought  a  great  deal  of  mischief.     One  of  them  advanced  to  Ashland,  only  fifteen 

from  Richmond,  while  another  went  still  closer  to  the  Confederate  capital 


MORGAN'S   RAID.  365 

These  bodies  of  troopers  caused  much  alarm,  and  a  general  converging  of  the 
enemy's  cavalry  caused  Stoneman  to  start  on  his  return,  May  6th.  For  a  time 
he  was  in  great  danger,  but  his  men  Avere  excellently  mounted,  and,  by  hard 
riding,  they  effected  a  safe  escape  along  the  north  bank  of  the  Pamunkey  and 
York  Rivers,  and  rejoined  their  friends  at  Gloucester. 

GRIERSON'S  RAID. 

During  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  a  daring  raid  was  made  in  the  rear  of  the 
city  by  Colonel  B.  H.  Grierson.  In  this  instance  his  work  was  of  great  help  to 
General  Grant,  for  he  destroyed  the  Confederate  lines  of  communication,  and 
checked  the  gathering  of  reinforcements  for  Pemberton.  Grierson,  who  con 
ceived  the  plan  of  the  raid,  left  La  Grange  on  the  17th  of  April  with  three 
regiments  of  cavalry.  After  crossing  the  Tallahatchie,  he  rode  south  to  the 
Macon  and  Corinth  Railroad,  where  the  rails  were  torn  up,  telegraph  lines  cut, 
and  bridges  and  other  property  destroyed.  To  do  the  work  thoroughly  detach 
ments  were  sent  in  different  directions,  and  they  spared  nothing. 

Grierson  now  changed  his  course  to  the  southwest,  seized  the  bridge  over 
Pearl  River,  burned  a  large  number  of  locomotives,  and  forced  his  way  through 
a  wild  country  to  Baton  Rouge,  which  he  found  in  the  possession  of  Unionists. 
He  had  been  engaged  for  a  fortnight  on  his  raid,  during  which  he  destroyed  an 
immense  amount  of  property,  captured  several  towns,  fought  several  sharp 
skirmishes,  and  carried  off  many  prisoners. 

John  S.  Mosby  was  the  most  daring  Confederate  raider  in  the  East.  Some 
of  his  exploits  and  escapes  were  remarkable,  and  an  account  of  them  would  fill 
a  volume  with  thrilling  incidents.  General  Lee  did  not  look  with  favor  on  such 
irregular  work,  but  accepted  it  as  one  of  the  accompaniments  of  war,  and  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  Mosby  gave  him  valuable  help  in  more  than  one  instance. 

MORGAN'S  RAID. 

John  H.  Morgan  was  famous  in  the  southwest  as  a  raider  and  guerrilla. 
At  the  beginning  of  July,  1863,  he  seized  Columbia,  near  Jamestown,  Kentucky, 
and  advanced  against  Colonel  Moore  at  Greenbrier  Bridge.  His  reception  was 
so  hot  that  he  was  obliged  to  retreat,  whereupon  he  attacked  Lebanon,  where 
there  was  considerable  vicious  fighting  in  the  streets.  One  of  Morgan's  regi 
ments  was  commanded  by  his  brother,  'who  was  killed.  The  incensed  leader  set 
fire  to  the  houses,  and,  although  the  defenders  surrendered,  the  place  was  sacked. 
Then  the  invaders  retreated  before  the  Union  cavalry  who  were  advancing 
against  them.  Their  course  was  through  Northern  Kentucky,  where  they 
plundered  right  and  left,  and  spread  dismay  on  every  hand. 

Reckless  and  encouraged  by  their  successes,  they  now  swam  their  horses 


366  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

over  the  Ohio  River,  and,  entering  Indiana,  gave  that  State  its  first  experience 
in  war.  The  local  militia  were  called  out,  but  the  experienced  cavalry  easily 
brushed  them  aside.  They  knew,  however,  it  would  be  different  when  they 
met  the  regular  Union  cavalry  who  were  riding  hard  after  them.  To  escape 
them,  Morgan  started  for  western  Virginia,  When  he  entered  Ohio,  the  State 
was  terrified,  and  even  Cincinnati  trembled,  but  the  raiders  had  no  thought 
of  stopping  until  they  reached  western  Virginia,  where  they  would  be  safe. 

The  telegraph  had  carried  the  news  of  Morgan's  movements  everywhere, 
and  the  determination  was  general  that  he  should  not  be  allowed  to  escape  from 
the  entanglements  in  which  he  and  his  men  had  involved  themselves.  The 
militia  guarded  all  the  fords  of  the  Ohio;  gunboats  steamed  back  and  forth;  the 
roads  were  blocked  by  felled  trees,  and  everything  possible  was  done  to 
obstruct  the  band,  who  were  so  laden  with  plunder  that  their  exhausted  animals 
had  to  proceed  slowly. 

It  is  stated  by  credible  witnesses,  who  saw  the  formidable  company  riding 
along  the  highway  when  hard  pressed,  that  nearly  every  man  in  the  saddle  was 
sound  asleep.  They  dared  not  make  any  extended  halt  through  fear  of  their 
pursuers,  and  when  they  did  pause  it  was  because  of  their  drooping  animals. 

Reaching  the  Ohio  at  last,  Morgan  planted  his  field  guns  near  Buffington 
Island,  with  the  view  of  protecting  his  men  while  they  swam  the  river.  Before 
he  could  bring  them  into  use,  a  gunboat  knocked  the  pieces  right  and  left  like 
so  many  tenpins.  Abandoning  the  place,  Morgan  made  the  attempt  to  cross  at 
Belleville,  but  was  again  frustrated.  It  was  now  evident  that  the  time  had  come 
when  each  must  lookout  for  himself.  Accordingly,  the  band  broke  up  and 
scattered.  Their  pursuers  picked  them  up  one  by  one,  and  Morgan  himself  and 
a  few  of  his  men  were  surrounded  near  New  Lisbon,  Ohio,  and  compelled  to 
surrender.  He  and  his  principal  officers  were  sentenced  to  the  Ohio  penitentiary, 
where  they  were  kept  in  close  confinement  until  November  27th,  when  through 
the  assistance  of  friends  (some  of  whom  were  probably  within  the  prison),  he 
and  six  officers  effected  their  escape,  and  succeeded  in  reaching  the  Confederate 
lines,  where  they  were  soon  at  their  characteristic  work  again. 

Morgan  was  a  raider  by  nature,  but,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  "  pitcher  went 
to  the  fountain  once  too  often."  While  engaged  upon  one  of  his  raids  the  follow 
ing  year  he  was  cornered  by  the  Federal  cavalry,  and  in  the  fight  that  followed 
was  shot  dead. 

Far  below  these  men  in  moral  character  were  such  guerrillas  as  Quantrell, 
who  were  simply  plunderers,  assassins,  and  murderers,  who  carried  on  their 
execrable  work  through  innate  depravity,  rather  than  from  any  wish  to  help  the 
side  with  which  they  identified  themselves.  Most  of  them  soon  ran  their  brief 
course,  and  died,  as  they  had  lived,  by  violence. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

ADMINISTRATION     OK     LINCOLN     CCONCLUDKD). 

1861-1865. 

WAR   KOR   THK   UNION   (CONCUUDKD),   1864-1865. 

rhe  Work  Remaining  to  be  Done — General  Grant  Placed  in  Command  of  all  the  Union  Armies — The 
Grand  Campaign — Banks'  Disastrous  Red  River  Expedition — How  the  Union  Fleet  was  Saved 
— Capture  of  Mobile  by  Admiral  Favragut — The  Confederate  Cruisers — Destruction  of  the  Alabama 
by  the  Kearsarge — Fate  of  the  Other  Confederate  Cruisers— Destruction  of  the  Albemarle  by  Lieu 
tenant  William  B.  Gushing — Re-election  of  President  Lincoln — Distress  in  the  South  and  Prosperity 
in  the  North — The  Union  Prisoners  u  the  South — Admission  of  Nevada — The  Confederate  Raids 
from  Canada — Sherman's  Advarc?  to  Atlanta — Fall  of  Atlanta — Hood's  Vain  Attempt  to  Relieve 
Georgia— Superb  Success  of  General  Thomas — "Marching  Through  Georgia"— Sherman's  Christ 
mas  Gift  to  President  Lincoln — Opening  of  Grant's  Final  Campaign — Battles  in  the  Wilderness — 
Wounding  of  General  Longstreet  and  Deaths  of  General  Stuart  and  Sedgwick — Grant's  Flanking 
Movements  Against  Lee — A  Disastrous  Repulse  at  Cold  Harbor — Defeat  of  Sigel  and  Hunter  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valley — "  Bottling-up  "  of  Butler — Explosions  of  the  Petersburg  Mine — Early' s  Raids — 
His  Final  Defeat  by  Sheridan — Grant's  Campaign — Surrender  of  Lee — Assassination  of  President 
Lincoln — Death  of  Booth  and  Punishment  of  the  Conspirators — Surrender  of  Jo  Johnston  and 
Collapse  of  the  Southern  Confederacy — Capture  of  Jeiferson  Davis — His  Release  and  Death — Statis 
tics  of  the  Civil  War — A  Characteristic  Anecdote. 

THE    WORK    TO    BE    DONE. 

Two  grand  campaigns  remained  to  be  prosecuted  to  a  successful  conclusion 
before  the  great  Civil  War  could  be  ended  and  the  Union  restored.  The  first 
and  most  important  was  that  of  General  Grant  against  Richmond,  or,  more 
properly,  against  Lee,  who  was  still  at  the  head  of  the  unconquered  Army  of 
Northern  Virginia,  and  who  must  be  overcome  before  the  Confederate  capital 
could  fall.  The  second  was  the  campaign  of  General  Sherman,  through  the 
heart  of  the  Southern  Confederacy.  Other  interesting  and  decisive  operations 
were  to  be  pressed,  but  all  were  contributory  to  the  two  great  ones  mentioned. 

Several  momentous  truths  had  forced  themselves  upon  the  national  govern 
ment.  It  had  learned  to  comprehend  the  magnitude  of  the  struggle  before  it. 
Had  the  North  and  South  possessed  equal  resources  and  the  same  number  of 
troops,  the  latter  could  not  have  been  conquered  any  more  than  the  North  could 
have  been  defeated  had  the  situation  been  reversed.  But  the  North  possessed 
uien,  wealth,  and  resources  immensely  beyond  those  of  the  South.  The  war 
iiad  made  the  South  an  armed  camp,  with  privation  and  suffering  everywhere. 

(367) 


368  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

while  in  the  North  a  person  might  have  traveled  for  days  and  weeks  without 
suspecting  that  a  domestic  war  was  in  progress.  It  was  necessary  to  overwhelm 
the  South,  and  the  North  had  not  only  the  ability  to  do  so,  but  was  resolved  that 
it  should  be  done.  Its  estimates  were  made  on  the  basis  of  an  army  of  a  million 
men.  Large  bounties  were  ottered  for  soldiers,  and,  when  these  did  not  provide 
all  that  was  needed,  drafting  was  resorted  to.  There  had  been  rioting  and 
disorder  in  New  York  City  and  other  places  during  the  summer  of  1863,  when 
there  was  a  vicious  revolt  against  drafting,  but  the  government  persisted  and 
obtained  the  men  it  needed. 

THE    RIGHT    LEADER. 

Another  proven  fact  was  that  the  war  could  not  be  successfully  prosecuted 
by  a  bureau  in  Washington.  This  attempt  at  the  beginning  had  brought 
disaster ;  but  the  excuse  for  this  interference  wras  that  the  right  leaders  had  not 
yet  appeared.  General  after  general  was  tried  at  the  head  of  the  armies,  and 
had  either  failed  or  come  short  of  the  expected  success.  The  events  of  1863, 
however,  indicated  unerringly  the  right  men  to  whom  the  destinies  of  the  nation 
could  be  safely  intrusted.  Foremost  among  these  was  General  Ulysses  S. 
Grant.  With  that  genius  of  common  sense,  which  always  actuated  President 
Lincoln,  he  nominated  him  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  the  grade  of  which 
was  revived  by  Congress  in  February,  1864,  and  the  Senate  confirmed  the 
appointment  on  the  2d  of  March.  In  obedience  to  a  summons  from  Washing 
ton,  Grant  left  Nashville  on  the  4th  of  the  month,  arrived  on  the  9th,  and 
President  Lincoln  handed  him  his  commission  on  the  following  day. 

"I  don't  know  what  your  plans  are,  general,"  said  the  President,  "  nor  do 
I  ask  to  know  them.  You  have  demonstrated  your  ability  to  end  this  war,  and 
the  country  expects  you  to  do  it.  Go  ahead,  and  you  may  count  upon  my 
unfaltering  support." 

Grant  modestly  accepted  the  tremendous  responsibility,  which  placed  him 
in  command  of  all  the  armies  of  the  United  States,  and  he  established  his  head 
quarters  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  at  Culpeper,  Va.,  March  26,  1864. 

THE    GRAND    CAMPAIGN. 

The  plan  of  campaign  determined  upon  by  Grant  was  to  concentrate  all 
the  national  forces  into  a  few  distinct  armies,  which  should  advance  on  the  same 
day  against  the  opposing  Confederate  armies,  and,  by  fighting  incessantly,  prevent 
any  one  of  them  from  reinforcing  the  other.  The  armies  of  the  enemy  were 
themselves  to  be  the  objective  points,  and  they  were  to  be  given  no  time  for  rest. 
Sherman  was  to  advance  from  Atlanta  against  Johnston,  who  had  an  army 
larger  in  numbers  than  that  of  Lee;  Banks'  army,  as  soon  as  it  could  be  with 
drawn  from  the  disastrous  Red  River  expedition,  was  to  act  against  Mobile; 


BANKS'   RED  RIVER  EXPEDITION,  369 

Sigel  was  to  pass  down  the  valley  of  Virginia  and  prevent  the  enemy  from 
making  annoying  raids  from  that  quarter;  Butler  was  to  ascend  the  James  and 
threaten  Richmond ;  and,  finally,  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  under  the  immediate 
command  of  Meade,  was  to  protect  Washington,  and  essay  the  most  herculean 
task  of  all — the  conquest  of  Lee  and  his  army. 

Orders  were  issued  by  Grant  for  a  general  movement  of  all  the  national  forces 
on  the  4th  of  May.  Since  they  were  so  numerous,  and  began  nearly  at  the 
same  time,  it  is  necessary  to  give  the  particulars  of  each  in  turn,  reserving  that 
of  the  most  important — Grant's  own — for  the  last. 

BANKS7    RED    RIVER    EXPEDITION. 

One  of  the  most  discreditable  affairs  of  the  war  was  what  is  known  as 
Banks'  Red  River  Expedition.  That  officer  was  in  command  at  New  Orleans? 
when  it  was  decided  to  send  a  strong  force  up  the  Red  River,  in  quest  of  the 
immense  quantities  of  cotton  stored  in  that  region,  though  the  ostensible  object 
was  the  capture  of  Shreveport,  Louisiana,  350  miles  above  New  Orleans,  and 
the  capital  of  the  State. 

The  plan  was  for  the  army  to  advance  in  three  columns,  supported  by 
Admiral  Porter  with  a  fleet,  which  was  to  force  a  passage  up  the  Red  River. 
General  A.  J.  Smith  was  to  march  from  Vicksburg,  with  the  first  division  of 
the  army,  which  numbered  10,000  men ;  Banks  was  to  lead  the  second  from 
New  Orleans,  and  Steele  the  third  from  Little  Rock. 

General  Edmund  Kirby  Smith  was  the  Confederate  commander  of  the 
Trans-Mississippi  Department.  Although  he  had  fewer  men  than  the  invaders, 
he  prepared  for  a  vigorous  resistance.  He  sent  Generals  Price  and  Marmaduke 
to  harass  Steele,  directed  General  Dick  Taylor  to  obstruct  the  Red  River  as 
much  as  he  could,  while  he  made  ready  to  make  the  best  fight  possible. 

Fifty  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Red  River  stood  Fort  de  Russy,  which, 
although  considerably  strengthened,  was  carried  by  assault,  March  13th.  On 
the  loth,  Porter's  twelve  gunboats  and  thirty  transports  joined  Franklin  at 
Alexandria.  The  Federal  cavalry  occupied  Natchitoches,  on  the  last  day  of 
the  month,  and  in  the  van  of  the  army;  they  arrived  at  Mansfield  on  the  8th  of 
April,  several  days  after  Admiral  Porter  had  reached  Grand  Echore  on  the 
Red  River. 

Meanwhile,  the  Confederate  General  Dick  Taylor  kept  fighting  and  falling 
back  before  the  Union  advance,  but  he  was  continually  reinforced,  until  he 
felt  strong  enough  to  offer  the  Federals  battle.  This  took  place  on  the  8th,  a 
short  distance  from  Mansfield.  The  assault  was  made  with  vehemence,  and  the 
Union  troops,  who  were  straggling  along  for  miles,  were  taken  by  surprise  and 
driven  into  headlong  panic,  leaving  their  artillery  behind,  and  not  stopping 

24 


370  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

their  flight  until  under  the  protection  of  the  guns  of  the  Nineteenth  Corps. 
Then  a  stand  was  made,  and  Banks  fell  back  to  his  old  camping  ground  at 
Pleasant  Hill.  His  intention  was  to  remain  there,  but  his  command  was  so 
disorganized  that  he  continued  his  flight.  The  Confederates  had  already 
chased  them  so  long  that  they  were  worn  out,  while  Banks  continued  retreating 
until  he  reached  Grand  Ecliore,  where  he  breathed  freely  for  the  first  time,  since 
he  had  the  protection  of  the  gunboats. 

Disgraceful  as  was  the  overthrow  of  the  land  forces,  a  still  greater  disaster 
threatened  the  fleet.  Porter  had  gone  further  up  the  river,  but  returned  to 
Grand  Echore  upon  learning  of  the  defeat  of  Banks.  He  had  to  sweep  the 
shores  continually  with  grapeshot,  to  clear  it  of  the  Confederate  sharpshooters, 
who  succeeded  in  capturing  two  of  the  transports  and  blowing  up  another  with 
a  torpedo.  The  Red  River  was  low,  with  the  water  falling  hourly.  The  retreat 
ing  army  reached  Alexandria  on  the  27th  of  April,  but  the  fleet  was  stopped  by 
the  shallowness  of  the  water  above  the  falls,  and  the  officers  despaired  of  saving 
it.  The  only  possible  recourse  seemed  to  destroy  all  the  vessels  to  prevent  their 
tailing  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

HOW    THE    UNION    FLEET    WAS   SAVED. 

In  this  crisis,  Colonel  Joseph  Bailey,  of  Wisconsin,  submitted  a  plan  for 
a  series  of  wing  dams  above  the  falls,  believing  they  would  raise  the  water  high 
enough  to  float  all  the  vessels.  The  other  engineers  scoffed  at  the  project,  but 
Porter  placed  3,000  men  and  all  that  Bailey  needed  at  his  command. 

The  task  was  a  prodigious  one,  for  the  falls,  as  they  were  termed,  were  a 
mile  in  length  and  it  was  necessary  to  swell  the  current  sufficiently  to  carry  the 
vessels  past  the  rocks  for  the  whole  distance.  The  large  force  of  men  worked 
incessantly  for  nearly  two  weeks,  by  which  time  the  task  was  accomplished  and 
the  fleet  plunged  through  unharmed  to  the  deeper  water  below  the  falls.  The 
genius  of  a  single  man  had  saved  the  Union  fleet. 

Banks,  having  retreated  to  Alexandria,  paused  only  long  enough  to  burn 
the  town,  when  he  kept  on  to  New  Orleans,  where  some  time  later  he  was  re 
lieved  of  his  command.  The  Red  River  expedition  was  the  crowning  disgrace 
of  the  year. 

THE    CAPTURE   OF    MOBILE. 

After  the  fall  of  New  Orleans,  in  April,  1862,  Mobile  was  the  leading  port 
of  the  Southern  Confederacy.  It  was  blockaded  closely,  but  the  Confederate 
cruisers  succeeded  now  and  then  in  slipping  in  and  out,  while  a  number  of  iron 
clads  were  in  process  of  building,  and  threatened  to  break  the  blockade. 
Admiral  Farragut,  the  greatest  naval  hero  of  modern  times,  after  a  careful  recon- 
noissance  of  the  defenses,  told  the  government  that  if  it  would  provide  him  with 


THE   CAPTURE   OF  MOBILE.  371 

a  single  AMiclad,  he  would  capture  Mobile.     He  was  promised  a  strong  land 
force  under  General  Granger  and  several  monitors,  which  were  sent  to  him. 

Farvagut,  fully  appreciating  the  task  before  him,  made  his  preparations 
with  care  and  thoroughness.  His  fleet  consisted  of  eighteen  vessels,  four  of 
which — the  Tecumseh,  Winnebago,  Manhattan,  and  Chlckasaw — were  ironclads, 
while  the  others  were  of  wood.  Admiral  Buchanan  (commander  of  the  Her- 
rimac  in  her  first  day's  fight  with  the  Monitor)  had  less  vessels,  three  gunboats, 
and  the  formidable  ram  Tennessee.  But  he  was  assisted  by  three  powerful  forts, 


BAILEY'S   DAMS    ON   THE   RED   RIVER. 

with  large  garrisons — Gaines,  Morgan,  and  Powell — which  commanded  the  en 
trance,  while  the  Tennessee  was  regarded  by  the  Confederates  as  able  to  sink  the 
whole  Union  fleet. 

The  wooden  vessels  were  lashed  in  couples,  so  as  to  give  mutual  help,  and 
with  the  Brooklyn  and  Hartford  (Farragut's  flagship)  in  the  lead,  the  proces 
sion  entered  Mobile  Bay  on  the  morning  of  August  5,  1864.  As  they  came 
opposite  the  forts  they  opened  fire  upon  them,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  latter 
began  their  thunderous  reply.  The  battle  was  tremendous,  and  the  smoke  was 
so  dense  that  Farra.gi.it,  who  was  closely  watching  and  directing  the  action  of  the 


372  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

fleet,  gradually  climbed  the  rigging,  so  as  to  place  himself  above  the  obstructing 
vapor.  His  height  was  such  that  the  captain  of  the  vessel  became  anxious  for 
his  safety,  since  if  he  was  struck,  as  looked  probable,  he  was  sure  to  fall  to  the 
deck  or  overboard.  He,  therefore,  sent  a  man  after  him,  with  a  rope  in  hand. 
Amid  the  gentle  remonstrances  of  the  admiral,  this  man  lashed  him  fast  to  the 
rigging.  When  the  increasing  smoke  made  it  necessary  to  climb  higher,  Farra- 
gut  untied  the  fastenings,  and,  after  he  had  taken  several  upward  steps,  tied  him 
self  again. 

The  harbor  bristled  with  torpedoes,  to  which,  however,  Farragut  and  his 
officers  paid  little  heed.  The  Tecumseh,  Commander  T.  A.  M.  Craven,  was  hur 
rying  to  attack  the  ram  Tennessee,  when  a  gigantic  torpedo  exploded  beneath 
her,  smashing  in  the  bottom  and  causing  her  to  sink  so  suddenly  that  nearly  a 
hundred  men  went  down  with  her.  The  pilot  and  Craven  were  in  the  pilot 
house,  and,  feeling  the  boat  dropping  beneath  them,  both  sprang  to  the  narrow 
ladder  leading  out.  They  reached  the  foot  together,  when  the  commander 
bowed  and,  pausing,  said  to  the  pilot :  "  You  first,  sir."  He  had  barely  time  to 
scramble  out,  when  Captain  Craven  and  the  rest  went  down. 

The  Union  vessels  pressed  forward  with  such  vigor  that,  with  the  exception 
of  the  loss  of  the  Tecwmeh,  the  forts  were  passed  without  the  ships  receiving 
serious  injury.  When,  however,  the  battle  seemed  won,  the  Tennessee  came  out 
from  under  the  guns  of  Fort  Powell  and  headed  for  the  Union  vessels.  She 
believed  herself  invulnerable  in  her  massive  iron  hide,  and  selected  the  flagship 
as  her  special  target.  The  Hartford  partly  dodged  her  blow  and  rammed  her 
in  return.  The  ram  was  accompanied  by  three  gunboats,  which  were  soon 
driven  out  of  action,  but  the  Tennessee  plunged  here  and  there  like  some  enraged 
monster  driven  at  bay,  but  which  the  guns  and  attacks  of  her  assailants  could 
not  conquer. 

Tons  of  metal  were  hurled  with  inconceivable  force  against  her  mailed 
sides,  only  to  drop  harmlessly  into  the  water.  She  was  butted  and  rammed,  and 
in  each  case  it  was  like  the  rat  gnawing  a  file  :  the  injury  fell  upon  the  assailant. 
She  was  so  surrounded  by  her  enemies  that  they  got  in  one  another's  way  and 
caused  mutual  hurt. 

But  as  continual  dropping  wears  away  stones,  this  incessant  hammering 
finally  showed  effect.  Admiral  Buchanan  received  a  painful  wound,  and  a  num 
ber  of  his  men  were  killed  ;  the  steering-chains  were  broken,  the  smokestack 
was  carried  away,  the  port  shutters  jammed,  and  finally  the  wallowing  "  sea-hog  " 
became  unmanageable.  Then  the  white  flag  was  displayed  and  the  battle  was 
over.  Farragut  had  won  his  most  memorable  battle,  and  the  last  important 
seaport  of  the  Confederacy  was  gone. 

Two  days  later  .Fort  Gaines  was  captured,  and  Fort  Morgan  surrendered 


THE  CONFEDERATE  CRUISERS. 


373 


on  the  23d  of  the  same  month.  The  land  force  rendered  valuable  assistance, 
and  the  blockade  became  more  rigid.  The  coast  line,  however,  was  so  extensive 
that  it  was  impossible  to  seal  every  port,  and  the  Confederacy  obtained  a  good 
deal  of  sorely  needed  medical  supplies  through  the  daring  blockade-runners, 
which  often  managed  to  elude  the  watchful  fleets. 

The  Confederate  cruisers  were  still  roaming  the  ocean  and  creating  immense 
havoc  among  the  Union  shipping.     Despite  our  protests  to  England,  she  helped 


MONUMENT  TO  ADMIRAL  FARRAGUT  AT  WASHINGTON. 

to  man  these  vessels,  and  laid  up  a  fine  bill  for  damages  which  she  was  compelled 
to  pay  after  the  close  of  the  war. 

THE   CONFEDERATE   CRUISERS. 

During  the  year  1864,  several  new  cruisers  appeared  on  the  ocean,  one  of 
which,  the  Tallahassee,  boldly  steamed  up  and  down  off  our  northern  coast,  and, 
in  the  space  of  ten  days,  destroyed  thirty-three  vessels.  The  most  famous  of 
all  these  cruisers  was  the  Alabama,  which  was  built  at  Birkenhead,  England, 
and  launched  May  15,  1862.  She  was  a  bark-rigged  propeller  of  1,016  tons 
register,  with  a  length  over  all  of  220  feet  Her  two  horizontal  engines  were 


374  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

of  300  horse-power  each.  When  completed,  she  was  sent  on  a  pretended  trial 
trip.  At  the  Azores  she  received  her  war  material  from  a  waiting  transport, 
while  her  commander,  Captain  Raphael  Semmes,  and  his  officers,  who  had  gone 
thither  on  a  British  steamer,  went  aboard.  The  Alabama  carried  8  guns  and  a 
crew  of  149  men,  most  of  whom  were  Englishmen.  Thus  fairly  launched,  she 
started  on  her  career  of  destruction,  which  continued  uninterruptedly  for 
twenty-two  months. 

DESTRUCTION    OF    THE    ALABAMA. 

One  of  the  many  United  States  vessels  that  was  engaged  in  a  hunt  for  the 
Alabama  was  the  Kearsarge,  Captain  John  Ancrum  Winslow.  She  was  of 
1,030  tons,  carried  7  guns,  and  had  a  crew  of  163  men,  nearly  all  of  whom  were 
Americans.  On  Sunday,  July  12,  1864,  while  lying  off  the  town  of  Flushing, 
Holland,  Captain  Winslow  received  a  dispatch  from  Minister  W.  L.  Dayton,  at 
Paris,  notifying  him  that  the  Alabama  had  arrived  at  Cherbourg,  France. 
Winslow  lost  no  time  in  steaming  thither,  and  reached  Cherbourg  on  Tuesday, 
where  he  saw  the  cruiser  across  the  breakwater  with  the  Confederate  flag 
defiantly  flying. 

Winslow  did  not  dare  enter  the  harbor,  for,  had  he  done  so,  he  would  have 
been  obliged,  according  to  international  law,  to  remain  twenty-four  hours  after 
the  departure  of  the  Alabama,  which  would  thereby  gain  all  the  opportunity 
she  needed  for  escape.  He,  therefore,  took  station  off  the  port,  intending  to 
wait  until  the  cruiser  came  out. 

This  precaution,  however,  was  unnecessary,  for  Semmes,  grown  bold  by  his 
long  career  of  destroying  unarmed  merchantmen,  had  resolved  to  offer  the 
Kearsarge  battle.  He  sent  a  challenge  to  Captain  Winslow,  couched  in 
insulting  language,  and  the  Union  officer  promptly  accepted  it. 

The  news  of  the  impending  battle  was  telegraphed  far  and  wide,  and 
excursion  trains  were  run  from  Paris  and  other  points  to  Cherbourg.  On 
Sunday,  June  19th,  fully  15,000  people  lined  the  shores  and  wharves,  and 
among  them  all  it  may  be  doubted  whether  there  were  more  than  a  hundred 
whose  sympathies  were  not  keenly  on  the  side  of  the  Alabama.  France 
was  intensely  in  favor  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  and  nothing  would  have 
pleased  Louis  Napoleon,  the  emperor,  better  than  to  see  our  country  torn 
apart.  He  did  his  utmost  to  persuade  England  to  join  him  in  intervening 
against  us. 

With  a  faint  haze  resting  on  the  town  and  sea,  the  Alabama  steamed  slowly 
out  of  the  harbor  on  Sunday  morning,  June  19th,  and  headed  toward  the 
waiting  Kearsarge.  The  latter  began  moving  seaward,  as  if  afraid  to  meet  her 
antagonist.  The  object  of  Captain  Winslow,  however,  was  to  draw  the  Alabama 
so  far  that  no  question  about  neutral  waters  could  arise,  and  in  case  the  Alabama 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  ALABAMA.  375 

should  be  disabled,  he  did  not  intend  to  give  her  the  chance  to  take  refuge  in 
Cherbourg. 

Three  miles  was  the  neutral  limit,  but  Captain  Winslow  continued  to  steam 
out  to  sea  until  he  had  gone  nearly  seven  miles  from  shore.  Then  he  swung 
around  and  made  for  the  Alabama.  As  he  did  so,  Captain  Semmes  delivered 
three  broadsides,  with  little  effect.  Then  fearing  a  raking  fire,  Captain  Winslow 
sheered  and  fired  a  broadside  at  a  distance  of  little  more  than  half  a  mile,  and 
strove  to  pass  under  the  Alabama's  stern,  but  Semmes  also  veered  and 
prevented  it. 

Since  each  vessel  kept  its  starboard  broadside  toward  the  other,  they  began 
moving  in  a  circular  direction,  the  current  gradually  carrying  both  westward, 
while  the  circle  narrowed  until  its  diameter  was  about  a  fourth  of  a  mile. 

From  the  beginning  the  fire  of  the  Kearsarge  was  much  more  accurate  and 
destructive  than  her  antagonist's.  Hardly  had  the  battle  opened  when  the  gaff 
and  colors  of  the  Alabama  were  shot  away,  but  another  ensign  was  quickly 
hoisted  at  the  mizzen.  Captain  Winslow  instructed  his  gunners  to  make  every 
shot  count.  This  was  wise,  for  its  effects  became  speedily  apparent.  The 
Kearsarge  fired  173  shots,  nearly  all  of  which  landed,  while  of  the  370  of  the 
Alabama,  only  28  hit  the  Kearsarge.  One  of  these,  a  68-pounder  shell, 
exploded  on  the  quarter-deck,  wounding  three  men,  one  mortally.  Another 
shell,  bursting  in  the  hammock  nettings,  started  a  fire,  which  was  speedily 
extinguished.  A  third  buried  itself  in  the  sternpost,  but  fortunately  did  not 
explode.  The  damage  done  by  the  remaining  shots  was  trifling. 

One  of  the  Kearsarge 's  11-inch  shells  entered  the  port  of  the  Alabama's 
8-inch  gun,  tore  off  a  part  of  the  piece,  and  killed  several  of  the  crew.  A 
second  shell  entered  the  same  port,  killed  one  man  and  wounded  several,  and 
soon  a  third  similar  shot  penetrated  the  same  opening.  Before  the  action  closed, 
it  was  necessary  to  re-form  the  crew  of  the  after  pivot  gun  four  times.  These 
terrific  missiles  were  aimed  slightly  below  the  water-line  of  the  Alabama,  with  a 
view  of  sinking  her. 

About  an  hour  had  passed  'and  seven  complete  revolutions  had  been 
described  by  the  ships,  and  the  eighth  had  just  begun,  when  it  became  apparent 
that  the  Alabama  was  sinking.  She  headed  for  neutral  waters,  now  only  two 
miles  distant,  but  a  few  well-planted  shots  stopped  her,  and  she  displayed  the 
white  flag.  Her  race  was  run,  and  Captain  Winslow  immediately  ceased  firing 
and  lowered  his  only  two  serviceable  boats,  which  were  hurried  to  the  aid  of 
the  drowning  men.  A  few  minutes  later  the  bow  of  the  Alabama  rose  high  in 
air,  and  then  the  noted  cruiser  plunged  downward,  stern  foremost,  and  disap 
peared  forever  in  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 

Cruising  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  fight  was  the  English  yacht  Deer- 


376  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

hound,  which  now  joined  in  rescuing  the  crew  of  the  Alabama  at  the  request 
of  Captain  Winslow.  She  was  in  duty  bound  to  deliver  the  men  she  saved  to 
Winslow  as  prisoners  of  war,  but,  instead  of  doing  so,  she  watched  her  chance, 
and,  under  full  steam,  made  for  Southampton,  carrying  forty-two,  among  whom 
were  Captain  Semmes  and  fourteen  officers.  Semmes  had  flung  his  sword  into 
the  sea  and  leaped  overboard  as  the  Alabama  was  going  down.  His  vessel  had 
nine  killed,  ten  drowned,  and  twenty-one  wounded,  while  on  the  Kearsarge  of 
the  three  wounded  only  one  died.  A  demand  was  made  upon  the  English 
government  for  the  surrender  of  the  men  carried  away  by  the  Deerhound*  but 
it  was  refused. 

FATE  OF  THE  OTHER  CRUISERS. 

The  Confederate  cruiser  Georgia  took  on  the  guise  of  a  merchant  vessel, 
but  was  seized  off  the  coast  of  Portugal  by  the  Niagara,  and  sent  to  this  country 
as  a  lawful  prize.  The  Florida,  while  lying  in  the  neutral  port  of  Bahia, 
Brazil,  was  attacked,  October  7th,  by  the  Wachuset,  captured,  and  taken  to 
Hampton  Eoads.  This  action  was  illegal,  being  similar  to  the  attack  made  upon 
the  Essex  in  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso  in  the  War  of  1812.  While  awaiting 
decision  as  to  the  legality  of  her  capture,  she  was  run  into  by  a  steam  transport 
and  sunk.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  this  method  of  settling  the  dispute  was 
wholly  accidental. 

The  Shenandoah  did  most  of  her  destructive  work  in  the  far  Pacific.  As 
a  consequence  she  did  not  hear  of  the  conclusion  of  the  war  until  several 
months  afterward,  and  she  was,  therefore,  virtually  a  pirate  fighting  under  a  flag 
that  had  no  legal  existence.  Her  captain,  when  the  news  reached  him,  steamed 
for  England,  and  turned  over  his  vessel  to  the  British  government. 

DESTRUCTION    OF    THE    "ALBEMARLE"    BY   LIEUTENANT    GUSHING. 

Probably  no  more  formidable  ironclad  was  ever  built  by  the  Southern  Con 
federacy  than  the  Albemarle.  She  had  been  constructed  under  great  difficulties, 
work  being  begun  early  in  1863,  when,  it  was  said,  her  keel  was  laid  in  a 
cornfield.  When  finished  she  was  122  feet  over  all,  and  was  propelled  by  twin 
screws  with  engines  of  200  horse-power  each.  Her  armament  consisted  of  an 
Armstrong  gun  of  100  pounds  at  the  bow  and  a  similar  one  at  the  stern. 

The  Albemarle  demonstrated  on  the  first  opportunity  the  appalling  power 
she  possessed.  The  Federals  had  captured  Plymouth,  North  Carolina,  which 
was  attacked  by  the  Confederates,  April  17th  and  18th.  They  were  repulsed 
mainly  through  the  assistance  of  two  wooden  gunboats,  the  Miami  and  South- 
field,  but  the  Albemarle  came  down  the  river  on  the  19th  and  engaged  them. 
The  shots  of  the  'gunboats  did  no  more  harm  than  those  of  the  Cumberland  and 
Congress  when  fired  against  the  Merrimac.  The  Southfield  was  crushed  as 


DESTRUCTION   OF   THE  ALEEMARLE.  377 

so  much  pasteboard,  and  sent  to  the  bottom  of  the  river,  while  the  mangled 
Miami  limped  off,  accompanied  by  two  tugboats.  The  next  day  Plymouth 
surrendered  to  the  Confederates.  In  a  fight  some  weeks  later  with  the  Union 
vessels,  the  Albemarle  inflicted  great  injury,  and  withstood  all  the  ramming 
and  broadsides  that  could  be  brought  against  her.  She  was  a  most  dangerous 
vessel  indeed,  and  caused  the  government  a  great  deal  of  uneasiness. 

Several  attempts  were  made  to  destroy  her,  but  the  Confederates  were 
watchful  and  vigilant.  She  was  moored  to  the  wharf,  about  eight  miles  up  the 
river,  upon  the  shores  of  which  a  thousand  men  were  encamped.  They 
patroled  the  banks  and  kept  bright  fires  burning  all  night.  The  crew  of  the 
ram  were  alert,  and  a  boom  of  cypress  logs  encircled  the  craft  some  thirty  feet 
from  the  hull,  to  ward  off  the  approach  of  torpedoes.  It  would  seem  that  no 
possible  precaution  was  neglected. 

Among  the  most  daring  men  ever  connected  with  the  American  navy  was 
William  Barker  Gushing.  He  was  born  in  1842,  and  educated  at  the  Naval 
Academy.  He  was  of  so  wild  a  disposition  that  many  of  his  friends  saw  little 
hope  of  his  success  in  life.  But,  entering  the  service  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war,  he  quickly  gave  proof  qf  a  personal  courage  that  no  danger  could  affect. 
He  seemed  to  love  peril  for  the  sake  of  itself,  and  where  death  threatened  he 
eagerly  went.  He  expressed  confidence  that  he  could  destroy  the  Albemarle 
and  asked  permission  to  make  the  attempt.  His  superior  officers  knew  that  if 
its  destruction  was  within  the  range  of  human  possibility,  he  would  accomplish 
it,  and  the  ram  was  so  great  a  menace  to  the  Union  fleet  that  he  was  told  to  try 
his  hand  at  the  seeming  impossible  task. 

Although  Gushing  was  a  young  man  of  unsurpassable  bravery,  ready  at  all 
times  to  take  desperate  chances,  there  was  what  might  be  termed  method  in  his 
madness.  He  needed  no  one  to  tell  him  that  in  his  attempt  to  destroy  the 
Albemarle,  the  slightest  neglect  in  his  preparations  were  likely  to  prove  fatal. 
He,  therefore,  took  every  precaution  that  ingenuity  could  devise.  Two  picket 
boats  were  constructed  with  spar  torpedoes  attached,  and  with  engines  so  formed 
that  by  spreading  tarpaulin  over  them  all  light  and  sound  was  obscured.  When 
traveling  at  a  low  rate  of  speed,  they  could  pass  within  a  few  yards  of  a  person 
in  the  darkness  without  his  being  able  to  hear  or  see  anything.  A  howitzer  was 
mounted  at  the  bow,  and  the  spar,  with  the  torpedo  attached,  was  fitted  at  the 
starboard  bow. 

The  boats,  having  been  completed  in  New  York,  were  sent  to  Norfolk  by 
way  of  the  canals.  One  of  them  was  lost  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  but  the  other 
reached  its  destination.  Several  days  were  spent  in  preparation,  and  the  night 
of  October  27th  was  selected  for  the  venture.  It  could  not  have  been  more 
favorable,  for  it  was  of  impenetrable  darkness  and  a  fine,  misty  rain  was  falling. 


378  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

Cushing's  companions  in  the  picket  boat  were :  Acting  Ensign  W.  L.  Howarth, 
Acting  Master's  Mates  T.  S.  Gay  and  John  Woodman,  Acting  Assistant  Pay 
master  F.  H.  Swan,  Acting  Third  Assistant  Engineers  C.  L.  Steever  and  W. 
Stotesbury,  and  eight  men  whose  names  were  as  follows :  S.  Higgens,  first-class 
fireman  ;  R.  Hamilton,  coal  heaver ;  W.  Smith,  B.  Harley,  E.  J.  Houghton, 
ordinary  seamen  ;  L.  Deming,  H.  Wilkes,  and  R.  H.  King,  landsmen.  H^took 
in  tow  a  small  cutter,  with  which  to  capture  the  guard  that  was  in  a  schooner 
anchored  near  the  Southjield  that  had  been  raised,  and  whose  duty  it  was  to 
send  up  an  alarm  rocket  on  the  approach  of  any  expedition  against  the  Albe- 
marle.  It  was  intended  to  run  ashore  a  little  below  the  ram,  board  and  capture 
her  by  surprise,  and  take  her  down  the  river. 

It  was  about  midnight  that  the  start  was  made.  Several  of  the  men  were 
familiar  with  the  river,  and  the  boat  kept  close  to  shore,  where  the  gloom 
was  still  more  profound.  No  one  spoke  except  when  necessary  and  then  in  the 
lowest  tones,  while  all  listened  and  peered  into  the  drizzly  night.  The  straining 
ears  could  hear  only  the  soft  rippling  of  the  water  from  the  prow  and  the  faint 
muffled  clanking  of  the  engine.  The  speed  was  slackened  as  they  approached 
the  schooner,  whose  outlines  soon  assumed  form.  No  one  whispered,  but  all 
held  themselves  ready  for  the  rush  the  moment  the  guard  discovered  them. 

Sentinels,  however,  are  not  always  alert,  and  on  this  dismal  night  the 
guard  detected  nothing  of  the  phantom  craft  which  glided  past  like  a  shadow 
with  the  cutter  in  tow.  This  was  the  first  stroke  of  good  fortune,  and  each  man 
felt  a  thrill  of  encouragement,  for  only  a  mile  remained  to  be  passed  to  reach  the 
Albcmarlc. 

A  little  way  further  and  the  boats  swept  around  a  bend  in  the  river,  where, 
had  it  been  daylight,  they  could  have  seen  the  ram.  Here  was  where  the  fires 
had  been  kept  blazing  the  night  through,  but  the  guards  were  as  drowsy  as 
those  below,  for  they  had  allowed  them  to  sputter  and  die  down  to  a  few  embers, 
while  the  sentinels  were  doubtless  trying  to  keep  comfortable  in  the  wet,  dismal 
night. 

Still  stealing  noiselessly  forward,  the  men  in  the  boat  soon  saw  the  gloom 
slowly  take  shape  in  front.  The  outlines  revealed  the  massive  ironclad  lying 
still  and  motionless  against  the  wharf,  with  not  a  light  or  sign  of  life  visible. 
The  nerves  of  each  of  the  brave  crew  were  strung  to  the  highest  tension,  when 
the  stillness  was  broken  by  the  barking  of  a  dog.  The  canine,  more  vigilant 
than  his  masters,  gave  the  alarm,  and  -instantly  it  seemed  as  if  a  hundred  dogs 
were  making  night  hideous  with  their  signals.  Springing  to  their  feet,  the 
sentinels  on  shore  discerned  the  strange  boat  and  challenged  it.  No  reply  was 
given  ;  a  second  challenge  was  made,  and  then  a  gun  was  fired.  The  guards 
seemed  to  spring  to  life  everywhere,  more  dogs  barked,  alarm  rattles  were  sprung, 


DESTRUCTION   OF  THE  ALE  EM  A  RLE.  379 

wood  was  thrown  on  the  fires  which  flamed  up,  soldiers  seized  their  weapons  and 
rushed  to  their  places  under  the  sharp  commands  of  their  officers. 

Gushing  now  called  to  the  engineer  to  go  ahead  under  full  speed.  At  the 
same  moment,  lie  cut  the  towline  and  ordered  the  men  on  the  cutter  to  return 
and  capture  the  guard  near  the  Southfield.  The  launch  was  tearing  through  the 
water  straight  for  the  ram,  when,  for  the  first  time,  Gushing  became  aware  of 
the  boom  of  logs  which  inclosed  it.  His  hope  now  was  that  these  logs  had 
become  so  slimy  from  lying  long  in  the  water  that  it  was  possible  for  the  launch 
to  slip  over  them.  With  wonderful  coolness,  he  veered  off  for  a  hundred  yards, 
so  as  to  gain  sufficient  headway,  and  then  circled  around  and  headed  for  the 
ram. 

Standing  erect  at  the  bow,  Gushing  held  himself  ready  to  use  the  torpedo 
the  moment  he  could  do  so.  A  volley  was  fired,  which  riddled  his  coat  and 
tore  off  the  heel  of  one  of  his  shoes,  but  he  did  not  falter.  Then  followed  the 
crisp  snapping  of  the  primers  of  the  cannon,  which  showed  the  immense  guns 
had  missed  fire.  Had  they  been  discharged,  the  boat  and  every  man  on  it  would 
have  been  blown  to  fragments. 

"  Jump  from  the  ram  !  "  shouted  Gushing,  as  he  rushed  forward,  with  the 
speed  of  a  racehorse  ;  "  we're  going  to  blow  you  up  !  " 

The  howitzer  at  the  front  of  the  launch  was  fired  at  that  moment,  and  then 
the  boat  slid  over  the  logs,  like  a  sleigh  over  the  snow,  carrying  the  men  directly 
in  front  of  the  gaping  mouth  of  the  100-pounder  Armstrong. 

The  critical  moment  had  come,  and,  crouching  forward,  Gushing  shoved 
the  torpedo  spar  under  the  overhang,  and  waited  till  he  felt  it  rise  and  bump 
against  the  ship's  bottom,  when  he  jerked  the  trigger  line.  A  muffled,  cav 
ernous  explosion  was  heard,  the  ram  tilted  partly  over,  and  an  immense  geyser 
spouted  upward,  filling  the  launch  and  swamping  it.  The  enormous  cannon 
was  discharged,  but,  aimed  directly  at  the  boat,  the  aim  was  deflected  by  the 
careening  of  the  ram,  and  the  frightful  charge  passed  harmlessly  over  the  heads 
of  the  men. 

Gushing  called  to  each  one  to  lookout  for  himself,  and  leaped  as  far  as  he 
could  into  the  water.  There  he  kicked  off  his  shoes,  and  dropped  his  sword  and 
revolver.  The  incensed  Confederates  shouted  to  the  Unionists  to  surrender,  and 
a  number  did  so ;  but  others,  including  Gushing,  continued  swimming  until  in 
the  darkness  they  passed  out  of  range. 

It  surpasses  comprehension  how  Gushing  escaped.  Nearly  half  his  crew 
had  been  struck  before  the  launch  was  submerged,  and  Paymaster  Swan  and 
another  man  were  shot  at  his  side.  Gushing,  Woodman,  and  Houghton  leaped 
into  the  water  at  the  same  time  and  swam  in  different  directions,  no  one  know- 
.ing  where  he  would  come  out.  Houghton  was  a  powerful  swimmer,  and,  keep- 


380  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

ing  cool  and  husbanding  his  strength,  he  made  shore  a  short  distance  below, 
passed  through  the  enemy's  line  to  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  escaped  un 
harmed. 

Gushing  continued  swimming  for  nearly  a  mile,  when  hearing  a  splashing 
near  him  he  approached  and  found  Woodman  in  the  last  stage  of  exhaustion. 
Gushing  gave  him  all  the  help  he  could,  but  he  himself  was  worn  out,  and, 
despite  his  efforts,  Woodman  slipped  from  his  grasp  and  was  drowned.  When 
about  to  give  up  Gush  ing's  feet  touched  bottom  and  he  struggled  to  shore, 
where  he  sank  in  a  collapse,  unable  to  stir  until  morning.  By  that  time  his 
strength  had  sufficiently  returned  to  enable  him  to  stagger  to  a  swamp  where  he 
threw  himself  down  near  a  path.  A  few  minutes  later,  two  officers  walked  by 
talking  earnestly  about  the  sinking  of  the  Albemarle,  but  the  listener  could  not 
overhear  enough  of  their  conversation  to  learn  whether  or  not  the  ram  had  been 
destroyed. 

Growing  stronger,  he  pushed  into  the  swamp,  until  he  reached  a  negro's 
hut.  There  he  made  himself  known,  and  was  received  kindly.  Gushing  asked 
the  negro  to  go  to  Plymouth  and  find  out  whether  the  Albemarle  had  been 
harmed.  The  African  departed,  and,  when  he  returned  at  the  end  of  several 
hours,  his  arms  were  filled  with  food  and  his  eyes  protruding. 

"  Suah  as  yo's  born,  marse ! "  he  gasped,  "  de  Albemarle  am  at  de  bottom 
ob  de  riber ! " 

Such  was  the  fact,  for  the  exploding  torpedo  had  gouged  more  than  twenty 
square  feet  out  of  the  ram  abreast  of  the  port  quarter,  through  which  the  torrent 
rushed  and  carried  it  down  in  a  few  minutes.  Gushing  remained  with  his  dusky 
friend  until  night,  when  he  tramped  a  long  way  through  swamp  and  wood  to 
where  an  old  skiff  rested  against  the  bank  of  a  small  stream.  Paddling  down 
this  to  the  river,  he  kept  on  until  he  reached  the  Union  vessels,  where  he  was 
taken  on  board  and  welcomed  as  deserved  the  hero  who  had  accomplished  that 
which  was  beyond  the  ability  of  the  whole  fleet. 

Before  proceeding  with  our  account  of  the  closing  military  operations  of 
the  war,  it  is  proper  to  record  several  minor,  but  important,  events. 

THE    PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1864. 

The  year  1864  was  a  presidential  one.  Although  Hannibal  Hamlin  had 
served  acceptably  as  Vice-President  throughout  Lincoln's  first  term,  political 
wisdom  suggested  replacing  him  with  a  man  more  closely  identified  with  the 
struggle  for  the  Union.  Hamlin  belonged  to  the  State  of  Maine,  where  the 
voice  of  disloyalty  was  never  heard.  Andrew  Johnson,  as  we  shall  learn  in  the 
next  chapter,  was  what  was  termed  a  war  Democrat,  who  had  risked  his  life  in 
the  defense  of  his  principles.  He  was  nominated  for  Vice-President,  while 


PROSPERITY  OF  THE  NORTH.  381 

Lincoln,  as  was  inevitable,  was  renominated  for  the  presidency.  The  nominees 
of  the  Democrats  were  General  George  B.  McClellan,  the  unsuccessful  Union 
commander,  and  George  H.  Pendleton,  of  Ohio.  McClellan  acted  very  credit 
ably  when,  finding  that  many  believed  him  opposed  to  the  war,  he  stated  in 
unequivocal  language  that  he  favored  its  prosecution  until  the  Union  was  fully 
restored.  His  platform  may  be  described  as  a  criticism  of  the  methods  of  the 
administration.  His  position  drove  away  many  who  would  have  supported  a 
candidate  in  favor  of  peace  at  any  price,  but  he  preserved  his  self-respect, 
although  it  helped  to  bring  his  decisive  defeat. 

In  the  November  election  the  result  was:  Lincoln  and  Johnson  each  212 
electoral  votes  ;  McClellan  and  Pendleton  each  21.  On  the  popular  vote,  the 
Republican  ticket  received  2,216,067  and  the  Democratic  407,342  votes.  Of 
course,  no  vote  was  cast  in  the  eleven  seceding  States.  The  result  was 
emphatic  proof  that  the  North  was  unalterably  opposed  to  peace  upon  any  terms 
except  the  full  restoration  of  the  Union.  The  great  successes,  such  as  Gettys 
burg,  Vicksburg,  Mobile,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Confederate  cruisers,  as  well 
as  the  rapid  exhaustion  of  the  South,  contributed  very  much  to  the  success  of 
the  Republican  party. 

DISTRESS    IN    THE    SOUTH. 

The  distress  in  the  South  was  intense  and  grew  daily  more  so.  The  Con 
federate  money  had  so  depreciated  in  value  that  a  paper  dollar  was  not  worth 
more  than  a  penny,  and  by-and-by  it  had  absolutely  no  value  at  all.  The  farce 
of  such  a  currency  caused  many  grim  jests  among  the  Confederates  themselves. 
Thus  an  officer  gave  his  colored  servant  five  thousand  dollars  to  curry  his  horse, 
and  another  officer  exchanged  six  months  of  his  own  pay  for  a  paper  dollar. 
In  truth,  the  Southerners  were  fighting  without  pay,  while  their  clothing  and 
food  were  of  the  poorest  character.  All  the  men  being  in  some  branch  of  the 
service,  the  women  had  to  look  after  the  homes  that  were  running  to  waste.  The 
conscription  act  was  made  so  rigid  that  the  drag-net  gathered  in  the  large  boys 
and  men  past  middle  life. 

PROSPERITY    OF   THE   NORTH. 

It  was  far  different  in  the  North.  The  enormous  demands  of  the  govern 
ment  for  war  supplies  gave  the  country  an  unnatural  prosperity.  Although 
prices  were  high,  there  was  an  abundance  of  money,  which,  while  depreciating 
to  some  extent,  never  did  so  to  a  degree  to  cause  distress.  The  resources  were 
almost  limitless,  and  the  conviction  was  so  general  that  the  war  was  near  its 
conclusion,  that  the  greenback  currency  and  the  national  bonds  began  to  rise  in 
value.  The  real  dissatisfaction  was  in  the  continual  demand  fcr  more  soldiers. 
In  the  course  of  the  year  fully  1,200,000  men  had  been  summoned  to  the  ranks. 


382  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

Several  drafts  took  place,  and  bounties  were  paid,  which  in  many  instances 
were  at  the  rate  of  a  thousand  dollars  to  a  man.  A  good  many  people  began  to 
declare  this  demand  exorbitant,  and  that,  if  the  real  necessity  existed,  the  Union 
was  not  worth  such  an  appalling  cost  of  human  life. 

WAR'S  DESOLATION. 

Behind  all  this  seeming  prosperity  were  thousands  of  mourning  households 
and  desolate  hearthstones  in  the  North  as  well  as  the  South.  Fathers,  brothers, 
and  sons  had  fallen,  and  would  nevermore  return  to  their  loved  ones.  The 
shadow  was  everywhere.  Sorrow,  broken-hearts,  and  lamentation  were  in  the 
land,  for  war,  the  greatest  curse  of  mankind,  spares  neither  parent,  child,  nor 
babe.  The  exchange  of  prisoners,  carried  on  almost  from  the  very  opening  of 
the  war,  ceased,  because  the  Confederate  authorities  refused  to  exchange  negro 
soldiers.  As  a  consequence,  multitudes  of  Union  prisoners  suffered  indescribable 
misery  in  many  of  the  Southern  prisons.  This  was  especially  the  case  in 
Andersonville,  Georgia,  where  a  brute  named  Wirz,  a  Swiss,  showed  a  fiendish 
delight  in  adding  to  the  tortures  of  those  committed  to  his  care.  This  miscreant 
was  afterward  tried  for  his  atrocities,  found  guilty,  and  hanged.  He  was  the 
only  man  executed  for  the  part  he  took  in  the  war.  There  was  less  suffering  in 
other  places.  The  straits  to  which  the  Confederates  themselves  were  driven 
made  it  impossible  in  some  instances  to  give  the  care  they  would  have  given  to 
their  prisoners.  In  the  early  part  of  1864,  more  than  a  hundred  Unionists 
confined  in  Libby  Prison,  Richmond,  escaped  by  tunneling,  but  most  of  them 
were  recaptured  and  returned  to  confinement. 

Nevada  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1864.  It  formed  part  of  the  Mexican 
cession  of  1848,  prior  to  which  time  no  settlement  had  been  made  in  the  State. 
In  that  year  the  Mormons  settled  in  Carson  and  Washoe  Valleys.  In  1859, 
silver  was  found  to  exist  in  vast  quantities,  and,  in  1866,  the  area  of  the  State 
was  increased  by  additions  from  Arizona  and  Utah. 

CONFEDERATE    RAIDERS     FROM    CANADA. 

One  of  the  most  irritating  annoyances  resulted  from  the  presence  of  Con 
federates  in  Canada,  who  continually  plotted  mischief  against  the  North.  In 
October,  1864,  a  band  of  them  rode  into  St.  Albans,  Vermont,  which  is  only 
fifteen  miles  from  the  border,  robbed  the  bank  of  a  large  amount  of  money, 
burned  a  hotel,  fired  into  a  crowd  of  citizens,  committed  other  outrages,  and 
galloped  back  to  Canada,  where  thirteen  were  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison. 
The  legal  proceedings  which  followed  resulted  in  the  discharge  of  the  prisoners 
on  technical  grounds.  General  Dix,  in  command  of  the  Eastern  Department, 
issued  orders  that  in  the  future  all  such  narauders  were  to  be  pursued  and  shot 


GENERAL  SHERMAN'S  ADVANCE  TO  ATLANTA. 


383 


down  or  arrested,  no  matter  where  they  took  refuge.  Had  these  measures  been 
carried  out,  there  would  have  been  war  with  England,  which  would  never 
permit  such  invasion  of  her  territory.  General  Dix's  action  was  disavowed  by 
our  government,  while  the  Canadian  authorities  took  care  to  prevent  any  more 
similar  outrages. 

It  has  been  stated  that  General  Grant  planned  a  forward  movement  of  the 


4*  _£*£&£. 

-^•- ---•-.  i 


BIKD'S-EYE  VIEW  OF  THE  NORTH  END  OF  ANDERSONVILLE  PRISON. 

(From  a  photograph.) 

In  the  middle-ground  midway  of  the  swamp  is  the  "  Island  "  which  was  covered  with  shelters  after  the  higher  ground 

had  all  been  occupied. 

Union  forces  early  in  May  of  this  year,  with  the  purpose  of  keeping  the 
Confederate  armies  so  incessantly  engaged  that  they  would  have  no  opportunity 
of  reinforcing  one  another. 

GENERAL  SHERMAN'S  ADVANCE  TO  ATLANTA. 

General  Sherman,  the  faithful  lieutenant  of  Grant,  was  in  command  of  the 
three  armies,  respectively,  of  the  Cumberland,  of  Tennessee,  and  of  Ohio,  led 


384  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

by  Generals  Thomas,  McPherson,  and  Schofield.  General  Jo  Johnston  was 
Sherman's  opponent,  his  commanders  being  Hardee,  Hood,  and  Polk.  The 
troops  were  less  numerous  than  the  Federals,  but  they  were  the  finest  of  soldiers 
and  were  led  by  skillful  officers. 

Sherman  made  his  preparations  with  care  and  thoroughness.  Chattanooga 
was  his  starting-point  on  his  march  through  the  South,  and  by  the  1st  of  May 
he  had  254  guns,  100,000  men,  and  an  immense  amount  of  supplies  at  that 
town.  He  began  his  famous  march  on  the  7th  of  May.  Johnston,  who  saw 
his  purpose,  confronted  him  at  Dalton,  where  an  attack  by  Unionists  was 
repulsed;  but  Sherman  resorted  to  flanking  tactics,  and  Johnston  fell  back, 
crossing  the  river,  May  loth,  and  taking  a  new  position  at  Etowah,  forty  miles 
to  the  south  of  Resaca. 

The  great  risk  assumed  by  Sherman  will  be  understood.  It  was  necessary 
to  preserve  his  communications,  for  he  had  but  a  single  railroad  line  behind 
him.  To  do  this,  he  had  to  leave  strong  detachments  at  different  points,  thereby 
weakening  his  army  as  he  advanced  into  Confederate  territory.  Johnston,  being 
among  friends,  was  not  obliged  to  do  anything  of  that  nature.  He  could  pre^ 
serve  his  forces  intact  and  add  slightly  to  them.  By-and-by,  the  armies  would 
be  nearly  equal  in  numbers,  when  Johnston  proposed  to  give  battle  to  the 
invaders. 

The  Union  army  marched  in  three  columns,  their  flanks  guarded  by 
cavalry,  and  the  columns  always  within  supporting  distance  of  one  another. 
The  steady  advance  and  retreat  went  on  with  occasional  brisk  fighting.  On  the 
14th  of  June,  during  an  exchange  of  shots,  the  head  of  General  Leonidas  Polk 
was  carried  away  by  a  cannon  ball.  Now  and  then  Johnston  attacked  Sherman, 
but  invariably  without  gaining  any  important  advantage. 

At  last  Sherman  grew  tired  of  continually  flanking  his  enemy,  and  made 
the  mistake  of  assaulting  him.  This  was  at  Kenesaw  Mountain  on  the  27th  of 
June.  The  attack  was  made  with  great  gallantry,  but  the  Unionists  were 
repulsed  with  the  loss  of  3,000  men. 

Sherman  returned  to  his  flanking  tactics,  which  were  conducted  with  so 
much  skill  that  finally  Johnston  was  forced  into  the  defenses  of  Atlanta.  It 
was  there  he  meant  to  make  a  stand  and  deliver  battle  on  something  approaching 
equal  terms.  His  generals  were  dissatisfied  with  his  continual  falling  back  and 
protested.  That  Johnston  was  sagacious  in  what  he  did  cannot  be  questioned; 
but  his  old  enemy,  President  Davis,  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to 
remove  him  and  place  General  Hood  in  chief  command. 

Hood  had  not  half  the  ability  of  Johnston,  but  he  believed  in  fighting. 
He  assumed  Johnston's  place  on  the  17th  of  July.  The  news  was  pleasant  to 
Sherman,  for  he  rated  Hood  at  his  true  value  as  compared  with  Johnston. 


SHERMAN'S  THREE   SCOUTS 

'  Setting  out  at  night  they  paddled  continuously  down  the  river  until  daylight,  when  they  ran  the  boat  among  the  reeds  and  remained 

in  hiding  until  night  came  again." 


GENERAL  SHERMAN'S  ADVANCE  TO  ATLANTA. 


385 


It  had  been  a  long  and  difficult  march  from  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta,  and 
yet  it  may  be  said  that  Sherman  had  only  reached  his  true  starting-point.  He 
gave  his  soldiers  a  needed  rest,  and 
waited  for  reinforcements.  Those  JL 
expected  from  Corinth,** 
Mississippi,  were  routed  by 
General 

-  m 


Forrest, 
but  the 

IVJBBT1  needed 

'  />••  •;.;;*'•  •;•>«          !AN  flBijser>    ^m  men    were    obtained    from 

other  quarters,  and  the 
three  columns  converged 
upon  Atlanta,  July  20th. 
The  defenses  extended  for 
three  miles  about  the  city,  but  were 
not  quite  completed.  McPherson 
secured  possession  of  a  hill  that  gave 
him  a  view  of  the  city,  observing  which  Hood  made  a  furious  assault  upon  him 
on  the  night  of  the  22cl.  He  came  perilously  near  success,  but,  by  hastening 
reinforcements  to  the  threatened  point,  Sherman  was  able  to  repel  the  attack. 

26 


DEATH   OF   GENERAL,   POLK. 


386  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

In  the  fighting  General  McPhersou,  one  of  the  best  of  the  Union  generals,  was 
killed. 

The  plan  of  Sherman  was  to  shut  off  Atlanta  from  the  rest  of  the  world. 
By  thus  excluding  its  supplies,  it  would  be  starved  into  submission,  as  was  the 
case  at  Vicksburg.  Accordingly,  he  began  a  series  of  works,  intended  to  be 
extended  gradually  around  the  city.  This  was  difficult  and  dangerous,  as  was 
proven  when  two  columns  of  Union  cavalry,  failing  to  effect  a  junction,  through 
some  misunderstanding,  were  separately  attacked  and  routed.  Among  the  many 
prisoners  taken  was  General  Stoneman,  and  the  cavalry  arm  of  the  service  was 
greatly  weakened. 

The  impetuous  Hood  made  a  furious  onslaught  upon  the  Union  army 
July  28th,  renewing  it  several  times,  but  was  defeated  with  heavy  loss  in  each 
instance.  Sherman,  through  the  failure  of  one  of  his  generals  to  reach  his 
assigned  position  in  time,  narrowly  missed  bagging  Hood  and  his  whole  army. 

FALL    OF    ATLANTA. 

But  Sherman  displayed  masterly  generalship  by  so  manoeuvring  as  to 
draw  Hood  away  from  the  defenses  and  by  thrusting  his  army  between  the 
corps  of  Hardee  and  Atlanta.  The  only  escape  now  for  the  Confederates  was 
to  abandon  the  city,  which  was  done  on  the  1st  of  September,  many  of  the 
citizens  going  with  the  retiring  army.  At  nine  o'clock  the  next  morning 
General  Slocum,  at  the  head  of  a  strong  reconnoitering  column,  rode  into 
Atlanta,  and  the  mayor  made  a  formal  surrender  of  the  place. 

The  news  of  the  fall  of  Atlanta  caused  great  rejoicing  in  the  North,  and 
corresponding  depression  in  the  South.  President  Davis  hurried  to  the  neigh 
borhood  to  investigate  for  himself.  He  found  matters  so  bad  that  they  could 
not  be  much  worse.  Hood,  however,  was  as  combative  as  ever,  and  proposed  to 
attack  Sherman's  lines  of  communication.  It  was  a  dangerous  proceeding,  but 
Davis  consented.  On  his  way  back  to  Richmond  he  stopped  at  Macon  and 
made  a  speech,  in  which  he  announced  the  plans  of  Hood.  This  speech  was 
published  in  the  Southern  papers,  reached  the  North,  where  it  was  republished, 
and  in  due  time  these  papers  went  to  Sherman.  It  can  well  be  understood  that 
Davis'  speech  proved  "mighty  interesting"  reading  to  the  Union  commander. 

FAILURE   OF    HOOD'S    PLAN    FOR    THE    RELIEF    OF    GEORGIA. 

Hood's  plan  was  simple.  He  proposed  to  march  into  Tennessee,  and,  by 
threatening  Sherman's  communications,  compel  him  to  withdraw  from  Georgia. 
But  Sherman  was  not  to  be  caught  thus  easily.  He  followed  Hood  to  the  north 
of  the  Chattahoochee,  and,  then  letting  him  go  whither  he  chose,  turned  back  to 
Atlanta.  Hood  kept  right  on  through  northern  Alabama,  and  advanced 


SHERMANyS  MARCH  FROM  ATLANTA    TO   THE  SEA.  387 

against  Nashville.  General  Thomas  had  been  sent  by  Sherman  from  Atlanta, 
with  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland,  to  look  after  Hood.  General  Schofield,  in 
command  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  fell  back  to  Franklin,  eighteen  miles 
south  of  Nashville,  where  he  was  attacked  November  30th  by  Hood.  It  was  a 
savage  battle,  but  the  Confederates  were  held  in  check  until  night,  when  Schofield 
retreated  across  the  river,  and  took  refuge  in  Nashville.  There  General  Thomas 
gathered  all  his  troops,  and  threw  up  a  line  of  intrenchments  to  the  south  of 
the  city.  Hood  appeared  in  front  of  them  December  2d,  and  began  building 
works  and  counter  batteries.  He  was  certain  of  capturing  the  place  and  its 
defenders  by  regular  siege  operations.  Never  did  the  genius  of  Thomas  shine 
more  brilliantly  than  at  the  siege  of  Nashville.  He  industriously  gathered 
reinforcements,  perfected  his  defenses,  and  refused  to  move  until  fully  prepared. 
The  whole  country  became  impatient;  even  General  Grant  sent  him  urgent 
messages,  and  at  one  time  issued  an  order  for  his  removal.  But  Thomas  could 

cT>        ' 

not  be  shaken  from  his  purpose.  Not  until  December  loth  did  he  feel  himself 
ready  to  strike,  and  then  he  did  it  with  the  might  of  a  descending  avalanche. 
He  sallied  forth,  captured  several  redoubts,  and  drove  back  the  Confederates  for 
a  number  of  miles.  He  renewed  the  battle  on  the  16th,  and  utterly  routed 
Hood's  army.  The  panic-stricken  troops  fled  in  confusion,  drawing  Forrest 
and  his  cavalry  into  the  disorganized  flight,  while  Thomas  vigorously  pursued 
until  the  fugitives  scrambled  over  Duck  Eiver  toward  the  Tennessee,  waic-:  —as 
crossed  on  the  27th  of  December. 

Hood's  army  was  virtually  destroyed.  He  lost  more  than  13,000  prisoners, 
including  several  general  officers,  and  many  guns,  while  more  than  2,000 
deserters  joined  Thomas.  The  disgusted  Hood  asked  to  be  relieved  of  his 
command,  and  Dick  Taylor,  who  had  defeated  Banks  some  months  before  in 
Texas,  assumed  his  place,  but  he  really  was  left  with  no  army  to  command. 
The  proud  host  which  had  promised  so  much  existed  no  longer.  The  Rock 
of  Chickamauga  had  fallen  upon  it  and  ground  it  to  powder. 

SHERMAN'S  MARCH  FROM  ATLANTA  TO  THE  SEA. 

Sherman  proved  his  confidence  in  Thomas  by  not  waiting  for  him  to  com 
plete  his  wonderful  task,  before  beginning  his  march  from  Atlanta  to  the  sea, 
300  miles  distant.  Since  it  was  impossible  to  maintain  the  long  and  increasing 
slender  line  of  communications  behind  him,  Sherman  made  no  effort  to  do  so. 
He  "cut  loose"  entirely,  proposing  to  live  off  the  granary  of  the  South,  through 
which  his  60,000  veterans  began  their  famous  tramp.  Weeks  passed,  during 
which  the  national  government  heard  not  a  word  from  Sherman,  except  such 
as  filtered  through  the  Confederate  lines,  and  which  was  always  tinctured  by 
the  hopes  of  the  enemy.  There  were  continual  rumors  of  the  Union  army 


388  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

meeting  "a  lion  in  its  path,"  and  of  its  being  overwhelmed  by  disaster,  but 
nothing  of  a  positive  nature  was  learned,  and  naturally  there  was  considerable 
uneasiness,  though  Grant  knew  Sherman  too  well  to  feel  any  distrust  of  his 
success. 

At  the  beginning  of  his  march,  Sherman  aimed  to  deceive  the  enemy  as 
to  his  real  destination.  The  secret  was  shared  only  with  his  corps  commanders 
and  General  Kilpatrick,  leader  of  the  cavalry.  The  advance  was  in  two 
columns,  the  right  under  General  Howard  and  the  left  under  General  Slocum. 
Atlanta  was  burned  on  the  night  of  November  loth,  and  Sherman  himself  rode 
out  from  the  city  the  next  day  with  the  left  wing. 

It  was  impossible  for  the  Confederates  to  present  any  serious  opposition  to 
the  invaders.  Frantic  appeals  were  issued  to  the  South  to  rise  and  crush  the 
•enemy,  but  they  accomplished  nothing.  The  bands  of  militia  were  brushed 
aside  like  so  many  children,  and  the  march  "From  Atlanta  to  the  Sea"  was 
simply  a  huge  picnic  for  Sherman  and  his  army.  The  opening  of  the 
Mississippi  had  sliced  off  the  left  limb  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  and 
Sherman  was  now  boring  his  way  through  the  heart. 

Milledgeville,  the  capital  of  the  State,  was  reached  on  the  21st,  but  before 
the  Federals  arrived  the  Legislature  adjourned  precipitately  and  took  to  its 
heels.  Governor  Brown  and  most  of  the  members  ran  to  Augusta,  which  was 
surrendered  two  days  later,  plundered,  and  partly  burned.  Kilpatrick  made  a 
demonstration  against  Macon,  and  could  easily  have  captured  it,  but  his  move 
ment  was  intended  only  as  a  feint.  Rightly  surmising  by  this  time  that  the 
seacoast  was  Sherman's  destination,  General  Hardee  did  all  he  could  to  obstruct 
the  roads  leading  thither,  but  he  was  powerless  to  check  the  invaders.  Thousands 
of  negroes  followed  the  army,  singing  the  "Day  of  Jubilee  has  Come,"  but 
many  of  the  poor  people  perished  amid  the  dismal  wastes  and  barrens  of 
Eastern  Georgia. 

Finally  Sherman  passed  down  the  peninsula  formed  by  the  Ogeechee  and 
Savannah  Rivers  and  approached  Savannah.  The  enemy  were  easily  driven  from 
their  field-works,  and  by  December  10th  all  the  Confederates  were  forced  into 
their  lines  and  the  whole  Union  army  was  in  front  of  Savannah.  The  300 
miles  had  been  passed  in  twenty-five  days  and  the  listening  ears  could  now  hear 
the  faint  boom  of  the  distant  Atlantic  breakers. 

But  Hardee  was  in  Savannah  with  15,000  men,  capable  of  offering  a  strong 
defense.  To  meet  his  heavy  cannon,  Sherman  had  only  field  artillery,  and, 
instead  of  making  a  direct  attack,  which  would  have  involved  considerable  loss 
of  life,  he  decided  to  starve  the  garrison  to  terms.  Admiral  Dahlgren  was  lying 
off  the  coast,  but  the  mouth  of  the  river  was  commanded  by  Fort  McAllister, 
and  it  was  dangerous  work  to  attempt  to  communicate  with  the  Union  fleet. 


PRESIDENT  LINCOLN'S    UNIQUE   CHRISTMAS   GIFT. 


389 


Sherman  sent  off  three  scouts,  who  paddled  cautiously  down  the  river  at  night, 
hiding  in  the  rice-fields  by  day,  until  they  finally  succeeded  in  attracting  the 
notice  of  a  gunboat  which  ran  in  and  picked  them  up.  The  glorious  news  was 
carried  to  Admiral  Dahlgren,  who  immediately  dispatched  it  North,  where,  as 
may  be  supposed,  it  caused  unbounded  rejoicing. 

Fort  McAllister,  fifteen  miles  below  the  city,  was  such  an  obstacle  to  the 
co-operation  of  the  fleet  that  Sherman  determined  to  capture  it.  It  was  taken 
with  a  rush  on  the  loth  of  December,  and  the  way  opened  for  a  supply  of  am 
munition  and  heavy  guns  from  Hil 
ton  Head.  General  Forster,  the 
Union  commander  of  that  depart 
ment,  was  ordered  to  occupy  the  rail 
road  connecting  Savannah  and 

o 

Charleston.  When  that  should  be 
done,  Savannah  would  be  completely 
invested. 

PRESIDENT    LINCOLN'S    UNIQUE 
CHRISTMAS    GIFT. 

On  the  17th,  Sherman  demand 
ed  the  surrender  of  the  city.  Hardee 
refused  and  Sherman  prepared  to 
bombard  it.  But  the  Confederates, 
who  still  had  control  of  Savannah 
River,  retreated  across  that  stream 
on  the  night  of  the  20th,  and 
tramped  into  South  Carolina.  Sher 
man  entered  the  city  the  next  day 
and  wrote  at  once  to  President  Lin 
coln  :  "  I  beg  to  present  you,  as  a 
Christmas  gift,  the  city  of  Savannah,  with  150  heavy  guns  and  plenty  of  am 
munition  ;  also  about  25,000  bales  of  cotton."  It  was  a  unique  Christmas  gift 
indeed,  and  President  Lincoln  sent  back  the  thanks  of  the  government  and 
nation  to  the  Union  commander,  his  officers  and  soldiers. 

One  pleasing  feature  of  Sherman's  entrance  into  Savannah  was  the  wide 
spread  Union  sentiment  which  manifested  itself  among  the  citizens.  They  were 
tired  of  the  Avar  and  glad  to  see  this  evidence  that  its  close  was  near.  They  did 
not  destroy  their  cotton  or  property,  but  were  quite  willing  to  turn  it  over  to 
their  conquerors.  General  Geary  was  appointed  commandant  and  ruled  with 
tact  and  kindness.  Here  we  will  leave  Sherman  for  a  time,  and  give  our  atten- 


WILLIAM    TECUMSEH    SHEBMAW. 

(1820-1891.) 


390  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

tion  to  the  single  remaining,  but  most  important,  campaign  of  all — that  of 
General  Grant  against  Lee. 


GRANT'S  ADVANCE  AGAINST  LEE. 


When  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  ready  to  move  against  Lee  and  Rich- 
mond,  it  consisted  of  three  instead  of  five  corps.  Hancock  commanded  the 
Second,  Warren  the  Fifth,  and  Sedgwick  the  Sixth.  Beside  this,  the  Ninth 
Corps,  which  included  many  colored  troops,  was  under  command  of  Burnside, 
and  was  left  for  a  time  to  guard  the  communications  with  Washington.  This 
force  numbered  140,000  men,  and,  as  has  been  stated,  was  the  largest  number 
ever  assembled  by  the  Unionists. 

In  addition  to  this  stupendous  host,  42,000  troops  were  in  and  about  Wash 
ington,  31,000  in  AVest  Virginia,  and  59,000  in  the  department  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina.  In  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  at  other  points  were  38,000. 
General  Lee  had  less  than  58,000  under  his  immediate  command,  and  the  whole 
number  of  Confederates  in  the  region  threatened  by  Grant's  310,000  was  about 
125,000. 

General  Meade  retained  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  the 
cavalry  corps  was  under  General  Philip  H.  Sheridan.  Best  of  all,  the  veterans 
were  now  inspired  by  a  feeling  of  confidence  to  which  they  had  long  been 
strangers.  They  felt  that  they  had  a  commander  at  last  who  was  competent  to 
lead  them  to  victory. 

Lee  was  acting  on  the  defensive  and  held  a  powerful  position.  Longstreet 
was  at  Gordonsville,  Ewell  on  the  Rapidan,  and  A.  P.  Hill  at  Orange  Court- 
House.  The  Rapidan  itself  was  held  by  small  bodies  of  troops,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  keep  watch  of  the  movements  of  the  Union  army. 

Grant's  plan  was  to  advance  directly  to  Richmond.  He  intended  to  cross 
the  Rapidan,  attack  Lee's  right,  cut  his  communications,  and  compel  him  to 
fight.  At  the  same  time  Butler  was  to  ascend  the  James  from  Fort  Monroe, 
seize  City  Point,  and,  advancing  along  the  south  bank  of  the  river,  cut  the  Con 
federate  communications  south  of  the  James,  and,  if  possible,  capture  Peters 
burg. 

If  Grant  succeeded  in  defeating  Lee,  he  intended  to  follow  him  to  Rich 
mond.  If  he  failed,  he  meant  to  transfer  his  whole  army  to  the  southern  side 
of  the  James,  using  Butler's  column  to  cover  the  movement,  and  attack  from 
that  quarter.  At  the  same  time,  General  Sigel  was  to  organize  his  army  into 
two  expeditions,  one  under  General  Crook  in  the  Kanawha  Valley,  and  the 
other  commanded  by  himself  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  The  object  of  this 
campaign  was  to  cut  the  Central  Railroad  and  the  Virginia  and  Tennessee  Road. 


WOUNDING   OF  GENERAL  LONGSTREET.  391 

Since  the  bulk  of  Lee's  supplies  were  received  over  these  lines,  the  success  of  the 
plan  would  inflict  a  mortal  blow  upon  the  Confederate  army. 

The  Army  of  the  Potomac  began  moving,  May  3d,  at  midnight.  The 
advance  was  in  two  columns.  The  right,  including  Warren's  and  Sedgwick's 
Corps,  crossed  the  Kapidan  at  Gerrnania  Ford,  and  the  left,  Hancock's  Corps, 
made  the  passage  at  Ely's  Ford,  six  miles  below.  On  the  following  night,  the 
bivouac  was  between  the  Rapidan  and  Chancellorsville. 

THE    BATTLES    IN    THE    WILDERNESS. 

Reading  Grant's  purpose,  Lee  determined  to  attack  him  in  the  dense, 
wooded  country  known  as  the  Wilderness,  where  it  would  be  impossible  for  the 
Union  commander  to  use  his  artillery.  Acting  promptly,  a  furious  assault  was 
made  and  the  Confederates  attained  considerable  success.  The  ground  was 
unfavorable  for  the  Unionists,  but  Grant  did  not  shrink.  His  line  was  five 
miles  long  and  mostly  within  the  woods,  where  he  could  use  neither  cavalry 
nor  artillery  with  effect ;  but  he  made  his  attack  with  such  vehemence  that  after 
several  hours  of  terrific  fighting  he  drove  the  flying  Confederates  back  almost 
to  the  headquarters  of  Lee,  where  Longstreet  saved  the  army  from  overthrow 
and  re-established  the  line. 

WOUNDING    OF   GENERAL    LONGSTREET. 

Before  noon  the  next  day,  Longstreet  forced  Hancock's  left  to  the  Brock 
Road  and  determined  to  seize  the  latter.  Had  he  done  so,  another  disastrous 
defeat  would  have  been  added  to  those  suffered  by  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  at 
the  hands  of  Lee.  Longstreet  was  in  high  spirits  and  determined  to  lead  the 
movement  in  person.  While  riding  forward,  he  met  General  Jenkins,  who  was 
also  exultant  over  what  seemed  certain  success.  The  two  stopped  to  shake  hands, 
and  when  doing  so,  they  and  their  escorts  were  mistaken  by  a  body  of  Confederate 
troops  for  Union  cavalry  and  fired  upon.  Longstreet  waved  his  hand  and 
shouted  to  the  men  to  stop  firing.  They  did  so,  but  Jenkins  had  already  been 
killed  and  Longstreet  himself  was  shot  in  the  throat.  He  fell  from  his  saddle 
and  lay  beside  the  body  of  Jenkins.  He  was  believed  to  be  dead,  but,  showing 
signs  of  life,  was  placed  on  a  litter  and  carried  to  the  rear,  the  soldiers  cheer 
ing  as  he  was  borne  past.  The  reader  will  recall  the  strange  wounding  of 
Stonewall  Jackson,  under  almost  similar  circumstances,  by  his  own  men. 
Longstreet  recovered  in  time  to  take  a  leading  part  in  the  closing  incidents  of 
the  war. 

This  occurrence  caused  a  feeling  akin  to  dismay  in  the  Confederate  ranks, 
and  defeated  the  movement  that  was  about  to  be  undertaken.  General  Lee  was 
so  disturbed  that  he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  Texas  brigade,  with  the 


392  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

resolve  to  lead  it  in  a  charge  that  should  be  decisive,  but  his  men  would  not 
permit,  and  compelled  him  to  resume  his  place  at  the  rear. 

Grant's  position  was  too  strong  to  be  carried  and  Lee  was  equally  secure. 
Meanwhile  Grant  carefully  hunted  for  a  weak  spot  in  his  enemy's  line,  and 
decided  that  Spotteylvaiiia  Court-House  was  the  place,  and  thither  he  inarched 
his  army  on  the  night  of  May  7th. 

While  this  movement  was  in  progress,  Sheridan  and  his  cavalry  made  a 
dash  toward  Richmond  in  the  effort  to  cut  Lee's  communications.  The  vigilant 
Stuart  intercepted  them  at  Yellow  Tavern,  within  seven  miles  of  the  city,  and 
compelled  Sheridan  to  return,  but  in  the  fighting  Stuart  received  a  wound 
from  which  he  died  the  next  day. 

When  Grant's  advance  reached  Spottsylvania  Court-House,  the  Confederates 
were  in  possession,  and  repulsed  the  attempt  to  drive  them  out.  While  the 
preparations  for  renewing  the  battle  were  going  on,  General  Sedgwick  was 
struck  in  the  head  by  a  Confederate  sharpshooter  and  instantly  killed. 

GRANT'S  REPULSE  AT  COLD  HARBOR. 

A  series  of  flank  movements  followed,  with  fierce  fighting,  in  which  the 
Union  loss  was  great.  Reinforcements  were  sent  to  Grant,  and  nothing  could 
deter  his  resolution  to  drive  Lee  to  the  wall.  At  Cold  Harbor,  on  June  3d, 
however,  the  Union  commander  received  one  of  the  most  bloody  repulses  of  the 
war,  suffering  a  loss  .of  ten  thousand  in  the  space  of  less  than  half  an  hour,  and 
his  losses  from  the  Rapidan  to  the  Chickahominy — whither  he  moved  his  army 
—equaled  the  whole  number  of  men  in  Lee's  army.  The  latter  was  within  the 
defenses  of  Richmond,  of  which  the  centre  was  Cold  Harbor.  Having  much 
shorter  lines,  the  Confederates  were  able  to  anticipate  the  movements  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  and  present  a  defiant  front  at  all  times. 

Meanwhile  matters  had  gone  wrong  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  On  the 
loth  of  May,  Sigel  was  utterly  routed  by  Breckinridge.  The  Union  officer 
failed  so  badly  that  he  was  superseded  by  Hunter,  who  made  just  as  wretched 
a  failure.  The  15,000  troops  under  Breckinridge  were  sent  to  reinforce  Lee, 
when,  had  Sigel  and  Hunter  done  their  duty,  this  force  would  have  been 
compelled  to  stay  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

Another  movement  that  was  meant  to  help  Grant  materially  was  that  of 
Butler,  who  was  to  threaten  Richmond  by  water,  while  Grant  and  Meade  were 
assailing  the  city  in  front.  But  Butler  was  outgeneraled  by  Beauregard,  who 
succeeded  in  "  bottling  him  up,"  as  Grant  expressed  it,  at  Bermuda  Hundred,  a 
peninsula  formed  by  the  James,  twenty  miles  below  Richmond.  There  Butler 
was  held  helpless,  while  Beauregard  sent  a  small  part  of  his  meagre  force  to 
reinforce  Lee. 


GRANT9 8  REPULSE  AT  COLD  HARBOR. 


393 


The  terrible  repulse  which  Grant  received  at  Cold  Harbor  convinced  him 
that  it  was  only  throwing  away  life  to  persist  in  the  campaign  against  Richmond 
by  the  "overland  "  route.  With  characteristic  decision,  he  decided  to  move  his 
army  to  the  front  of  Petersburg  and  thus  shut  off  Lee's  communication  with  the 
South.  Holding  his  position  in  front  of  the  Confederate  leader  until  June  12th, 


GENERAL  LEE  DASHES  TO  THE  FRONT  TO  LEAD  THE  TEXANS'  CHARGE. 

Grant  crossed  the  Chickahominy  and  advanced  to  City  Point.  Passing  the 
James  on  ponton-bridges,  he  marched  toward  Petersburg,  where  the  army 
arrived  on  the  loth.  The  next  day  the  Army  of  the  Potomnc  was  south  of  the 
James.  Petersburg  was  immediately  attacked,  but  the  defenders  repelled  every 
assault.  The  next  day,  Lee's  whole  army  entered  the  breastworks  of  the  town. 
After  repeated  attacks  by  the  Unionists,  Grant  saw  the  impossibility  of  captur- 


394  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

ing  Petersburg  by  direct  attack  and  he  began  its  siege.  Several  times  the  Con 
federates  made  sallies  against  threatening  movements  and  drove  the  Federals 
from  the  positions  that  had  been  gained  at  no  little  loss  of  life. 

Early  in  July,  Grant  consented  to  allow  Lieutenant-Colonel  Pleasant,  of  a 
Pennsylvania  regiment  belonging  to  Burnside's  corps,  to  run  a  mine  under  one 
of  the  approaches  to  the  enemy's  intrenchments  before  Petersburg.  It  was 
believed,  apparently  with  reason,  that  the  explosion  would  open  a  gap  in  the 
line  through  which  the  Federals  might  make  a  dash  and  capture  the  town  before 
the  defenders  could  rally  from  their  confusion. 

The  mine  was  laid  and  four  tons  of  powder  were  fired  at  daylight  on  the 
morning  of  July  30th.  A  cavity  was  opened  by  the  stupendous  explosion,  200 
feet  long,  60  feet  wide,  and  30  feet  deep.  Instantly,  the  Union  batteries  opened 
on  those  of  the  enemy,  silenced  them,  and  the  assaulting  column  charged.  The 
dreadful  mistake  was  made  by  the  men  of  halting  in  the  cavity  for  shelter.  The 
troops  sent  to  their  help  also  stopped  and  huddled  together,  seeing  which  the 
terrified  gunners  ran  back  to  their  abandoned  pieces  and  opened  upon  the  dis 
organized  mass  in  the  pit.  The  slaughter  continued  until  the  Confederate  offi 
cers  sickened  at  the  sight  and  ordered  it  stopped.  The  horrible  business  resulted 
in  the  loss  of  nearly  1,000  prisoners  and  3,000  killed  and  wounded. 


GENERAL    EARLY's    RAIDS. 


Since  the  entire  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  in  front  of  Petersburg,  the  Con 
federates  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  give  Washington  another  scare, 
in  the  hope,  also,  of  compelling  Grant  to  withdraw  a  considerable  body  of  troops 
from  before  Richmond.  General  Early  was  sent  thither  with  8,000  men  by 
General  Lee,  with  orders  to  attack  the  Federals  in  the  valley.  Sigel,  whose 
great  forte  was  that  of  retreating,  fell  back  before  the  advance  of  Early,  crossed 
the  Potomac,  and  took  position  on  Maryland  Heights.  Early  moved  up  the 
Monocacy  into  Maryland,  causing  great  alarm  in  Washington.  The  President 
called  upon  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  Massachusetts  for  militia  with  which 
to  repel  the  invasion.  They  were  placed  under  the  command  of  General  Lew 
Wallace,  who  was  defeated  at  Monocacy  Junction,  July  9th.  Early  attacked 
Rockville,  fourteen  miles  west  of  Washington,  and  Colonel  Harry  Gilmor,  him 
self  a  citizen  of  Baltimore,  cut  the  communications  between  that  city  and  Phila 
delphia,  He  captured  a  railway  train,  and  among  his  prisoners  was  General 
Franklin,  who  was  wounded  and  on  his  way  north.  The  loose  watch  kept  over 
the  captives  allowed  them  to  escape. 

Early  was  in  high  feather  over  his  success,  and  his  cavalry  appeared  in 
front  of  Washington,  July  llth,  and  exchanged  shots  with  Fort  Stevens ;  but 
a  spirited  attack  drove  them  off,  and  they  crossed  the  Potomac  at  Edward's 


SHERIDAN  IN  THE  SHENANDOAH    VALLEY. 


395 


Ferry,  and  passed  to  the  western  side  of  the  Shenandoah.  Early  made  his  head 
quarters  at  Winchester  and  repelled  several  assaults  upon  him. 

The  Confederate  leader  had  been  so  successful  that  he  soon  made  a  second 
raid.  He  crossed  the  Potomac,  July  29th,  and,  entering  Pennsylvania,  reached 
Chambersburg,  from  which  a  ransom  of  $200,000  in  gold  was  demanded.  It 
not  being  forthcoming,  the  city  was  fired,  and  the  invaders,  after  some  hard 
fighting,  succeeded  in  getting  back  to  the  southern  shore  of  the  Potomac. 

SHERIDAN    IN    THE   SHENANDOAH    VALLEY. 

These  raids  were  so  exasperat 
ing  that  Grant,  who  could  not  give 
them  his  personal  attention,  deter 
mined  to  put  an  effectual  stop  to 
them.  The  government  united  the< 
departments  of  western  Virginia, 
Washington,  and  the  Susquehanna, 
and  placed  them  under  the  charge  of 
General  Sheridan,  who  had  40,000! 
men  at  his  disposal.  Sheridan, 
whose  force  was  three  times  as  nu 
merous  as  Early's,  was  anxious  to 
move  against  him,  and  Grant  final h 
gave  his  consent  on  the  condition 
that  he  would  desolate  the  Shenan 
doah  Valley  to  that  extent  that  noth 
ing  would  be  left  to  invite  invasion. 

In  the  first  encounter  between 
Sheridan  and  Early,  near  the  Ope- 
quan,  a  small  tributary  of  the  Poto 
mac,  west  of  the  Shenandoah,' Early 
was  routed  and  sent  flying  toward 

Winchester,  with  the  loss  of  many  prisoners  and  supplies.  He  was  drive* 
through  the  town,  and  his  troops  intrenched  themselves  on  Fisher's  Hill,  near 
Strasburg.  They  were  again  attacked,  on  the  21st  of  September,  and  compelled 
to  retreat  further  up  the  valley.  Early  received  a  reinforcement,  and  secured 
himself  at  Brown's  Gap,  in  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  where  for  the  first 
time  he  was  really  safe. 

This  left  Sheridan  free  to  carry  out  the  orders  of  Grant  to  devastate  the 
valley,  and  he  made  thorough  work  of  it.  Nothing  was  spared,  and  the  burning 
and  destruction  were  so  complete  that  his  homely  remark  seemed  justified  when 


GENEBAL   PHILIP  II.   SHEHIDAN. 


396  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

he  said  that  no  crow  would  dare  attempt  to  fly  across  the  region  without  taking 
his  rations  with  him. 

Feeling  that  the  situation  was  secure,  Sheridan  now  went  to  Washington 
to  consult  with  the  government.  On  the  19th  of  October  the  Union  camp  at 
Cedar  Creek  was  surprised  and  routed  by  Early,  who  captured  eighteen  guns, 
which  were  turned  on  the  fugitives  as  they  fled  in  the  direction  of  Middletown. 
Their  commander,  General  Wright,  finally  succeeded  in  rallying  them,  mainly 
because  the  Confederates  were  so  overcome  at  sight  of  the  food  in  the  abandoned 
camps  that  they  gave  up  the  pursuit  to  feast  and  gorge  themselves. 


SHERIDAN'S  RIDE." 


Sheridan  had  reached  Winchester,  "twenty  miles  away,"  on  his  return  from 
Washington,  when  the  faint  sounds  of  firing  told  him  of  the  battle  in  progress. 
Leaping  into  his  saddle,  he  spurred  at  headlong  speed  down  the  highway, 
rallied  the  panic-stricken  troops,  placed  himself  at  their  head,  and,  charging 
headlong  into  the  rebel  mob  at  Cedar  Creek,  scattered  them  like  so  much  chaff, 
retook  the  camps,  and  routed  Early  so  utterly  that  no  more  raids  were  attempted 
by  him  or  any  other  Confederates  during  the  remainder  of  the  war.  Indeed,  it 
may  be  said  that  this  disgraceful  overthrow  ended  the  military  career  of  Jubal 
Early.  When  some  months  later  General  Lee  was  placed  at  the  head  of  all  the 
military  affairs  of  the  Confederacy,  he  lost  no  time  in  doing  two  things:  the 
first  was  to  restore  General  Jo  Johnston  to  his  old  command,  and  the  second  to 
remove  Early  from  his. 

The  stirring  incident  described  furnished  the  theme  for  the  well-known 
poem  of  T.  Buchanan  Read,  entitled  "Sheridan's  Ride." 

Grant  held  fast  to  that  which  he  won  by  terrific  fighting.  Petersburg  lies 
about  twenty  miles  to  the  south  of  Richmond,  and  the  strongly  fortified  Union 
lines  were  nearly  thirty  miles  in  length,  extending  from  a  point  close  to  the 
Weldon  Railroad,  on  Grant's  left,  across  the  James  to  the  neighborhood  of 
Newmarket,  on  the  right.  Holding  the  inner  part  of  this  circle,  Lee  was  able 
for  a  long  time  to  repel  every  assault. 

The  Confederate  commander  fought  furiously  to  prevent  his  enemy  from 
obtaining  possession  of  the  Weldon  Road,  but  late  in  August  a  lodgment  was 
effected  from  which  the  Federals  could  not  be  driven.  Other  advantages  were 
gained,  but  the  close  of  the  year  saw  Lee  still  unconquered  and  defiant. 

GRANT'S  SLOW  BUT  RESISTLESS  PROGRESS. 

Early  in  February,  1865,  Grant  attempted  to  turn  the  Confederate  right, 
but  was  repulsed,  though  he  gained  several  miles  of  additional  territory.  Sheri- 


EVACUATION  OF  RICHMOND.  397 

dan  soon  after  destroyed  the  Richmond  and  Lynchburg  Railroad  and  the 
locks  of  the  James  River  Canal,  after  which  he  joined  the  Army  of  the 
James. 

But  Lee  was  beginning  to  feel  the  tremendous  and  continued  pressure. 
His  army  numbered  barely  35,000  men.  A.  P.  Hill  commanded  the  right 
wing,  stretching  from  Petersburg  to  Hatcher's  Run;  General  J.  B.  Gordon,  the 
centre,  at  Petersburg;  and  Longstreet,  who  had  recovered  from  his  wound,  the 
left  wing,  north  and  south  of  the  James ;  while  the  cavalry  did  what  it  could  to 
cover  the  flanks.  This  attenuated  line  was  forty  miles  long.  Realizing  the 
desperate  straits,  the  Confederate  authorities  early  in  1865  placed  the  entire 
military  operations  of  the  Confederacy  in  the  hands  of  Lee. 

The  latter  planned  to  fall  back  toward  Danville  and  unite  with  Johnston. 
If  successful  this  would  have  given  him  a  formidable  army;  but  Grant  did  not 
intend  to  permit  such  a  junction.  Fighting  went  on  almost  continually,  the 
gain  being  with  the  Union  army,  because  of  its  greatly  superior  numbers  and 
the  skill  with  which  they  were  handled  by  the  master,  Grant.  April  1st  a 
cannonade  opened  along  the  whole  Union  line.  Lee's  right  wing  had  been 
destroyed,  but  the  others  were  unbroken.  At  daylight  the  next  morning  an 
advance  was  made  against  the  Confederate  works.  Lee  was  forced  back,  and  he 
strengthened  his  lines  by  making  them  much  shorter. 

The  Confederates  steadily  lost  ground,  many  were  killed  and  taken 
prisoners,  and  in  a  charge  upon  the  Union  left  General  A.  P.  Hill  lost  his  life. 
At  last  the  enemy's  outer  lines  were  hopelessly  broken,  and  Lee  telegraphed  the 
startling  fact  to  President  Davis,  who  received  it  while  sitting  in  church, 
Sunday,  April  2d.  The  Confederate  President  was  told  that  Lee  could  hold 
Petersburg  but  a  few  hours  longer,  and  Davis  was  warned  to  have  the  authori 
ties  ready  to  leave  Richmond  unless  a  message  was  sent  to  the  contrary.  No 
such  longed-for  message  arrived. 

EVACUATION    OF    RICHMOND. 

The  counsel  of  Lee  was  followed.  Jefferson  Davis,  the  members  of  his 
cabinet,  and  a  number  of  leading  citizens  left  the  capital  that  night  for  Char 
lotte,  North  Carolina.  The  whole  city  was  thrown  into  the  wildest  confusion; 
rioting  and  drunkenness  filled  the  streets,  buildings  were  fired,  and  pandemo 
nium  reigned.  General  Witzel,  who  occupied  the  Union  works  to  the  north  of 
Richmond,  learned  the  astounding  news,  and  the  next  morning  rode  into  the 
city  without  opposition.  The  tidings  were  telegraphed  to  Washington.  The 
following  day  President  Lincoln  arrived,  and  was  quartered  in  the  house 
formerly  occupied  by  Jefferson  Davis.  Martial  law  was  proclaimed,  and  order 
restored  in  the  stricken  citv. 


398 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 


But  General  Lee  had  not  yet  surrendered.  No  men  ever  fought  more 
heroically  than  he  and  his  soldiers.  On  the  Sunday  that  he  sent  his  message 
to  President  Davis,  the  commander  found  the  only  line  of  retreat  left  to  him 
was  that  which  led  to  the  westward,  and  even  that  was  threatened.  Antici 
pating  Lee's  retreat,  Grant  used  all  possible  energy  to  cut  him  off.  On  the 
night  of  April  6th  Lee  crossed  the  Appomattox  near  Farmville.  That  night 
his  general  officers  held  a  consultation,  and  agreed  that  but  one  course  was  left 

to  them  and  that 
was  to  surrender. 
Their  views  were 
communicated  to 
Lee,  but  he  would 
not  yet  consent  to 
that  decisive  step. 
Grant  was  in 
Farmville  on  the 
7th,  and  he  sent 
a  letter  to  Lee,  re 
minding  him  of 
the  uselessness  of 
further  resistance 
and  asking  for  his 
surrender.  Lee 
still  declined,  and 
continued  his 
retreat.  T  hen 
Sheridan  threw 
his  powerful  di 
vision  of  cavalry 
in  front  of  the 
Confederates,  and 
Lee  decided  to  cut 
his  way  through 
the  ring  of  bayo- 

i  and  sabres  by  which  he  was  environed.  This  desperate  task  was  assigned 
to  the  indomitable  Gordon.  He  made  a  resistless  beginning,  when  he  saw  the  im 
possibility  of  success.  The  news  was  sent  to  Lee,  who  realized  at  last  that  all 
hope  was  gone.  He  forwarded  a  note  to  Grant,  asking  for  a  suspension  of  hos- 
ities  with  a  view  to  surrender.  The  two  generals  met  at  the  house  of  Major 
McLean,  in  the  hamlet  of  Appomattox  Court-House,  on  the  9th  of  April  where 


LINCOLN   ENTERING  RICHMOND. 


ASSASSINATION  OF  PRESIDENT  LINCOLN.  399 

Lee  surrendered  all  that  remained  of  the  Confederate  army,  which  for  nearly 
four  years  had  beaten  back  every  attempt  to  capture  Richmond. 

Grant's  terms  as  usual  were  generous.  He  did  riot  ask  for  Lee's  sword,  arid 
demanded  only  that  he  and  his  men  should  agree  not  to  bear  arms  again  against 
the  government  of  the  United  States.  They  were  to  surrender  all  public  pro 
perty,  but  Grant  told  them  to  keep  their  horses,  "  as  you  will  need  them  for  your 
spring  ploughing."  The  soldiers  who  had  fought  each  other  so  long  and  so  fiercely 
fraternized  like  brothers,  exchanged  grim  jests  over  the  terrible  past,  and  pledged 
future  friendship.  The  reunion  between  the  officers  was  equally  striking.  Most 
of  them  were  old  acquaintances,  and  all  rejoiced  that  the  war  was  at  last  ended. 
General  Lee  rode  with  his  cavalry  escort  to  his  home  in  Richmond  and  rejoined 
his  family.  He  was  treated  with  respect  by  the  Union  troops,  who  could  not 
restrain  a  feeling  of  sympathy  for  their  fallen  but  magnanimous  enemy. 

ASSASSINATION    OF    PRESIDENT    LINCOLN. 

The  bonfires  in  the  North  had  hardly  died  out  and  the  echoes  of  the  glad 
bells  were  still  lingering  in  the  air,  when  the  whole  country  was  startled  by  one 
of  the  most  horrifying  events  in  all  history.  President  Lincoln,  on  the  night 
of  April  14th,  was  sitting  in  a  box  at  Ford's  Theatre  in  Washington,  accom 
panied  by  his  wife  and  another  lady  and  gentleman,  when,  at  a  little  past  ten 
o'clock,  John  Wilkes  Booth,  an  actor,  stealthily  entered  the  box  from  the  rear, 
and,  without  any  one  suspecting  his  awful  purpose,  fired  a  pistol-bullet  into 
the  President's  brain.  The  latter's  head  sank,  and  he  never  recovered  con 
sciousness. 

Booth,  after  firing  the  shot,  leaped  upon  the  stage  from  the  box,  brandished 
a  dagger,  shouted  "Sic  semper  tyrannis  !  "  and,  before  the  dnmfounded  specta 
tors  could  comprehend  what  had  been  done,  dashed  out  of  a  rear  door,  sprang 
upon  a  waiting  horse,  and  galloped  off  in  the  darkness. 

No  pen  can  describe  the  horror  and  rage  which  seized  the  spectators  when 
they  understood  what  had  taken  place.  The  stricken  President  was  carried 
across  the  street  to  a  house  where  he  died  at  twenty-two  minutes  past  seven  the 
next  morning. 

About  the  time  of  his  assassination,  an  attempt  was  made  upon  the  life  of 
Secretary  Seward,  who  was  confined  to  his  bed,  suffering  from  a  fall.  A  male 
attendant  prevented  the  miscreant  from  killing  the  secretary,  though  he  was 
badly  cut.  The  best  detective  force  of  the  country  was  set  to  work,  and  an 
energetic  pursuit  of  Booth  was  made.  He  had  injured  his  ankle  when  leaping 
from  the  box  upon  the  stage  of  the  theatre,  but  he  rode  into  Maryland,  accom 
panied  by  another  conspirator,  named  David  E.  Harrold.  At  the  end  of  eleven 
days  they  were  run  down  by  the  pursuing  cavalry,  who  brought  them  to  bay  on 


THE    CIVIL    WAR    PEACE    CONFERENCE. 

Three  commissioners  from  the  Confederacy  suggesting  terms  of  peace  to  President  Lincoln  and  Secretary  Seward  in  Fortress 

Monroe,  January  1865. 


PUNISHMENT  OF  THE  CONSPIRATORS.  401 

the  26th  of  April.     They  had  crossed  from  Maryland  into  Virginia  and  taken 
refuge  in  a  barn  near  Po^t  Royal,  on  the  Rappahannock. 

DEATH    OF    BOOTH. 

The  barn  was  surrounded  and  the  two  men  were  summoned  to  surrender. 
Harrold  went  out  and  gave  himself  up.  Booth  refused  and  defied  the  troopers, 
offering  to  fight  them  single-handed.  To  drive  him  from  his  hiding-place,  the 
barn  was  set  on  fire.  Booth,  carbine  in  hand  and  leaning  on  his  crutch,  ap 
proached  the  door  with  the  intention  of  shooting,  when  Sergeant  Boston  Corbett 
fired  through  a  crevice  and  hit  Booth  in  the  neck.  The  wound  was  a  mortal 
one,  and  Booth  was  brought  out  of  the  barn  and  laid  on  the  ground,  where  he 
died  after  several  hours  of  intense  suffering.  The  body  was  taken  to  Washing 
ton  and  secretly  buried.  There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  sunk  at 
night  in  the  Potomac. 

PUNISHMENT    OF    THE   CONSPIRATORS. 

The  country  was  in  no  mood  to  show  leniency  to  any  one  concerned  in  the 
taking  off  of  the  beloved  President.  Of  the  five  conspirators  tried,  four  were 
hanged.  They  were  :  Payne,  Harrold,  G.  A.  Atzeroot,  and  Mrs.  Mary  A.  Sur- 
ratt,  at  whose  house  the  conspirators  held  their  meetings.  Dr.  S.  A.  Mudd,  who 
dressed  Booth's  wounded  ankle,  and  was  believed  to  be  in  sympathy  with  the 
plotters,  was  sentenced  to  the  Dry  Tortugas  for  a  number  of  years.  He  showed 
so  much  devotion  during  an  outbreak  of  yellow  fever  there  that  he  was  pardoned 
some  time  later.  John  Surratt,  the  assailant  of  Secretary  Seward,  fled  to  Italy, 
where  he  was  discovered  by  Archbishop  Hughes,  and  the  Italian  government, 
as  an  act  of  courtesy,  delivered  him  to  our  government.  On  his  first  trial  the 
jury  disagreed,  and  on  the  second  he  escaped  through  the  plea  of  limitations. 

The  whole  country  mourned  the  death  of  President  Lincoln.  His  great 
ness,  his  goodness,  and  his  broad,  tender  charity  were  appreciated  by  every  one. 
The  South  knew  that  they  had  lost  in  him  their  best  friend.  Had  he  lived, 
much  of  the  strife  of  the  succeeding  few  years  would  have  been  saved,  and  the 
bitter  cup  that  was  pressed  to  the  lips  of  the  conquered  South  would  have  been 
le^s  bitter  than  it  was  made  by  others.  The  remains  of  the  martyred  President 
were  laid  in  their  final  resting-place  at  Springfield,  Illinois,  and  the  fame  of 
Lincoln  grows  and  increases  with  the  passing  years. 

SHERMAN'S  NORTHWARD  ADVANCES. 

The  army  of  General  Jo  Johnston  did  not  surrender  until  after  the  death 
of  President  Lincoln.  Sherman,  as  will  be  remembered,  made  the  city  of  Sa 
vannah  a  Christmas  present  to  the  President.  Leaving  a  strong  detachment  in 

26 


402  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

the  city,  Sherman  moved  northward  with  an  army  of  70,000  men,  including 
artillery,  the  start  being  made  on  the  1st  of  February.  Charleston,  where  the 
first  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed  and  which  had  successfully  defied  every 
movement  against  it,  now  found  itself  assailed  in  the  rear.  The  garrison,  after 
destroying  the  government  stores,  the  railway  stations,  blowing  up  the  ironclads 
in  the  harbor,  bursting  the  guns  on  the  ramparts  of  the  forts,  and  setting  the  city 
on  fire,  withdrew.  This  took  place  February  17th.  The  next  day  General 
Gillmore  entered  Charleston  and  his  troops  extinguished  the  few  buildings  that 
were  still  burning. 

It  has  not  been  forgotten  that  Wilmington,  North  Carolina,  had  become 
the  great  blockade-running  port  of  the  Southern  Confederacy.  The  mouth  of 
Cape  Fear  River  was  defended  by  Fort  Fisher,  a  very  powerful  fortification. 
General  Butler  made  an  attempt  to  capture  it  in  December,  but  failed.  Another 
effort  followed  January  loth,  under  General  Alfred  Terry,  and  was  successful. 
The  defeated  garrison  joined  Johnston  to  help  him  in  disputing  the  northward 
advance  of  Sherman. 

There  was  severe  fighting,  especially  at  Goldsborough,  but  the  Union  army 
was  so  much  the  superior  that  its  progress  could  not  be  stayed.  There 
Schofield  reinforced  Sherman,  who,  feeling  all  danger  was  past,  turned  over  the 
command  to  his  subordinate  and  went  north  to  consult  with  Grant,  reaching 
his  headquarters  on  the  27th  of  March.  Soon  after  the  surrender  of  Lee,  the 
whole  Confederacy  was  in  such  a  state  of  collapse  that  the  Union  cavalry 
galloped  back  and  forth  through  every  portion  at  will. 

Returning  to  his  command,  Sherman  moved  against  Johnston,  April  10th. 
Four  days  later,  Johnston  admitted  in  a  communication  to  the  Union  commander 
that  the  surrender  of  Lee  meant  the  end  of  the  war,  and  he  asked  for  a  temporary 
suspension  of  hostilities,  with  the  view  of  making  arrangements  for  the  laying 
down  of  the  Confederate  arms.  Sherman  consented,  and  these  two  commanders 
met  and  discussed  the  situation. 

SURRENDER   OF   JO   JOHNSTON    AND   COLLAPSE    OF    THE    SOUTHERN    CONFEDERACY. 

In  the  exchange  of  views  which  followed,  the  great  soldier,  Sherman,  was 
outwitted  by  Johnston  and  the  Confederate  president  and  cabinet,  who  were 
behind  him.  They  secured  his  agreement  to  a  restoration,  so  far  as  he  could 
bring  it  about,  of  the  respective  State  governments  in  the  South  as  they  were 
before  the  war,  with  immunity  for  the  secession  leaders  from  punishment,  and 
other  privileges,  which,  if  granted,  would  have  been  throwing  away  most  of  the 
fruits  of  the  stupendous  struggle.  Sherman  thus  took  upon  himself  the  disposi 
tion  of  civil  matters  with  which  he  had  nothing  to  do.  The  more  sagacious 
Grant  saw  the  mistake  of  his  old  friend,  and,  visiting  his  camp,  April  24th,  told 


SURRENDER   OF  JO  JOHNSTON. 


403 


him  his  memorandum  was  disapproved,  and  notice  was  to  be  sent  Johnston  of  the 
resumption  of  hostilities.  Two  days  later,  Sherman  and  Johnston  again  met, 
and  the  Confederate  commander  promptly  agreed  to  surrender  his  army  on  the 
same  conditions  that  were  given  to  Lee. 

General  J.  H.  Wilson  and  his  cavalry  captured  Macon,  Georgia,  April 
21st,  and,  on  the  4th  of  May,  General  Dick  Taylor  surrendered  the  remainder 
of  the  Confederate  forces  east  of  the  Mississippi,  at  which  time  also  Admiral 


THE    DESPERATE   EXTREMITY  OF   THE  CONFEDERATES   AT   THE   END   OF   ' 

CIVIL  WAR. 

Farrand  surrendered  to  Admiral  Thatcher  aJl  the  naval  forces  of  the  Confederacy 
that  were  blockaded  in  the  Tombigbee  River.  At  that  time,  Kirby  Smith  was 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Mississippi,  loudly  declaring  that  he  would  keep  up  the 
fight  until  independence  or  better  terms  were  secured,  but  his  followers  did  not 
share  his  views,  and  deserted  so  fast  that  he,  Magruder,  and  others  made  their 
way  to  Mexico,  where,  after  remaining  awhile,  they  returned  to  the  United  States 
and  became  peaceful  and  law-abiding  citizens.  The  troops  left  by  them  passed 


404  ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 

under  the  command  of  General  Brent,  who,  on  the  26th  of  May,  surrendered  to 
General  Canby,  when  it  may  be  said  the  War  for  the  Union  was  ended. 

After  the  surrender  of  Johnston,  Jefferson  Davis  and  the  members  of  his 
cabinet  became  fugitives,  under  the  escort  of  a  few  paroled  soldiers.  It  was 
feared  they  might  join  Kirby  Smith  and  encourage  him  to  continue  his 
resistance,  while  others  believed  he  was  striving  to  get  beyond  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  United  States. 

The  party  hurried  through  the  dismal  wastes  of  Georgia,  in  continual  fear 
that  the  Union  cavalry  would  burst  from  cover  upon  them  and  make  all 
prisoners.  In  the  early  morning  light  of  May  10th,  Mr.  Davis,  while  asleep 
in  his  tent,  near  Irwinsville,  Wilkinson  County,  Georgia,  was  aroused  by  the 
alarming  news  that  the  camp  was  surrounded  by  Union  cavalry.  He  leaped  to 
his  feet  and  ran  for  his  horse,  but  the  animal  was  already  in  the  possession  of  a 
Federal  trooper.  His  wife  threw  a  shawl  over  his  shoulders,  and  he  attempted 
to  escape  from  the  camp  without  being  recognized,  but  he  was  identified  and 
made  prisoner.  He  had  been  captured  by  a  squad  of  General  J.  H.  Wilson's 
cavalry,  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  Pritchard  of  the  Fourth 
Michigan.  His  fellow-prisoners  were  his  wife  and  children,  his  private  secretary, 
Burton  Harrison,  his  aide-de-camp,  and  Postmaster-General  Reagan,  all  of 
whom  were  taken  to  Macon,  and  thence  to  Fort  Monroe,  Virginia. 

It  was  a  serious  problem,  now  that  the  president  of  the  defunct  Confederacy 
was  captured,  what  should  be  done  with  him.  He  was  kept  in  Fort  Monroe 
until  his  health  was  impaired,  when  he  was  released  on  bail;  Horace  Greeley,  the 
well-known  editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune,  being  one  of  his  bondsmen.  He 
had  been  indicted  for  treason  in  1866,  being  released  the  following  year,  but  his 
trial  was  dropped  on  the  6th  of  February,  1869.  He  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life  in  Memphis,  and  later  at  Beauvoir,  Mississippi,  dying  in  New  Orleans, 
December  6,  1889,  in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age. 

STATISTICS    OF    THE    WAR. 

The  most  carefully  prepared  statistics  of  the  Civil  War  give  the  following 
facts:  Number  of  men  in  the  Union  army  furnished  by  each  State  and  Terri 
tory,  from  April  15,  1861,  to  close  of  war,  2,778,304,  which,  reduced  to  a  three 
years'  standing,  was  2,326,168.  The  number  of  casualties  in  the  volunteer  and 
regular  armies  of  the  United  States,  according  to  a  statement  prepared  by  the 
adjutant-general's  office,  was:  Killed  in  battle,  67,058;  died  of  wounds,  43,012; 
died  of  disease,  199,720;  other  causes,  such  as  accidents,  murder,  Confederate 
prisons,  etc.,  40,154;  total  died,  349,944;  total  deserted,  199,105.  Number  of 
soldiers  in  the  Confederate  service,  who  died  of  wounds  or  disease  (partial  state 
ment),  133,821.  Deserted  (partial  statement),  104,428.  Number  of  United 


STATISTICS   OF  THE    WAR. 


405 


States  troops  captured  during  the  war,  212,508;  Confederate  troops  captured, 
476,169.  Number  of  United  States  troops  paroled  on  the  field,  16,431 ;  Con 
federate  troops  paroled  on  the  field,  248,599.  Number  of  United  States  troops 
who  died  while  prisoners,  30,156;  Confederate  troops  who  died  while  prisoners, 
30,152.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  number  of  men  killed  and  disabled  on  both 
sides  during  the  War  for  the  Union  was  fully  one  million.  The  public  debt  of 
the  United  States,  July  1,  1866,  was  $2,773,236,173.69,  which  on  the  1st  of 
November,  1897,  had  been  reduced  to  |l, 808,777, 643.40. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  frightful  brutalities  of  Captain  Wirz,  the 
keeper  of  Anderson ville  prison.  He  richly  merited  the  hanging  which  he 
suffered  on  the  10th  of  November,  1865.  As  has  been  stated,  he  was  the  only 
person  executed  for  his  part  in  the  Civil  War 

England,  upon  receiving  news  of  the  arrest 
of  Jefferson  Davis,  declared  all  ports,  harbors,  and 
waters  belonging  to  Great  Britain  closed  against 
every  vessel  bearing  the  Confederate  flag.  Thu 
French  government  took  the  same  action  a  few 
days  later. 

More  than  a  generation  has  passed  since  the 
close  of  the  great  Civil  War,  which  resulted  in  the 
cementing  of  the  Union  so  firmly  that  the  bonds 
can  never  again  be  broken.  Whatever  resentment 
may  have  been  felt  lasted  but  a  brief  while,  and 
the  late  war  with  Spain  removed  the  last  vestige. 

A  little  incident  may  serve  as  one  of  the 
thousand  similar  occurrences  which  prove  how 
perfectly  the  North  and  South  fraternized  long 
ago.  The  officer  who  did  the  most  effective  work  for  the  Union  in  the  South  dur 
ing  the  closing  months  of  the  war  was  General  James  H.  Wilson,  a  detachment 
of  whose  cavalry  captured  the  fugitive  Jefferson  Davis.  It  was  General  Wilsonr 
who,  on  the  21st  of  April,  1865,  rode  into  Macon,  Georgia,  and  took  possession 
of  the  city.  In  the  month  of  December,  1898,  while  on  a  visit  to  Macon,  he 
made  an  address  to  the  citizens,  from  which  the  following  extract  is  given  : 

THIRTY-THREE    YEARS    LATER. 

FELLOW-CITIZENS  :  It  is  with  infinite  pleasure  that  I  address  myself  in 
words  of  peace  to  a  Macon  audience.  [Cheers.]  Thirty-odd  years  ago  I  came 
into  this  town  with  15,000  cavalry  thundering  at  my  heels.  [Laughter  and 
shouts.]  I  was  met  with  the  roaring  of  cannon  and  the  firing  of  musketry. 
[Cheers.]  I  was  greeted  by  the  burning  of  warehouses  and  the  destruction  of 


HORACE   GREELEY. 

(1811-1872.) 


406 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  LINCOLN. 


property,  which  I  now  profound ly  regret.  [Cheers.]  The  welcome  that  was 
extended  to  me  then  was  of  the  silent  quality.  [Laughter.]  An  illustrious 
citizen,  then  your  chief  magistrate,  the  Hon.  Joseph  E.  Brown,  after  a  four- 
hours'  interview,  speaking  of  me  then,  said  to  another  gathering  of  illustrious 
citizens,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Howell  Cobb :  "  He  is  a  clever  young  man, 
but,  gentlemen,  lie  takes  the  military  view  of  the  situation."  [Laughter.]  That 
was  a  fact  then,  but  now  I  come  among  you  and  I  receive  a  different  welcome. 
I  was  then  a  victor;  to-day  I  am  a  captive.  [Cheers.]  I  must  say  I  am  a 
willing  captive  of  your  city.  The  fair  women  and  the  brave  and  excellent 
gentlemen  of  your  town  have,  by  their  open  and  generous  hospitality, 
imprisoned  me  deep  down  in  their  hearts,  and  I  would  be  recreant  to  every 
feeling  of  my  own  if  I  desired  release  from  such  pleasing  bondage. 


'^&^f3£p^*^*z*&*~****-*^f^'~-^^^ 


LINCOLN'S   GRAVE,   SPRINGFIELD.  ILLINOIS. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


ADMINISTRATIONS   OK  JOHNSON   AND   GRANT 

1865—1877. 

Andrew  Johnson — Reconstruction — Quarrel  Between  the  President  and  Congress — The  Fenians — Exe. 
cution  of  Maximilian — Admission  of  Nebraska — Laying  of  the  Atlantic  Cable — Purchase  of  Alaska 
— Impeachment  and  Acquittal  of  the  President — Carpet-bag  Rule  in  the  South — Presidential  Election 
of  1868 — U.  S.  Grant— Settlement  of  the  Alabama  Claims— Completion  of  the  Overland  Railway— 
The  Chicago  Fire— Settlement  of  the  Northwestern  Boundary— Presidential  Election  of  1872— The 
Modoc  Troubles — Civil  War  in  Louisiana — Admission  of  Colorado — Panic  of  1873 — Notable  Deaths — 
Custer's  Massacre — The  Centennial — The  Presidential  Election  of  1876  the  Most  Perilous  in  the 
History  of  the  Country. 

THE   SEVENTEENTH    PRESIDENT. 

As  provided  by  the  Constitution,  Andrew  Johnson,  Vice-President,  took 

the  oath  of  office  as  President  on  the 
day  that  Abraham  Lincoln  died.  He 
was  born  in  Raleigh,  North  Caro 
lina,  December  29,  1808,  and  his 
parents  were  so  poor  that  they  did 
not  send  him  to  school  at  all.  When 
only  ten  years  old,  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  tailor,  and  anyone  who  at  that 
time  had  prophesied  that  he  would 
some  day  become  President  of  the 
United  States  would  have  been  set 
down  as  an  idiot  or  a  lunatic. 

Among  the  visitors  to  the  tailor 
shop  was  a  kind-hearted  old  gentle 
man  who  was  in  the  habit  of  reading 
to  the  boys  and  men.  Andrew  be 
came  interested  in  what  he  heard, 
and,  seeing  how  much  better  it 
would  be  for  him  to  be  able  to  read 
for  himself,  set  to  work  and  learned. 
He  removed  to  Greenville,  Tennes 
see,  in  1826,  and  there  married  a 

(407) 


ANDREW  JOHNSON. 
(1608-1875.)    One  partial  term,  1865-1809. 


408  ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  JOHNSON  AND    GRANT. 

noble  woman,  who  encouraged  his  ambition  and  helped  him  in  his  studies. 
Nature  had  given  him  marked  ability,  and  he  became  interested  in  local  politics. 
The  citizens  had  confidence  in  him,  for  he  was  twice  elected  alderman,  twice 
mayor,  was  sent  three  times  to  the  State  Legislature,  and  in  1843  was  elected  to 
Congress.  He  remained  there  for  ten  years,  when  he  was  chosen  governor  of 
Tennessee,  and,  in  1857,  became  United  States  senator. 

Johnson  had  always  been  a  Democrat,  and,  when  the  political  upheaval 
came  in  I860,  he  supported  Breckinridge.  While  he  favored  slavery,  he  was 
a  Unionist  in  every  fibre  of  his  being,  and  declared  that  every  man  who  raised 
his  hand  against  the  flag  should  be  hanged  as  a  traitor.  Tennessee  was  torn  by 
the  savage  quarrel,  and  for  a  time  the  secessionists  were  rampant.  When  John 
son  returned  to  his  home  in  May,  1861,  his  train  was  stopped  by  a  mob  who 
were  determined  to  lynch  him,  but  he  met  the  angered  men  at  the  door  with 
a  loaded  revolver  and  cowed  them. 

It  was  such  men  as  Johnson  that  President  Lincoln  appreciated  and  deter 
mined  to  keep  bound  to  him.  He  appointed  him  military  governor  of  Tennes 
see  in  1862,  and  it  need  hardly  be  said  that  Johnson  made  things  lively  for  the 
secessionists,  and  did  not  forget  to  give  attention  to  those  who  had  persecuted  him. 
His  personal  courage  and  honesty  won  the  admiration  of  the  North,  and,  as  we 
have  shown,  led  to  his  being  placed  on  the  ticket  with  President  Lincoln,  when 
he  was  renominated  in  1864. 

The  reader  will  not  forget  that  the  surrender  of  Johnson  and  the  capture, 
imprisonment,  and  release  of  Jefferson  Davis  occurred  while  Johnson  was 
President 

THE    PROBLEM    OF    RECONSTRUCTION. 

Reconstruction  was  the  grave  problem  that  confronted  the  country  at  the 
close  of  the  war.  The  question  was  as  to  the  status  of  the  States  lately  in  rebellion. 
It  would  not  do  to  restore  them  to  their  full  rights,  with  the  same  old  govern 
ments,  for  they  might  make  better  preparations  and  secede  again.  Nothing 
was  clearer  than  that  slavery  was  the  real  cause  of  the  war,  and  the  safety  of 
the  nation  demanded  that  it  should  be  extirpated  forever.  The  Emancipation 
Proclamation  was  a  war  measure  and  simply  freed  the  slaves,  but  did  not  pre 
vent  the  re-establishment  of  slavery.  In  December,  1865,  therefore,  the 
Thirteenth  Amendment,  having  been  adopted  by  three-fourths  of  the  States,  was 
declared  a  part  of  the  Constitution.  By  it  slavery  was  forever  abolished,  and 
one  of  the  gravest  of  all  perils  was  removed. 

Prasident  Johnson  was  a  man  of  strong  passions  and  prejudices.  He  had 
been  a  "poor  white"  in  the  South,  whose  condition  in  some  respect  was  worse 
than  that  of  slaves.  He  held  a  bitter  personal  hatred  of  the  aristocratic 
Southerners,  who  had  brought  on  the  war.  His  disposition  at  first  was  to  hang 


QUARREL  BETWEEN  CONGRESS  AND   THE  PRESIDENT.      409 

the  leaders,  but  after  awhile  he  swung  almost  as  far  in  the  opposite  direction. 
At  the  same  time,  he  was  not  particularly  concerned  for  the  welfare  of  the 
freed  slaves,  who  were  called  "  freedmen." 

THE  PRESIDENT'S  POLICY. 

President  Johnson  termed  his  plan  "  my  policy,"  and  hriefly  it  was :  To 
appoint  provisional  or  temporary  governors  for  each  of  the  States  lately  in 
rebellion.  These  governors  called  conventions  of  delegates,  who  were  elected  by 
the  former  white  voters  of  the  respective  States.  When  the  conventions  met 
they  declared  all  the  ordinances  of  secession  void,  pledged  themselves  never  to 
pay  any  debt  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  and  ratified  the  Thirteenth  Amend 
ment,  as  proposed  by  Congress  early  in  1865,  and  which  abolished  slavery. 
Before  the  close  of  the  year  named,  each  of  the  excluded  States  had  been  reor 
ganized  in  accordance  with  this  plan.  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  Arkansas  took 
the  step  while  Lincoln  was  President. 

The  vexatious  question  was  as  to  the  treatment  of  the  freedmen.  The  South 
had  no  faith  that  they  would  work,  except  when  compelled  to  do  so  by  slave- 
overseers.  The  new  governments  passed  laws,  therefore,  to  compel  them  to 
work,  under  the  penalty  of  being  declared  vagrants  and  sent  to  jail,  where  they 
would  be  forced  to  hard  labor.  This  method  was  denounced  in  the  North  as  a 
re-establishment  of  slavery  under  a  new  name.  The  Republican  majority  in 
December,  1865,  refused  for  a  time  to  admit  any  members  from  the  States  that 
had  been  in  rebellion. 

QUARREL   BETWEEN    CONGRESS    AND    THE    PRESIDENT. 

Thus  a  quarrel  arose  between  the  President  and  Congress.  The  latter  pro 
posed  to  keep  the  States  on  probation  for  a  time,  before  giving  them  their  full 
rights,  while  the  President  strenuously  insisted  that  they  should  be  admitted  at 
once  on  the  same  status  as  those  that  had  not  been  engaged  in  secession.  To 
keep  out  the  eighty-five  members  who  had  been  refused  admission,  Congress 
imposed  a  test  oath,  which  excluded  all  who  had  been  connected  in  any  way 
with  the  Confederate  government.  The  Republicans  had  a  two-thirds  vote  in 
Congress  which  enabled  them  to  pass  any  bill  they  chose  over  the  President's 
veto.  While  they  had  not  formulated  any  clear  policy,  they  were  resolved  to 
protect  the  freedmen  in  all  their  rights.  The  reorganization  of  Tennessee  being 
satisfactory,  her  members  were  received  by  Congress  in  1866. 

The  congressional  elections  of  this  year  intrenched  the  Republicans  in  Con 
gress,  and  they  were  sure  of  the  power  for  the  next  two  years  to  carry  through 
any  policy  upon  which  they  might  agree.  By  that  time,  too,  they  had  fixed 
upon  their  plan  of  reconstruction  and  prepared  to  enforce  it. 


410  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JOHNSON  AND    GRANT. 

This  policy  was  to  allow  the  freedraen  to  vote  and  to  deprive  the  Confed 
erate  leaders  of  the  right  to  do  so.  To  accomplish  this,  the  plan  was  to  place  all 
the  seceding  States  under  military  governors,  who  should  call  new  conventions 
to  form  State  governments.  The  negroes  and  not  the  leading  Confederates  had 
the  power  to  vote  for  these  delegates.  Provided  the  new  governments  allowed 
the  freedmen  the  right  of  suffrage,  and  ratified  the  Fourteenth  Amendment 
(which  excluded  the  leading  Confederates  from  office),  then  the  Southern  senators 
and  representatives  would  be  admitted  to  Congress. 

THE    CIVIL    RIGHTS    BILL. 

The  "civil  rights"  bill,  which  placed  the  blacks  and  whites  on  the  same 
footing,  was  vetoed  by  the  President,  March  27th.  He  pointed  out  the  danger 
of  giving  suffrage  to  4,000,000  ignorant  people,  lately  slaves,  and  said  unscrup 
ulous  men  in  the  North  would  hasten  South  and  take  advantage  of  their  igno 
rance.  This  was  precisely  what  took  place.  The  South  was  overrun  by  a  set  of 
scoundrels  known  as  "  carpet-baggers  "  (because  they  were  supposed  to  carry 
all  their  worldly  possessions  when  they  reached  the  South  in  a  carpet  bag ;  in 
many  instances  a  score  of  trunks  would  not  have  sufficed  to  hold  what  they  took 
back),  whose  rule  was  worse  than  a  pestilence,  and  forms  one  of  the  most  shame 
ful  episodes  in  our  history.  According  to  the  old  system,  the  negroes  were 
counted  in  making  up  the  congressional  representation  of  the  South,  and  the 
Republicans  insisted  that  they  were,  therefore,  entitled  to  vote.  The  bill  was 
passed  April  9th,  over  the  President's  veto. 

The  story  of  the  bitter  quarrel  between  the  President  and  Congress  is 
mi  unpleasant  one.  Words  were  uttered  by  him  and  by  leading  members  of 
Congress  which  it  would  be  well  to  forget.  The  President  became  angrier  as  the 
wrangle  progressed,  for,  in  the  face  of  the  hostile  majority,  he  was  powerless. 
The  fight  continued  through  the  years  1867  and  1863.  In  June  of  the  latter 
year,  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Louisiana,  North  Carolina,  and  South  Caro 
lina  were  re-admitted  to  Congress.  The  States  that  had  seceded  were  divided 
into  five  military  districts,  and  President  Johnson,  much  against  his  will,  was 
obliged  to  appoint  the  governors.  As  a  result  of  all  this,  the  negroes  were 
largely  in  the  majority  in  the  South,  and  the  Republican  vote  in  Congress  was 
greatly  increased.  But  in  the  North,  the  fall  elections  went  mostly  Democratic, 
though  not  enough  so  to  overcome  the  opposing  majority  in  Congress. 

During  these  exciting  times  there  were  several  occurrences  of  a  different 
nature  which  require  notice.  The  Fenians  are  men  of  Irish  birth  who  favor  the 
independence  of  their  country  from  Great  Britain.  One  of  their  favorite  methods 
is  by  the  invasion  of  Canada.  In  1866,  about  1,500  of  them  entered  Canada 
from  Buffalo,  and  some  skirmishing  occurred,  but  the  movement  was  so  clearly 


ADMISSION  OF  NEBRASKA. 


411 


a  violation  of  law  that  the  President  sent  a  military  force  to  the  frontier  and 
promptly  stopped  it. 

EXECUTION    OF    MAXIMILIAN. 

France  had  taken  advantage  of  our  Civil  War  to  make  an  attempt  to  estab 
lish  a  monarchy  in  Mexico.  French  troops  were  landed,  an  empire  proclaimed, 
and  Maximilian,  an  Austrian  archduke,  declared  emperor.  He  went  to  Mexico  in 
1864,  where  he  was  compelled  to  fight  the  Mexicans  who  had  risen  against  his 
rule.  With  the  help  of  the  strong  military  force  which  Louis  Napoleon  placed 
at  his  disposal,  he  was  able  to  maintain  himself  for  a  time.  With  the  conclusion 
of  the  war,  our  government  intimated  to  Emperor  Napoleon  that  it  would  be 
politic  for 
him  to  with 
draw  from 
Mexico,  al 
though  we 
were  quite 
willing  to  al 
low  Maximil 
ian  to  remain 
emperor  if  it 
was  the  wish 
of  the  Mexi 
cans.  Napol 
eon  acted  on 
the  warning, 
but  the  mis 
guided  victim 
chose  to  stay, 
and  was  cap 
tured  by  the  Mexicans  in  1867  and  shot.  That  was  the  end  of  the  attempt  to 
establish  an  empire  in  Mexico,  which  has  long  been  a  prosperous  and  well- 
governed  republic. 

ADMISSION    OF    NEBRASKA. 

Nebraska  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1867.  It  was  a  part  of  the  Louis 
iana  purchase  and  was  made  a  Territory  in  1854,  by  the  Kansas-Nebraska  act. 
Being  located  much  further  north  than  Kansas,  it  escaped  the  strife  and  civil 
war  which  desolated  that  Territory.  It  has  proven  to  be  a  rich  agricultural 
region,  though  it  suffers  at  times  from  grasshoppers,  drought,  and  storms. 

The  attempts  to  lay  an  Atlantic  telegraph  cable  resulted  in  failures  until 
1866,  when  a  cable  was  laid  from  Ireland  to  Newfoundland. 


LOG-CABIN   CHURCH  AT   JILNEATJ,  ALASKA. 


Since  then  other 


412  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JOHNSON  AND   GRANT. 

cables  have  been  successfully  stretched  beneath  the  ocean  until  it  may  be  said 
the  world  is  girdled  by  them. 

PURCHASE   OF    ALASKA. 

In  1867  our  country  purchased  from  Russia  the  large  tract  in  the  northwest 
known  as  Russian  America.  The  sum  paid  was  $7,200,000,  a  price  which 
many  deemed  so  exorbitant  that  it  was  considered  a  mere  pretext  of  Secretary 
Seward,  who  strongly  urged  the  measure,  in  order  to  give  Russia  a  bonus  for 
her  valuable  friendship  during  the  Civil  War.  Inclusive  of  the  islands,  the  area 
of  Alaska  is  577,390  square  miles.  The  country  was  looked  upon  as  a  cold,  dis 
mal  land  of  fogs  and  storms,  without  any  appreciable  value,  but  its  seal  fisheries 
and  timber  have  been  so  productive  of  late  years  that  it  has  repaid  its  original 
cost  tenfold  and  more. 

WIDENING    OF    THE    BREACH    BETWEEN    CONGRESS    AND    THE    PRESIDENT. 

One  of  the  acts  passed  by  Congress  in  March,  1867,  forbade  the  President 
to  dismiss  any  members  of  his  cabinet  without  the  consent  of  the  Senate.  The 
President  insisted  that  the  Constitution  gave  him  the  right  to  do  this.  Secretary 
of  War  Stanton,  who  had  resigned  by  his  request,  was  succeeded  by  General 
Grant,  who  gave  way  to  Stanton,  when  the  latter  was  replaced  by  the  Senate, 
in  January,  1868.  On  the  21st  of  February  the  President  dismissed  him  and 
appointed  Adjutant-General  Thomas  secretary  ad  interim.  Stanton  refused  to 
yield,  and  remained  at  his  office  night  and  day,  with  a  company  of  friends  and 
a  military  guard.  Several  demands  for  the  office  were  made  by  General 
Thomas,  bat  all  were  refused.  It  was  believed  the  President  would  send  troops 
to  enforce  his  order,  but  he  did  not  proceed  to  that  extremity. 

IMPEACHMENT    AND    ACQUITTAL    OF    THE    PRESIDENT. 

On  the  24th  of  February  the  House  of  Representatives  passed  a  resolution 
to  impeach  the  President.  This  was  simply  to  accuse  or  charge  him  with  the 
commission  of  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors.  In  such  cases  the  trial  must  be 
conducted  by  the  Senate.  A  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  the  articles  of 
impeachment,  which,  in  the  main,  accused  the  executive  of  violating  the  civil 
tenure  act  in  his  removal  of  Secretary  Stanton,  though  other  charges  were 
added. 

When  the  President  is  impeached,  the  Constitution  provides  that  his  trial 
shall  take  place  before  the  Senate,  sitting  as  a  court.  The  trial  occupied  thirty- 
two  days,  lasting  until  May  26th,  with  Chief  Justice  Chase  presiding,  on  which 
day  a  vote  was  taken  on  the  eleventh  article  of  impeachment.  Thirty-five 
senators  voted  for  acquittal  and  nineteen  for  conviction.  One  more  vote — 


SAD   CONDITION  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 


413 


making  the  necessary  two-tliircls — would  have  convicted.  Ten  days  later  the 
same  vote  was  given  on  the  other  charges,  whereupon  a  verdict  of  acquittal  was 
ordered. 

SAD  CONDITION"  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 

The  country  was  in  a  lamentable  condition.  Congress  censured  the  Presi 
dent,  who  expressed  his  contempt  for  that  body.  General  Sheridan,  whom  the 
President  had  removed  from  the  governorship  of  Louisiana,  was  complimented 


A  SOUTHERN  LEGISLATURE   UNDER  CARPET-BAG  RULE. 

The  carpet-baggers  debauched  the  negroes,  sending  some  <»f  the  most  ignorant  of  them  to  the  Legislature,  where  their  personal 
conduct  was  a  disgrace  and  they  voted  away  vast  sums  of  money  for  adventurers  who  bribed  them  with  a  pittance. 

for  his  administration,  and  Congress  declared  that  there  was  no  valid  govern 
ment  in  the  South,  the  jurisdiction  of  which  was  transferred  to  General  Grant, 
the  head  of  the  army. 

By  this  time  the  carpet-baggers  had  swarmed  into  the  sorely  harried  region 
like  so  many  locusts.  They  secured  the  support  of  the  ignorant  blacks,  by 
falsehood  and  misrepresentations,  controlled  the  State  Legislatures,  and  had 
themselves  elected  to  Congress.  Enormous  debts  were  piled  up,  and  negroes, 
who  could  not  write  their  names,  exultingly  made  laws  for  their  former  masters 


414  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JOHNSON  AND   GRANT. 

who  remained  in  sullen  silence  at  their  homes  and  wondered  what  affliction  was 
coming  next.  The  colored  legislators  adjourned  pell-mell  to  attend  the  circus  ; 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  were  stolen,  and  extravagance,  corruption, 
and  debauchery  ran  riot.  As  a  public  man  remarked,  one  general  conflagration, 
sweeping  from  the  Potomac  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  could  not  have  wrought  more 
devastation  in  the  South  than  the  few  years  of  carpet-bag  governments. 

Yet  all  such  evils  are  sure  to  right  themselves,  sooner  or  later.  The 
means  are  apt  to  be  violent  and  revolutionary,  and  sometimes  breed  crime  of 
itself.  It  was  not  in  the  nature  of  things  that  the  whites  should  remain  passive 
and  meek  under  this  unspeakable  misrule.  Tl>ey  united  for  self-protection. 
One  of  the  bands  thus  formed  was  the  Ku-Klux,  which  in  time  committed  so 
many  crimes  in  terrorizing  the  negroes  that  they  were  suppressed  by  the  stern 
arm  of  the  military  ;  a  revolt  of  the  best  people  took  place,  and  soon  after  1870 
the  blight  of  carpet-bag  government  disappeared  from  the  South. 

TRUE    RECONCILIATION. 

Despite  the  turbulence  and  angry  feeling,  the  work  of  reconciliation  went 
on  of  itself.  Northern  capital  entered  the  promising  fields  of  the  South;  former 
Union  and  Confederate  leaders,  as  well  as  privates,  respected  one  another,  as 
brave  men  always  do,  and  became  warm  friends.  While  many  of  the  former 
went  South,  hundreds  of  the  latter  made  their  homes  in  the  North,  where  they 
were  welcomed  and  assisted  in  the  struggle  to  "get  upon  their  feet."  This 
fraternal  mingling  of  former  soldiers  and  the  friendly  exchange  of  visits 
between  Union  and  Confederate  posts  brought  about  true  reconciliation,  despite 
the  wrangles  of  politicians. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1868. 

Before,  however,  this  was  fully  accomplished,  the  presidential  election  of 
1868  took  place.  The  most  popular  hero  in  this  country,  as  in  others,  is  the 
military  one,  and  the  great  value  of  General  Grant's  services  in  the  war  for  the 
Union  made  it  clear,  long  before  the  assembling  of  the  nominating  convention, 
that  he  would  be  the  candidate  of  the  Republican  party.  He  was  unanimously 
named,  with  Schuyler  Colfax,  of  Indiana,  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives,  as  the  nominee  for  Vice-President.  The  Democrats  placed  in 
nomination  Horatio  Seymour,  of  New  York,  and  General  Francis  P.  Blair,  of 
Missouri.  The  result  in  November  was  as  follows:  Republican  ticket,  214 
electoral  votes;  Democratic,  80.  The  election  was  a  striking  proof  of  the 
popularity  of  the  great  soldier. 

Andrew  Johnson  was  hopeful  of  a  nomination  from  the  Democrats,  but 
his  name  was  scarcely  mentioned.  He  lived  in  retirement  for  a  number  of 


THE  EIGHTEENTH  PRESIDENT. 


415 


years,  but  was  elected  United  States  senator  in  1875,  and  he  died  at  his  home 
July  31st  of  that  year. 

THE    EIGHTEENTH    PRESIDENT. 

Ulysses  S.  Grant  had  already 
become  so  identified  with  the  history 
of  our  country  that  little  remains  to 
be  added  to  that  which  has  been  re 
corded.  He  was  born  at  Point 
Pleasant,  Ohio,  April  27, 1822.  Ap 
pointed  to  West  Point,  he  gave  no 
evidence  of  special  brilliancy,  and 
was  graduated  in  1843  with  only  a 
fair  standing.  He  did  good  service 
in  the  war  with  Mexico  and  was  bre- 
vetted  captain,  but  resigned  his  com 
mission  in  1854  and  went  into  busi 
ness,  where  he  attained  only  moderate 
success.  He  was  among  the  first  to 
volunteer  when  the  Civil  War  broke 
out.  The  opportunity  thus  presented 
for  the  full  display  of  his  military 
genius  rapidly  brought  him  to  the 
front,  the  culmination  of  his  career  being  reached  when  he  compelled  the  sur 
render  of  General  Lee  at  Appomattox  Court- 
House  in  April,  1865,  thereby  bringing  the  long 
and  terrible  war  to  a  triumphant  conclusion.  He 
was  a  man  of  simple  tastes,  modest,  but  with  an 
unerring  knowledge  of  his  own  abilities,  thor 
oughly  patriotic,  honest,  chivalrous,  devoted  to 
his  friends,  and  so  trustful  of  them  that  he  re 
mained  their  supporters  sometimes  after  receiving 
proof  of  their  unworthiness.  The  mistakes  of  his 
administration  were  due  mainly  to  this  trait  of 
his  character,  which  it  is  hard  to  condemn  with 
out  reservation. 

The  country  being  fairly  launched  once  more 
on  its  career  of  progress  and  prosperity,  the  gov 
ernment  gained  the  opportunity  to  give  attention  to  matters  which  it  was  com 
pelled  to  pass  by  while  the  war  was  in  progress.  The  first  most  important  step 


ULYSSES  SIMPSON  GRANT. 

(1822-1885.)    Two  terms,  1869-1877. 


MRS.  JULIA  DENT  GRANT. 


416  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JOHNSON  AND    GRANT. 

was  to  call  England  to  account  for  her  help  in  fitting  out  Confederate  privateers, 
when  we  were  in  extremity.  It  required  considerable  tact  and  delicacy  to  get 
the  "  Alabama  Claims,"  as  they  were  termed,  in  proper  form  before  the  British 
authorities,  for  they  felt  sensitive,  but  it  was  finally  accomplished.  The  arbitra 
tion  tribunal  which  sat  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  in  June,  1872,  decreed  that 
England  should  pay  the  United  States  the  sum  of  $15,500,000  because  of  the 
damage  inflicted  by  Confederate  cruisers  upon  Northern  commerce.  The  amount 
was  paid,  and  friendly  relations  between  the  two  countries  were  fully  restored. 

Our  rapid  growth  had  long  since  made  the  building  of  a  railroad  from  the 
East  to  the  Pacific  a  necessity  that  continually  grew  more  urgent.  Construction 
was  begun  as  early  as  1863,  but  the  Civil  War  caused  the  work  to  lag,  and  at 
the  end  of  two  years  only  one  hundred  miles  had  been  graded  and  forty  laid. 
The  progress  then  became  more  vigorous. 

The  road  consisted  of  two  divisions.  The  first  was  from  Omaha,  Nebraska, 
to  Ogden,  Utah,  a  distance  of  1,032  miles,  while  the  western  division,  known  as 
the  Central  Pacific,  covered  the  distance  of  885  miles  between  Ogden  and  San 
Francisco.  Steadily  approaching  each  other,  these  long  lines  of  railway  met  on 
the  10th  of  May,  18(39,  when  the  last  spike,  made  of  solid  gold,  was  driven, 
and  the  two  locomotives,  standing  with  their  pilots  almost  touching,  joined  in  a 
joyous  screech  of  their  whistles.  The  important  event  was  celebrated  with 
much  ceremony,  for  it  was  worthy  of  being  commemorated. 

RECONSTRUCTION    COMPLETED. 

The  vexatious  work  of  reconstruction  was  completed  during  the  early 
months  of  1870.  Virginia  had  held  out  against  the  terms  prescribed  by 
Congress,  but  her  senators  and  representatives  were  admitted  to  their  seats  in 
the  latter  part  of  January;  those  of  Mississippi  in  the  following  month,  and 
those  of  Texas  in  March,  at  which  time  the  secretary  of  State  issued  a  procla 
mation  declaring  the  adoption  of  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution, 
which  guarantees  negro  suffrage.  For  the  first  time  in  almost  twenty  years,  all 
the  States  were  fully  represented  in  Congress. 

THE    CHICAGO    FIRE. 

On  the  8th  of  October,  1871,  Chicago  was  visited  by  the  greatest  conflagra 
tion  of  modern  times,  with  the  single  exception  of  that  of  Moscow.  Like  many 
events,  fraught  with  momentous  consequences,  it  had  a  trifling  cause.  A  cow 
kicked  over  a  lamp  in  a  stable  on  De  Koven  Street,  which  set  fire  to  the  straw. 
A  gale  swiftly  carried  the  flames  into  some  adjoining  lumber  yards  and  frame 
houses.  All  the  conditions  were  favorable  for  a  tremendous  conflagration.  The 
fire  swept  over  the  south  branch  of  the  Chicago  River,  and  raged  furiously  in 


SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NORTHWESTERN  BOUNDARY.  417 

the  business  portion  of  the  city.  The  main  channel  of  the  river  was  leaped  as 
if  it  were  a  narrow  alley,  and  there  were  anxious  hours  when  thousands  believed 
the  whole  city  was  doomed.  As  it  was,  the  fire-swept  district  covered  four  or 
five  miles,  and  fully  20,000  buildings  were  burned.  It  is  believed  that  250  lives 
were  lost,  about  100,000  people  made  homeless,  and  $192,000,000  worth  of 
property  destroyed. 

Chicago's  affliction  stirred  the  sympathy  of  the  whole  country.     Contribu 
tions  were  sent  thither  from  every  State,  and  everything  was  done  to  aid  the 


THE  BURNING  OP  CHICAGO  IN  1871. 

sufferers  who  had  lost  their  all.  With  true  American  pluck,  the  afflicted  people 
bent  to  the  work  before  them.  Night  and  day  thousands  toiled,  and  within  the 
space  of  a  year  a  newer  and  more  magnificent  city  rose  like  a  Phoenix  from  its 
ashes.  Chicago  to-day  is  one  of  the  grandest  and  most  enterprising  cities  in  the 
world. 

SETTLEMENT    OF    THE    NORTHWESTERN    BOUNDARY. 

We  had  made  a  treaty  with  England  in  1846  which  located  the  line  of  our 
northwestern  boundary  along  the  49th  parallel  westward  to  the  middle  of  "the 

27 


418 


yS   OF  JOHNSON  AND   GRANT. 


channel"  separating  the  continent  from  Vancouver's  Island,  and  then  southward 
through  the  middle  of  the  channel  and  of  Fuca's  Strait  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
It  was  found,  however,  there  were  several  channels,  and  it  was  impossible  to 
decide  which  was  meant  in  the  treaty.  The  claim  of  England  included  the 
island  of  San  Juan,  she  insisting  that  the  designated  channel  ran  to  the  south 
of  that  island.  Naturally,  we  took  the  opposite  view  and  were  equally  insistent 
that  the  channel  ran  to  the  north,  and  that  San  Juan,  therefore,  belonged  to  us. 
The  two  nations  displayed  their  good  sense  by  referring  the  dispute  to  arbitra 
tion  and  selected  the  Emperor  of 


Germany   as   the  arbitrator, 
decided  in  1872  in  our  favor. 


He 


PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1872. 

It  was  a  curious  presidential 
election  that  took  place  in  1872. 
The  South  was  bitterly  opposed  to 
the   Kepublican    plan    of    recon 
struction  and  a  good  many  in  the 
North    sympathized    with    them. 
One  of  the  strongest  opponents  of 
Grant's  renomination  was  the  New 
York  Tribune,  of  which    Horace 
Greeley  was  editor.     The  Repub- 
licans  who  agreed  with  him  were 
called     "Liberal      Kepublicans," 
while  the  Straight-out  Democrats 
retained  their  organization.     Nat 
urally,   the   regular    Republicans 
renominated    Grant,    but    Henry 
Wilson,  of  Massachusetts,  took  the 
place  of  Schuyler  Colfax  as  the 
pminee  for  the  Vice-Presidency.     Horace  Greeley,  who  had  spent  his  life  in 
vigorously  fighting  the  principles  of  the  Democratic  party,  was  now  endorsed  by 
that  organization  after  his  nomination  by  the  Liberal  Republicans,  with  B.  Gratz 
Brown,  of  Missouri,  as  his  running  partner. 

The  election    was   a   perfect  jumble.      Eight   candidates  were   voted  for 
President   and   eleven  for  Vice-President.     Grant  received    286   electoral 
votes  and  carried  thirty-one  States.     Greeley  was  so  crushed  by  his  defeat  that 
his  reason  and  died  within  a  month  after  election.     His  electors  scat 
tered  their  votes,  so  that  Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  the  regular  Democratic  candi- 


SECTION    OP    CHICAGO     STOCK-YARDS,    THE 
LARGEST   IN    THE   WORLD. 


THE  MODOC  TROUBLES  419 

date,  received  42 ;  B.  Gratz  Brown,  16  ;  Charles  J.  Jenkins,  2  ;    and  David 
Davis,  1. 

THE    INDIAN    QUESTION. 

The  second  term  of  Grant  was  more  troublous  than  the  first.  The  difficulties 
with  the  Indians,  dating  from  the  first  settlement  in  the  country,  were  still  with 
us.  At  the  suggestion  of  the  President,  a  grand  council  of  delegates  of  the 
civilized  tribes  met  in  December,  1870,  in  the  Choctaw  division  of  the  Indian 
Territory.  The  subject  brought  before  them  was  the  organization  of  a  repub 
lican  form  of  government,  to  be  under  the  general  rule  of  the  United  States. 
A  second  convention  was  held  in  the  following  July  and  a  provisional  govern 
ment  organized.  A  proposal  was  adopted  that  the  United  States  should  set 
aside  large  tracts  of  land  for  the  exclusive  occupancy  and  use  of  the  Indians. 
These  areas  were  to  be  known  as  "  reservations,"  and  so  long  as  the  Indians 
remained  upon  them  they  were  to  be  protected  from  molestation. 

This  scheme  seemed  to  promise  a  settlement  of  the  vexed  question,  but  it 
failed  to  accomplish  what  was  expected.  In  the  first  place,  most  of  the  Indians 
were  unfriendly  to  it.  No  matter  how  large  a  part  of  country  you  may  give  to 
a  red  man  as  his  own,  he  will  not  be  satisfied  without  permission  to  roam  and 
hunt  over  all  of  it. 

A  more  potent  cause  of  trouble  was  the  origin  of  all  the  Indian  troubles, 
from  the  colonial  times  to  the  present :  the  dishonesty  and  rascality  of  the  white 
men  brought  officially  in  contact  with  the  red  men.  Not  only  did  these  mis 
creants  pursue  their  evil  ways  among  the  Indians  themselves,  but  there  was  an 
"  Indian  ring  "  in  Washington,  whose  members  spent  vast  sums  of  money  to  secure 
the  legislation  that  enabled  them  to  cheat  the  savages  out  of  millions  of  dollars. 
This  wholesale  plundering  of  the  different  tribes  caused  Indian  wars  and 
massacres,  while  the  evil  men  at  the  seat  of  the  government  grew  wealthy  and 
lived  in  luxury. 

THE    MODOC   TROUBLES. 

Trouble  at  once  resulted  from  removing  the  Indians  to  reservations  that 
were  inferior  in  every  respect  to  their  former  homes.  The  Modocs,  who  had  only 
a  few  hundred  warriors,  were  compelled  by  our  government  to  abandon  their 
fertile  lands  south  of  Oregon  and  go  to  a  section  which  was  little  better  than  a 
desert.  They  rebelled,  and,  under  the  leadership  of  Captain  Jack  and  Scar- 
faced  Charley,  a  number  took  refuge  among  some  lava  beds  on  the  upper  edge 
of  California.  On  the  llth  of  April,  1873,  a  conference  was  held  between  the 
Indian  leaders  and  six  members  of  the  peace  commission.  While  it  was  in  pro 
gress,  the  savages  suddenly  attacked  the  white  men.  General  Edward  S.  Canbv 
and  Dr.  Thomas  were  instantly  killed,  and  General  Meachem,  another  member, 
was  badly  wounded,  but  escaped  with  his  life. 


420  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JOHNSON  AND    GRANT. 

The  war  against  the  Modocs  was  pushed.  After  much  difficulty  and 
fighting,  they  were  driven  to  the  wall  and  compelled  to  surrender.  Captain 
Jack  and  two  of  his  brother  chiefs  were  hanged  in  the  following  October. 
The  remaining  members  were  removed  to  a  reservation  in  Dakota,  where  they 
have  given  no  further  trouble. 

CIVIL    WAR    IN    LOUISIANA. 

Ill  the  early  part  of  this  year,  civil  war  broke  out  in  Louisiana  because  of 
the  quarrels  over  reconstruction  measures.  The  difficulty  first  appeared  two 
years  earlier,  when  opposing  factions  made  attempts  to  capture  the  Legislature  by 
unseating  members  belonging  to  the  opposing  party.  Matters  became*  so  grave 
that  in  the  following  January  Federal  troops  had  to  be  used  to  preserve  the  peace. 
In  December,  1872,  another  bitter  quarrel  arose  over  the  election  of  the  gov 
ernor  and  members  of  the  Legislature.  The  returning  board  divided,  one  part 
declaring  William  P.  Kellogg  elected,  while  the  other  gave  the  election  to  John 
McEnery,  the  candidate  of  the  white  man's  party.  Most  of  the  negro  vote  had 
been  cast  for  Kellogg. 

As  a  consequence,  two  rival  State  governments  were  organized.  McEnery 
was  enjoined  by  the  United  States  district  court  from  acting,  because,  as  was 
asserted,  the  returning  board  which  declared  him  elected  had  done  so  in  defiance 
of  its  order. 

In  the  face  of  this  prohibition,  McEnery  was  inaugurated.  The  question 
was  referred  to  the  Federal  government,  which  declared  in  favor  of  Kellogg. 
Thereupon  the  McEnery  government  disbanded,  but  in  the  latter  part  of  1874 
McEnery  again  laid  claim  to  election.  D.  P.  Penn,  his  lieutenant-governor,  and 
his  armed  followers  took  possession  of  the  State  House.  A  fight  followed  in 
which  Kellogg  was  driven  from  the  building,  twenty-six  persons  killed  and  a 
large  number  wounded.  Kellogg  appealed  to  Washington  for  help.  McEnery, 
who  was  absent  during  these  violent  proceedings,  now  returned  and  took  the 
place  of  Pen  11.  President  Grant  ordered  his  supporters  to  disperse  and  General 
Emory  forced  McEnery  to  surrender.  The  peace  was  broken  in  January,  1875, 
over  the  election  of  members  to  the  Legislature,  and  the  Federal  troops  were 
again  called  to  restore  order.  A  congressional  committee  was  sent  South  to 
investigate,  and  finally  the  quarrel  was  ended  and  Kellogg  was  recognized  as 
the  legal  governor. 

ADMISSION    OF   COLORADO. 

Colorado  became  the  thirty-eighth  State  in  August,  1876.  The  name  is 
Spanish,  and  refers  to  that  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  noted  for  its  many 
colored  peaks.  Colorado  has  more  than  thirty  peaks  within  its  borders  whose 
height  is  quite  or  nearly  three  miles.  The  wild,  mountainous  region  was 


-  NOTABLE  DEATHS.  421 

explored  in  1858  at  two  points,  one  near  Pike's  Peak  and  the  other  in  the 
southwestern  portion.  Both  exploring  parties  discovered  gold,  which,  while 
abundant,  is  hard  to  extract.  The  Territory  was  organized  in  1861,  and  the 
principal  discoveries  of  the  enormous  deposits  of  silver  have  been  made  since 
1870.  The  date  of  Colorado's  admission  has  caused  it  often  to  be  referred  to  as 
the  "Centennial  State." 

THE    PANIC    OF    1873. 

We  had  learned  the  meaning  of  hard  times  in  1837  and  again  in  1857. 
Once  more,  in  1873,  the  blight  fell  upon  the  country.  There  were  various 
causes,  all  of  which,  in  one  sense,  were  the  war.  Prices  had  become  inflated, 
money  was  plentiful,  and  cities,  towns,  and  people  had  become  extravagant.  A 
mania  seemed  to  seize  municipal  corporations  for  indulging  in  "improvements," 
which  brought  ruinous  debts  upon  the  municipalities.  Enormous  sums  of  money 
were  invested  in  the  building  of  new  railroad  lines  where  the  country  was  not 
developed  sufficiently  to  repay  the  expenditures.  The  quantity  of  goods  brought 
into  this  country  was  much  in  excess  of  that  exported,  a  fact  which  turned  the 
balance  of  trade,  as  it  was  termed,  against  us.  This  required  the  sending 
abroad  of  a  large  amount  of  money. 

As  illustrative  of  the  extravagance  in  railroad  building,  it  may  be  said  that, 
in  the  single  year  1871,  8,000  miles  were  put  in  operation.  Instead  of  using 
ready  money  with  which  to  build  these  lines,  bonds  were  issued  by  the  railroad 
companies,  which  expected  to  pay  the  debts  out  of  the  future  earnings  of  the 
roads.  In  the  course  of  five  years  $1,750,000,000  were  invested  in  railroad 
projects.  The  same  speculative  spirit  pervaded  mining  and  manufacturing 
companies,  which  also  borrowed  money  by  issuing  bonds.  A  great  amount 
of  these  were  sold  abroad,  after  which  the  home  market  was  industriously 
worked  through  the  newspapers,  which  overflowed  with  glowing  promises. 
Thousands  of  poor  widows,  orphans,  and  the  trustees  of  estates  invested  all 
their  scanty  savings  in  these  enterprises. 

Then  the  failures  began.  The  banking  firm  of  Jay  Cooke  &  Company, 
Philadelphia,  one  of  the  greatest  in  the  United  States,  suspended,  and  the  whole 
country  was  alarmed.  Next  came  the  panic,  which  reached  its  height  in 
a  few  months.  This  was  followed  by  dull  times,  when  factories  closed,  and 
multitudes  were  thrown  out  of  employment.  Several  years  passed  before  the 
country  fully  recovered  from  the  panic  of  1873. 


NOTABLE  DEATHS.  —.  - 

Many  noted    men    died    during   those    tir  reservation  in  Dakota. 
patriotic  Edwin  M.  Stan  toi^V'  -trie  United  States  was  one  hundred  years  old. 
1869,  shortly  afo-oeeiY  on  foot  for  several  years  to  give  it  a  fitting  celebration. 


422 


ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  JOHXXOX  AND   GRAXT. 


dent  Grant.  General  R.  E.  Lee,  who  had  become  president  of  the  Washington 
and  Lee  University,  died  at  his  home  in  Lexington,  Virginia,  in  1870.  Among 
others  of  prominence  who  died  in  the  same  year  were  General  George  H. 
Thomas  and  Admiral  Farragut.  In  1872,  William  H.  Seward,  Horace  Greeley, 
Professor  Morse,  and  General  George  H.  Meade  breathed  their  last,  and  in 
the  year  following  Chief  Justice  Chase  and  Charles  Simmer  died.  Millard 
Fillmore  and  Andrew  Johnson,  as  has  been  stated,  died  respectively  in  1874 
and  1875. 

The  Democrats  now  gained  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Representatives  for 


MONUMENT   TO  GENERAL  LEE  AT  RICHMOND,  VIRGINIA. 

the  first  time  since  1860.     Among  the  members  elected  from  the  South  were 
iveral   distinguished    military  leaders   of   the  Southern  Confederacy,  besides 
Alexander  H.  Stephens,  of  Georgia,  who  had  been  its  vice-president. 

It  was  about  this  time  that  gold  was  discovered  among  the  Black  Hills, 

VbKtrpatv  belonged  to  the  Sioux  Indians,  since  the  section  was  within 

Spanish,  and  refers  16  tnat  I|TOFP  w         ,  to  keep  ^       ^  ^  faken 

colored  peaks.     Colorado  has  more  than  thuv,-  the  forbidden  d> 

height   is   quite  or    nearly   three   miles.      Ihe   wild,    i^^«.  .       i  ,        3  ^ 

J  'Old,  and  thou- 


OUSTER'S  MASSACRE. 


423 


F 


sands  of  the  most  desperate  characters  hurried  to  the  BlacK  Hills  and  began 
digging  for  the  yellow  deposit. 

OUSTER'S  MASSACRE. 

The  Sioux  are  fierce  and  warlike.  They  have  given  our  government  a 
oreat  deal  of  trouble,  and,  finding  their  reservation  invaded  by  white  men,  they 
retaliated  by  leaving  it,  burning  houses,  stealing  horses,  and  cattle,  and  killing 
settlers  in  Wyoming  and  Montana. 
Their  outrages  became  so  serious 
that  the  government  sent  a  strong 
military  force  thither  under  Generals 
Terry  and  Crook,  which  drove  a  for 
midable  body  of  warriors  under  the 
well-known  Sitting  Bull  and  others 
toward  the  Big  Horn  Mountains  and 
River. 

Generals  Eeno  and  Custer  rode 
forward  with  the  Seventh  Cavalry  to 
reconnoitre,  and  discovered  the  In- 
.  dians  encamped  in  a  village  nearly 
three  miles  long  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Little  Big  Horn  Eiver.  Custer, 
who  was  an  impetuous,  headlong 
officer,  instantly  charged  upon  the 


waiting 


for    rein- 


GENERAL  GEORGB  CROOK. 


Indians   without 
for  cements. 

This  woful  blunder  was  made 
June  25, 1876.  All  that  is  known  of 
it  has  been  obtained  from  the  Indians 
themselves.  They  agree  that  Custer 
and  his  men  dashed  directly  among 
the  thousands  of  warriors,  and  that 
they  fought  with  desperate  heroism,  but  Custer  and  every  one  of  his 
killed  The  number  was  261.  General  Reno  held  his  position  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  encampment  on  the  bluffs  of  the  Little  Big  Horn  until  reinforcements 
arrived.  Soldiers  were  sent  to  the  neighborhood,  and  there  was  more  sharp 
fighting.  It  was  a  long  time  and  there  was  much  negotiation  necessary  before 
the  Sioux  could  be  persuaded  to  return  to  their  reservation  in  Dakota. 

On  the  4th  of  July,  1876,  the  United  States  was  one  hundred  years  old. 
Preparations  had  been  on  foot  for  several  years  to  give  it  a  fitting  celebration. 


424  ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JOHNSON  AND    GRANT. 

A  bill  was  passed  by  Congress  as  early  as  March,  1871,  providing  that  an  exhi 
bition  of  foreign  and  American  arts,  products,  and  manufactures  should  be  held 
under  the  auspices  of  the  government  of  the  United  States.  A  centennial  com 
mission  was  appointed,  consisting  of  General  Joseph  R.  Hawley,  of  Connecticut ; 
Professor  John  L.  Campbell,  of  Indiana  ;  Alfred  T.  Goshorn,  of  Ohio  ;  and  John 
L.  Shoemaker,  of  Pennsylvania.  Naturally  Philadelphia,  where  the  Declara 
tion  of  Independence  was  written  and  signed,  was  selected  as  the  most  fitting 
place  to  hold  the  celebration.  Fairmount  Park,  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  in 
the  world,  was  set  apart  for  the  buildings. 

The  invitations  sent  to  other  nations  were  courteously  accepted,  the  follow 
ing  being  those  that  took  part :  The  Argentine  Confederation,  Austria,  Belgium, 
Bolivia,  Brazil,  Chile,  China,  Denmark,  Ecuador,  Egypt,  France  (including 
Algeria),  German  Empire,  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  Greece,  Guatemala, 
Hawaii,  Haiti,  Honduras,  Italy,  Japan,  Liberia,  Mexico,  Netherlands,  Nicaragua, 
Norway,  Orange  Free  State,  Persia,  Peru,  Portugal,  Russia,  Siam,  Spain,  Sweden, 
Switzerland,  Tunis,  Turkey,  United  States  of  Colombia,  and  Venezuela. 

To  furnish  room  for  the  display  of  the  myriads  of  articles,  five  principal 
buildings  were  erected,  viz.:  the  Main  Building,  1,876  feet  long  and  464  feet 
wide ;  the  Art  Gallery  or  Memorial  Hall,  Machinery  Hall,  Agricultural  Hall, 
and  Horticultural  Hall.  The  exhibition  was  formally  opened  by  President 
Grant,  May  1st,  and  closed  by  him  six  months  later.  The  daily  attendance 
began  with  about  5,000,  but  rose  to  275,000  toward  the  close.  The  total  number 
of  visitors  was  some  10,000,000,  and  the  total  receipts,  as  officially  given  out, 
were  $3,761,598.  The  exhibition  was  a  splendid  success  in  every  sense. 

THE    PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1876. 

Few  people  to-day  understand  the  danger  through  which  the  country  passed 
in  the  autumn  and  winter  of  1876.  In  June,  the  two  great  political  parties  put 
their  presidential  tickets  in  the  field.  That  of  the  Republicans  was  Rutherford 
B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  and  William  A.  Wheeler,  of  New  York ;  of  the  Democrats, 
Samuel  J.  Tilden,  of  New  York,  and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana.  The 
Independent  Greenback  party  also  nominated  a  ticket,  at  the  head  of  which  was 
the  venerable  philanthropist,  Peter  Cooper,  of  New  York,  with  Samuel  F.  Gary, 
of  Ohio,  the  candidate  for  the  vice-presidency. 

There  was  little  difference  between  the  platforms  of  the  two  leading  parties. 
The  Democrats  declared  for  reform  through  all  the  methods  of  the  administra 
tion.  The  Republicans  were  equally  loud  in  their  calls  for  the  reform  of  every 
political  abuse,  and  for  the  punishment  of  any  and  all  who  made  wrongful  use 
of  political  offices.  They  also  insisted  that  the  rights  of  the  colored  men  should 


THE  PRESIDENTIAL   ELECTION  OF  1876. 


425 


be  safeguarded,  and  denounced  the  doctrine  of  State  sovereignty,  of  which  there 
was  little  to  be  feared,  since  it  had  been  effectually  killed  by  the  war. 

The  Greenbackers  made  considerable  stir.  They  also  used  the  shibboleth 
of  reform,  but  put  the  currency  question  before  all  others.  Although  the  govern 
ment  was  committed  to  the  redemption  of  the  national  legal-tenders  and  bonds 
in  gold,  the  Greenbackers  insisted  that  this  was  impossible,  and  was  also  unjust 
to  the  debtor  class.  They  claimed,  further,  that  it  was  the  duty  of  the  govern 
ment  to  provide  a  national  paper  currency,  based  not  on  specie,  but  on  bonds 
bearing  a  low  rate  of  interest.  The  Republicans  and  Democrats  maintained  that 
the  government  could  not  abrogate  its  promises  of  redeeming  the  currency  and 
bonds  in  gold. 


The  Green 
back  party  polled 
81,740  votes,  the 
Prohibition  9,522, 
and  the  American 
2,636,  none  gain 
ing  an  electoral 
vote.  For  several 
days  after  the  No 
vember  election,  it 
was  generally  be 
lieved  that  the 
Democrats  had 
been  successful, 
though  a  few  Re 
publican  papers,  notably  the  New  York  Times,  persistently  claimed  that  the 
Republican  ticket  had  been  successful. 

There  was  a  dispute  in  four  States.  In  Louisiana,  the  returning  board 
threw  out  the  returns  from  several  parishes  on  the  ground  of  intimidation  and 
fraud,  thereby  placing  4,000  majority  to  the  credit  of  the  Republicans.  The 
Democrats  insisted  that  the  rejected  votes  should  be  counted,  and,  had  it  been 
done,  Tilden  would  have  been  elected. 

In  Soutli  Carolina,  two  bodies  claimed  to  be  the  legal  Legislature  and  both 
canvassed  the  returns,  one  giving  a  plurality  of  800  to  the  Republican  ticket 
and  the  other  a  smaller  majority  to  the  Democratic.  Precisely  the  same  wrangle 
occurred  in  Florida,  where  each  side  claimed  a  majority  of  about  a  hundred. 
Matters  were  still  more  complicated  in  Oregon,  where  a  Republican  elector  was 
declared  ineligible,  because  he  held  the  office  of  postmaster  at  the  time  he  was 


MEMORIAL    HALL    OF    1876. 


426 


ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JOHNSON  AND    GRANT. 


chosen  elector.  The  governor  proposed  to  withhold  the  certificate  from  him 
and  give  it  to  a  Democrat.  Had  everything  claimed  by  the  Republicans  been 
conceded,  they  would  have  had  185  and  the  Democrats  184.  It  was  necessary, 
therefore,  for  the  Republicans  to  maintain  every  point  in  order  to  secure  their 
President,  for  it  was  beyond  dispute  that  Tilden  had  received  184  electoral  votes. 
On  the  popular  vote,  lie  had  4,284,885  to  4,033,950  for  Hayes.  Each  party 
charged  the  other  with  fraud,  and  thousands  of  Democrats  were  so  incensed  at 
what  they  believed  was  a  plot  to  cheat  them  out  of  the  presidency  that  they 
were  ready  to  go  to  war.  Had  they  done  so,  it  would  have  been  the  most  ter 
rible  peril  that  ever  came  upon  the 
Republic,  for  the  war  would  not 
have  been  one  section  against  the 
other,  but  of  neighborhood  against 
neighborhood  throughout  the  land. 

As  if  nothing  in  the  way  of  dis 
cord  should  be  lacking,  the  Senate 
was  Republican  and  the  House 
Democratic.  The  election  being  dis 
puted,  it  fell  to  them  to  decide  the 
question  —  something  they  would 
never  do,  since  they  were  dead 
locked.  This  was  so  apparent  that 
thoughtful  men  saw  that  some  new 
and  extraordinary  means  must  be 
found  to  save  the  country  from  civil 


war. 


SAMUEL  J.   TILDEN 

(1814-1886.) 


Congress,  after  long  and  earnest 
discussion,  passed  a  bill  creating  an 
Electoral  Commission,  to  which  it 
was  agreed  to  submit  the  dispute. 
This  commission  was  to  consist  of 
fifteen  members,  five  to  be  appointed  by  the  House,  five  by  the  Senate,  and  the 
remaining  five  to  consist  of  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

The  Senate  being  Republican,  its  presiding  officer,  the  Vice-President, 
named  three  Republicans  and  two  Democrats ;  the  House  naturally  appointed 
three  Democrats  and  two  Republicans ;  while  of  the  Supreme  Court,  three  were 
Republicans  and  two  Democrats.  This,  it  will  be  noted,  gave  to  the  commission 
eight  Republicans  and  seven  Democrats.  The  body  by  a  strict  party  vote  de 
cided  every  dispute  in  favor  of  the  Republicans,  and  on  the  2d  of  March,  1877, 
two  days  before  inauguration.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  was  decided  President-elect 
of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


OK    HAYKS,   OARKIELD,    AND 
ARTHUR,    1877-18S5. 

E.  B.  Hayes— The  Telephone— Railway  Strikes— Elevated  Railroads— War  with  the  Nez  Perce  Indians 
— Renionetization  of  Silver — Resumption  of  Specie  Payments — A  Strange  Fishery  Award — The 
Yellow  Fever  Scourge — Presidential  Election  of  1 878 — James  A.  Garfield — Civil  Service  Reform — 
Assassination  of  President  Garfield — Chester  A.  Arthur — The  Star  Route  Frauds — The  Brooklyn 
Bridge — The  Chinese  Question — The  Mormons — Alaska  Exploration — The  Yorktown  Centennial — 
Attempts  to  Reach  the  North  Pole  by  Americans — History  of  the  Greely  Expedition. 

THE    NINETEENTH    PRESIDENT. 

RUTHERFORD  BIRCHARD  HAYES  was  born  in  Delaware  County,  Ohio,  Octo 
ber  4, 1822,  and  was  graduated  from 
Kenyon  College  at  the  age  of  twenty 
years.  In  1845  he  completed  his 
legal  studies  at  Harvard  University, 
and  practiced  law,  first  at  Marietta, 
in  his  native  State,  then  at  Fre 
mont,  and  finally  in  Cincinnati.  He 
entered  the  military  service,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war,  as  major,  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  brevet  major- 
general.  His  career  as  a  soldier 
was  creditable.  While  still  in  the 
service,  in  1864,  he  was  elected  to 
Congress,  and  was  governor  of  Ohio 
in  1867,  1869,  and  again  in  1875. 
His  popularity  as  chief  magistrate 
of  one  of  the  leading  States  led  to 
his  nomination  to  the  presidency, 
to  which,  however,  it  must  be  con 
ceded,  he  had  not  a  clear  title. 

TT        -,.      -,  ^  ^v,    .         T  RUTHERFORD   BIRCH ARD 

He  died  at  Fremont,  Ohio,  January  ,I*SM«B.)  one  term,  ISTT-IHM 

17,  1893. 

President  Hayes   proved    his    desire   to  strengthen    the   fraternal    feeling 

(427) 


428  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

between  the  North  and  South  by  appointing  as  a  member  of  his  cabinet  David 
McKey,  his  postmaster-general.  Mr.  McKey  was  from  Tennessee,  and  had  served 
the  Confederacy  during  the  Civil  War.  Hayes'  administration  on  the  whole 
was  uneventful,  though  marked  by  a  number  of  incidents  which  deserve  men 
tion.  It  was  in  1877  that  the  first  telephone  for  business  purposes  was  put  into 
use.  It  connected  the  residence  of  Charles  Williams,  in  Somerville,  Massa 
chusetts,  with  his  business  office  in  Boston,  three  miles  distant.  Alexander 
Bell,  of  the  latter  city,  was  the  inventor  of  the  instrument,  which  is  now  in 
general  use  throughout  the  country,  and  serves  to  connect  points  more  than  a 
thousand  miles  apart. 

RAILWAY    STRIKES. 

In  the  summer  of  1877  occurred  one  of  the  most  violent  outbreaks  among 
labor  men  that  has  ever  been  known  in  this  country.  There  was  unrest  in  the 
mining  districts  over  the  question  of  wages,  and  the  dissatisfaction  spread  to  the 
principal  manufacturing  points.  When  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  made 
a  reduction  of  10  per  cent,  in  the  pay  of  its  employees  it  was  followed,  July 
14th,  by  a  partial  strike  on  their  line.  The  men  had  the  sympathy  of  workmen 
throughout  the  country,  and  the  strike  spread  to  the  Pennsylvania,  Erie,  New 
York  Central,  and  their  western  connections,  including  the  Missouri  and  Pacific, 
and  a  number  of  less  important  lines  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Engineers  is  one  of  the  most  intelligent 
and  conservative  labor  organizations  in  the  country.  It  has  won  the  respect  of 
corporations  as  well  as  of  the  community-at-large  by  its  fairness  and  its  refusal 
to  engage  in  strikes,  except  as  a  last  resort  against  grievances.  Its  members  are 
located  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  include  a  good  many  thousands.  In  the 
strike  named  the  Brotherhood  took  the  lead,  and  the  firemen,  brakemen,  and 
other  railroad  employees  joined  them.  The  result  was  the  stoppage  of  the  wheels 
of  commerce  and  the  ruin  of  vast  amounts  of  perishable  freight,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  expensive  delays  of  all  kinds.  The  railroad  companies  called  upon  the 
various  State  authorities  for  protection  in  operating  their  lines,  but,  as  is  gen 
erally  the  case,  the  militia  were  either  in  sympathy  with  the  strikers  or  were 
afraid  of  them.  As  a  final  resort,  an  appeal  was  made  to  the  United  States 
government,  whose  soldiers  understand  only  one  duty,  that  of  obeying  orders. 

The  strikers  stopped  all  trains  in  Baltimore  and  Martinsburg,  West  Vir 
ginia,  and  defied  the  authorities.  The  militia  were  scattered,  but  a  few  regulars 
were  sufficient  to  raise  the  blockade.  On  the  20th  of  July,  in  an  attempt  of  the 
rioters  to  resist  the  clearing  of  the  streets  in  Baltimore,  nine  persons  were  killed 
and  a  score  wounded.  The  strike  extended  until  it  included  the  whole  country, 
with  the  exception  of  the  cotton-growing  States. 

The  most  dangerous  outbreak  was  in  Pittsburg,  where  an  immense  mob 


THE  NEZ  PERCE  WAR.  429 

held  control  of  the  city  for  two  days.  Disorder  and  violence  reigned,  and  the 
authorities  were  powerless.  When  on  the  21st  soldiers  appeared  on  the  streets 
they  were  assailed  with  stones  and  pistol-shots,  and  they  replied  with  several 
volleys  which  killed  and  wounded  a  number  of  rioters.  This  only  added  fuel 
to  the  flames,  and  the  mob  became  more  savage  than  ever.  The  soldiers  were 
attacked  so  furiously  that  they  ran  into  a  roundhouse  of  the  railway  company 
for  protection.  There  they  were  besieged,  and  oil  cars  were  rolled  against  the 
building  and  fired  with  the  purpose  of  burning  the  soldiers  to  death.  The  fire 
men  were  not  allowed  to  put  out  the  flames,  and  it  was  several  days  before  the 
defenders  were  rescued. 

The  infuriated  mob  applied  the  torch  to  the  buildings  of  the  railroad  com 
pany,  gutted. cars,  scattered  or  carried  off  the  contents,  burst  open  and  drank 
barrels  of  whiskey,  and  raged  like  so  many  wild  beasts.  Before  the  terrific  out 
break  subsided,  the  Union  Depot  and  all  the  machine  shops  and  railway  build 
ings  in  the  city  were  burned.  Among  the  losses  were  126  locomotives  and 
2,500  cars  laden  with  valuable  freight.  The  regular  troops  finally  subdued  the 
rioters,  but  not  until  a  hundred  people  had  been  killed  and  property  destroyed 
to  the  value  of  five  million  dollars. 

There  was  rioting  accompanied  with  violence  in  Chicago,  Buffalo,  Colum 
bus,  Ohio,  and  at  many  other  points.  In  Chicago,  on  the  26th  of  July,  nine 
teen  persons  were  killed.  St.  Louis  was  disturbed,  but  there  was  no  special  out 
break.  In  San  Francisco  a  savage  attack  was  made  on  the  Chinese  and  the 
managers  of  the  lumber  yards.  At  one  period,  on  6,000  miles  of  railroad  not 
a  wheel  was  turned,  and  100,000  laborers  were  idle  or  assisting  in  the  rioting. 
Such  violent  ebullitions  soon  expend  themselves.  By-and-by  the  men  began 
returning  to  their  work,  and  within  two  or  three  weeks  all  the  railroads  were 
operating  as  usual. 

About  this  time  the  elevated  railway  system  was  adopted  in  New  York 
City.  It  has  proved  so  convenient  that  many  lines  have  been  added  in  the 
metropolis,  and  the  same  means  of  travel  is  used  in  other  cities,  though  of  late 
years  electric  trolley  cars  have  been  widely  introduced. 

THE    NEZ    PERCE    WAR. 

When  Lewis  and  Clarke  journeyed  across  the  upper  part  of  our  country,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  century,  they  made  a  treaty  with  the  Nez  Perce  Indians, 
whose  home  was  in  the  northwest.  They  were  visited  afterward  by  missionaries, 
and  no  trouble  occurred  with  them  until  after  our  war  with  Mexico.  A  large 
section  of  their  land  was  bought  by  the  United  States  government  in  1854,  and 
a  reservation  was  set  apart  for  them  in  northwestern  Idaho  and  northeastern 
Oregon.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Seminoles  of  Florida  however,  many  of  the  chiefs 


430  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

were  opposed  to  the  sale  of  their  lands,  and,  when  the  date  came  for  their  depar 
ture,  refused  to  leave. 

Chief  Joseph  of  the  Nez  Perces  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  Indians  of 
the  century.  He  was  shrewd,  sagacious,  brave,  and  remarkably  intelligent. 
General  Wesley  Merritt,  of  the  United  States  army,  has  pronounced  his  military 
genius  of  the  highest  order,  and,  in  the  incidents  we  are  about  to  narrate,  his 
exploit  in  its  way  has  never  been  surpassed.  A  good  many  people  will  recall 
seeing  Joseph  at  the  ceremonies  at  the  tomb  of  General  Grant  in  1897,  where 
his  line  military  appearance  attracted  much  attention. 

In  1877,  General  Howard,  commanding  the  department  of  the  Columbia, 
marched  against  the  troublesome  Nez  Perces  with  a  small  force  of  regulars. 
Being  too  weak  to  light  the  soldiers,  Chief  Joseph,  at  the  head  of  his  band, 
rej>eatedly  eluded  them  with  masterly  skill.  This  strange  chase  continued  for 
hundreds  of  miles,  Joseph  keeping  his  women,  children,  and  impedimenta  not 
only  intact,  but  beyond  reach  of  the  pursuers,  who  were  filled  with  admiration 
of  his  genius.  In  the  autumn  of  1877,  the  Nez  Perces  passed  through  the  moun 
tains  of  northern  Montana,  where  they  were  confronted  by  Colonel  Miles  and 
the  regulars.  Even  then  Joseph  could  not  be  brought  to  battle,  and  crossed  the 
Missouri  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mussel  Shell.  In  the  Bear  Paw  Mountains, 
however,  his  camp  was  surrounded  and  he  was  brought  to  bay.  The  Nez 
Perces  fought  with  great  bravery,  but  were  defeated.  Joseph  faced  the  inevit 
able,  and,  walking  forward  to  where  General  Howard  was  sitting  on  his  horse, 
handed  him  his  rifle.  Then,  pointing  to  the  sun  in  the  sky,  he  said:  "  From 
where  the  sun  is  in  yonder  heavens,  I  fight  the  white  man  no  more." 

General  Howard  admired  the  valiant  and  chivalrous  warrior,  who  had 
conducted  his  campaign  not  only  with  rare  skill,  but  without  any  of  the  out 
rages  and  cruelties  which  seem  natural  to  the  American  race.  He  took  his 
hand,  and  promised  to  be  his  friend.  General  Howard  was  able  to  keep  his 
promise,  and  secured  such  a  favorable  location  for  Joseph  and  his  band  that 
they  have  been  peaceable  and  satisfied  ever  since. 

REMONETIZATION    OF   SILVER. 

The  money  or  currency  question  has  long  been  a  disturbing  factor  in  poli 
tics.  During  the  war  the  silver  currency  had  been  out  of  circulation,  its  place 
being  taken  for  awhile  by  postage  stamps  and  afterward  by  "  shinplasters,"  which 
were  paper  fractional  parts  of  a  dollar.  In  1873,  Congress  made  gold  the  exclu 
sive  money  standard.  Silver  depreciated  some  ten  per  cent.,  and  the  "  hard 
money  "  people  opposed  the  measures  that  were  set  on  foot  to  remonetize  silver ; 
that  is,  to  bring  it  into  circulation  again.  Such  a  bill  was  passed,  then  vetoed 
by  the  President,  promptly  repassed  over  his  veto,  and  it  was  ordered  that  the 


THE  FISHERY  AWARD. 


431 


coinage  of  silver  should  proceed  at  a  rate  not  to  exceed  $2,000,000  a  month. 
About  this  time  (December  18,  1878),  gold  and  paper  money  for  the  first  time 
in  seventeen  years  was  of  equal  value. 

In  accordance  with  the  law  of  1875,  specie  payments  by  the  United  States 
government  was  effected  January  1,  1879.  At  that  time  there  was  an  accumu 
lation  of  $138,000,000  in  ^ 
the  United  States  treas 
ury,  nearly  all  of  it  gold, 
representing  forty  per 
cent,  of  the  outstanding 
bonds.  The  mere  knowl- 
edge  of  this  fact  so 
strengthened  the  public 
credit  that,  instead  of  the 
anticipated  rush  on  the 
1st  of  January,  only  $11,- 
000,000  was  offered  for 
redemption.  The  prob 
lem  of  specie  payment 
proved  to  be  a  bugbear. 

THE   FISHERY   AWARD. 

By  the  treaty  of 
Washington,  signed  in 
1872,  Americans  were  al 
lowed  to  take  fish  of 
every  kind,  except  shell 
fish,  on  the  seacoasts  and 
shores  and  in  the  bays, 
harbors,  and  creeks  of  the 
provinces  of  Quebec, 
Nova  Scotia,  New  Bruns 
wick,  Prince  Edward's  Is 
land,  and  the  adjacent  is 
lands,  without  restriction  as 

to  the  distance  from  shore.  In  return  for  this  privilege,  our  government  agreed  to 
charge  a  duty  upon  certain  kinds  of  fish  brought  by  British  subjects  into  Ameri 
can  harbors.  There  were  other  mutual  concessions,  and,  in  order  to  balance 
matters  and  make  everything  smooth,  the  whole  question  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  an  arbitration  commission,  which  began  its  sessions  in  the  summer  of 


GRANT  AT   WINDSOR   CASTLE. 


432  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

1877,  at  Halifax.  The  commission  included  a  member  appointed  by  the  Queen, 
one  by  the  President,  and  the  third  by  the  Austrian  ambassador  at  the  Court  of 
St.  James.  Our  country  was  astounded  by  the  verdict  of  this  commission,  whwh 
was  that  the  United  States  should  pay  the  sum  of  $5,000,000  to  the  British 
government.  Even  England  was  surprised,  and  our  government  was  disposed 
to  refuse  to  accept  the  verdict;  but  to  do  that  would  have  established  a  bad  pre 
cedent,  and  the  sum  named  was  paid  to  Great  Britain  in  the  autumn  of  1878. 

THE   YELLOW   FEVER   SCOURGE. 

Yellow  fever  has  been  one  of  the  most  dreadful  scourges  that  our  country 
has  suffered.  It  first  appeared  on  this  continent  in  1780,  when  Boston  was 
ravaged  in  the  summer  of  that  year.  It  afterward  appeared  in  New  fork  and 
Philadelphia,  especially  in  1793  and  1797,  after  which  its  visitations  have  been 
mainly  confined  to  the  South,  where  the  sanitation  measures  have  been  less 
rigid  than  in  the  North.  It  has  been  proven  that  strict  quarantine  and  abso 
lute  cleanliness  are  safeguards  against  its  entrance,  though,  after  the  frightful 
plague  has  once  appeared  in  a  place,  it  is  impossible  to  stamp  it  out.  It  sub 
sides  before  the  approach  of  frost  and  cold  weather,  and  the  cure  for  those 
smitten  is  to  carry  them  to  cool  elevations.  Thus  far  science  has  not  been  able 
to  discover  the  real  nature  of  yellow  fever,  nor  to  provide  a  remedy.  It  has 
been  established,  however,  that  it  is  due  to  bacilli  or  disease  germs,  as  is  the 
case  with  cholera,  consumption,  and  many  other  diseases,  and  there  is  reason  to 
believe  a  specific  remedy  will  soon  be  brought  to  light. 

One  of  the  most  destructive  visitations  of  yellow  fever  was  in  the  summer 
and  autumn  of  1873.  Memphis  and  New  Orleans  suffered  the  most,  and  at 
one  time  those  cities  were  abandoned  by  all  who  could  leave  them.  Other  por 
tions  of  the  country  contributed  every  possible  assistance  in  the  way  of  medical 
help,  nurses,  and  money,  but  before  the  scourge  was  extirpated  by  cool  weather 
fully  15,000  persons  had  succumbed. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION   OF    1878. 

The  Republican  National  Convention  was  held  in  Chicago  at  the  opening 
of  June.  As  General  Grant  had  returned  from  his  memorable  tour  round  the 
world,  having  been  received  everywhere  with  the  highest  honors,  a  determined 
effort  was  now  made  to  renominate  him  for  a  third  term.  Roscoe  Conkling, 
United  States  senator  from  New  York,  was  the  leader  in  the  movement,  and  the 
whole  number  of  Grant's  supporters  was  306,  who  without  a  break  cast  their 
vote  for  him  thirty-six  times  in  succession.  They  failed  because  of  the  wide 
spread  opposition  to  any  man  holding  the  exalted  office  for  a  longer  period  than 
Washington,  the  Father  of  his  Country. 


PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION  OF  1878. 


433 


The  pnncipal  rivals  of  General  Grant  were  James  G.  Elaine,  of  Maine,  and 
John  Sherman,  of  Ohio.  There  being  a  deadlock,  the  supporter,  of  these  two 
candidates  united  and  thereby  nominated  James  A.  Garfield,  of  Ohio  with 
Chester  A.  Arthur,  of  New  York,  as  the  nominee  for  Vice-President 


1 


GRANT  IN  JAPAN. 


The  Democratic  Convention,  which  met  in  Cincinnati  in  the  latter  part  of 
June,  placed  in  nomination  General  Winfield  8.  Hancock,  of  Xew  York,  and 
William  H.  English,  of  Indiana.  The  prospect  of  Hancock's  election  was 

28 


434  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

excellent,  but  he  destroyed  it  by  one  of  those  unfortunate  expressions  which  more 
than  once  have  defeated  candidates  for  high  office.  When  questioned  con- 
cerning  the  tariff  he  expressed  the  opinion  that  it  was  a  "local  issue,"  a  remark 
which  many  accepted  as  displaying  ignorance  of  the  important  subject,  and 
they,  therefore,  voted  against  him.  The  result  was  as  follows:  James  A. 
Gartield  and  Chester  A.  Arthur,  214  electoral  votes;  W.  S.  Hancock  and  W.  H. 
English,  loo;  Jaine*  B.  Weaver  and  B.  J  Chambers,  the  Greenback  candidates, 

received  307,306  popular  votes;  Neal 
Dow  and  H.  A.  Thompson,  the 
Prohibition,  10,305;  and  John  W. 
Phelps  and  S.  C.  Pomeroy,  Ameri 
can,  707;  but  none  of  the  three 
secured  an  electoral  vote. 

James  A.  Garfield  was 
born  at  Orange,  Cuyahoga 
County,  Ohio,  November 
19,  1831.  While  he  was 
an  infant  his  father  died 
and  he  was  left  to  the  care 
of  his  noble  mother,  to 
whom  he  was  devotedly 
attached. 

Garfield  spent  his  boy 
hood  in  the  backwoods,  and 
at  one  time  was  the  driver 
of  a  canal-boat.  He  became 
strong,  rugged,  and  a  fine 
athlete,  and  at  the  same 
time  obtained  the  rudiments 


of  an  English  education. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
attended  the  high  school 
at  Chester,  and  by  hard  study  acquired  an  excellent  knowledge  of  Latin,  Greek, 
and  algebra.  He  was  a  student  at  Hiram  College,  and  became  an  instructor 
in  1854.  The  same  year  he  entered  Williams  College,  from  which  he  was 
graduated  with  honor  in  1856.  He  returned  to  Ohio,  and  was  appointed  a 
professor  in  Hiram  College.  He  indulged  his  taste  for  politics  and  law,  and 
served  for  a  time  in  the  State  Senate,  but  was  president  of  the  college  when 
the  war  broke  out.  He  at  once  volunteered,  and  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel 
and  afterward  colonel  of  the  Forty-second  Regiment  of  Ohio  Volunteers. 


THE  BOY   JAMES   GARFIELD   BRINGING  HIS  FIRST 
DAY'S   EARNINGS   TO   HIS  MOTHER 


CIVIL  SERVICE  REFORM. 


435 


Gartield  displayed  remarkable  ability  in  the  military  service,  and  had  he 
remained  would  have  won  high  distinction.  As  a  brigadier-general  he  did  fine 
work  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  He  was  chief-of-staff  to  General  Rosecrans, 
and  showed  great  gallantry  in  the  tremendous  battle  of  Chickamauga.  He  was 
in  the  field  when  elected  to  Congress  in  1802.  His  desire  was  to  remain,  but,  at 
the  personal  request  of  President  Lincoln,  he  entered  Congress,  where  it  was  felt 
his  help  was  needed  in  the  important  legislation  before  the  country.  The  estimate 
in  which  he  was  held  by  his  fellow-citizens  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  served 
as  a  member  of  Congress  for  seventeen  years.  In  1879  he  was  chosen  United 
States  senator,  but  did  not  take  his  p 
seat  because  of 
the  presidency. 


his  nomination  for 


CIVIL   SERVICE    REFORM. 

The  question  of  "  civil  service 
reform,"  as  it  is  termed,  assumed 
prominence  during  the  term  of  Hayes. 
This,  as  all  understand,  means  that 
the  public  offices  should  be  filled 
not  in  accordance  with  politics,  but 
be  determined  by  fitness.  The 
charge  has  been  made  with  reason 

o 

that,  Avhen  public  servants  have  be 
come  skilled  in  the  discharge  of 
their  duties,  they  are  turned  out 
to  make  room  for  the  friends  of  the 
new  administration,  where  politics 
are  different.  In  thftt  way  public 
service  is  injured. 

The  opponents  of  civil  service  re 
form  maintain,  on  the  other  hand,  that 

there  are  thousands  out  of  office  who  are  just  as  capable  as  those  in  office,  and  that 
the  party  ought  to  reward  those  that  have  helped  it  to  success.  "To  the  victor 
belong  the  spoils"  was  the  policy  of  Andrew  Jackson,  and  it  has  been  followed 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree  ever  since.  The  cry  of  civil  service  reform  was  long 
a  well-sounding  motto  with  which  to  catch  votes,  but  no  serious  effort  was  made 
to  enforce  it.  Hayes  tried  his  hand,  but  the  clamor  for  political  rewards  was  so 
insistent  that  he  gave  it  up,  and  matters  dropped  back  into  their  old  ruts.  The 
vexatious  question  was  inherited  by  Garfield,  and  the  hope  was  general  that  he 


JAMES    A.   GARFIELD. 

1 1831-1881.)    One  partial  term,  iv» 


436  HA  r/;s,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

would  not  only  make  a  determined  effort,  but  would  succeed  in  carrying  out  the 
principles  of  real  civil  service  reform. 

The  task  soon  proved  beyond  the  capacity  of  himself  or  any  human  being. 
It  seemed  as  if  netirl  v  every  man  in  the  country  had  been  the  deciding  factor,  in 
the  election  of  the  President,  while  the  "original  Garfield  man  would  have 
formed  a  full  regiment.  The  executive  threw  up  his  hands,  and  decided  to  pass 
over  the  plague  to  the  next  administration. 

The  quarrel  produced  a  split  in  the  Republican  party  itself,  and  two  wings 
formed,  known  as  "  Half-breed*  "  and  «  Stalwarts."     At  the  head  of  the 

latter  was  the  brilliant  New  York 
senator,  Roscoe  Conkling,  who  had 
been  so  persistent  in  his  efforts  to 
renominate  General  Grant  for  a 
third  term.  The  leader  of  the 
Half-breeds  was  James  G.  Elaine,  as 
brilliant  as  Conkling,  while  both 
were  strong  personal  opponents. 
The  Stalwarts  claimed  the  right  of 
dividing  the  offices,  as  had  been  the 
custom  for  a  century,  the  senators 
and  representatives  apportioning  the 
plums  among  the  horde  of  claim 
ants.  The  President  was  supported 
by  the  Half-breeds  in  his  claim  that 
it  was  his  province  to  bestow  these 
gifts  as  he  saw  fit. 

The  collectorship  of  the  port  of 
New  York  is  one  of  the  best  offices 
at  the  disposal  of  the  administration. 
The  President  nominated  Judge 
William  Robertson.  He  was  per 
sonally  distasteful  to  Conkling,  and,  when  he  found  himself  unable  to  pre 
vent  his  confirmation  by  the  Senate,  he  and  Thomas  C.  Platt,  the  junior  sena 
tor  from  New  York,  resigned  their  seats.  Both  afterward  sought  and  failed  to 
secure  a  re-election  from  the  Legislature.  Congress  adjourned  in  June. 

ASSASSINATION    OF    PRESIDENT    GARFIELD. 

Relieved  from  the  pressure  of  his  duties,  the  President  now  made  his 
arrangements  for  placing  his  two  sons  in  Williams  College  and  joining  his 
invalid  wife  at  the  seashore.  On  the  2d  of  July,  1881,  accompanied  by  Secre- 


AGBD  MOTHER  OF   PRESIDENT 
GARFIELD. 


ASSASSINATION  OF  PRESIDENT  GAREIELD. 


437 


tary  Elaine  and  several  friends,  he  rode  to  the  Baltimore  Railroad  station  to  board 
the  cars.  He  had  just  entered  the  building  and  was  chatting  with  his  secretary, 
when  a  miscreant  named  Charles  Julias  Guiteau  stepped  up  behind  him  and  shot 
him  with  a  pistol  in  the  back.  The  wounded  President  sank  to  the  floor  and 
was  carried  to  the  executive  mansion,  while  the  assassin  was  hurried  to  prisofi 
before  he  could  be  lynched,  as  he  assuredly  would  have  been  but  for  such 
prompt  action  by  the  authorities. 

The  shock  to  the  country  was  scarely  less  than  when  Abraham  Lincoln 
was  shot  in  Ford's  Theatre.  Although  the  wound  of  the  President  was  severe, 
it  was  not  be 
lieved  to  be 
ne  ce  ss  aril  v 
fatal.  He  re- 
c  e  i  v  e  d  the 
best  medical 
attention,  and 
prayers  for  his 
recovery  were 
sent  up  from 
every  quarter 
of  the  land  and 
across  the  sea. 
Daily  bulletins 
of  his  condition 
were  issued 
and  messages 
o  f  sympathy 
were  received 
from  many 
crowned  heads 

on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic.  The  sufferer  was  removed  on  the  6th  of  Sep 
tember  to  Elberon,  New  Jersey,  where  it  was  hoped  the  invigorating  sea-air  would 
bring  back  strength  to  his  wasted  frame.  These  hopes  were  vain,  and,  on  the 
19th  of  September,  he  quietly  breathed  his  last.  It  may  be  noted  that  this  date 
was  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Ciiickamauga,  where  General  Garfield  per 
formed  his  most  brilliant  service  in  the  war.  Amid  universal  expressions  of 
sympathy  the  remains  were  borne  to  Cleveland,  where  a  line  monument  has 
been  erected  to  his  memory. 

Guiteau  was  a  miserable  "  crank,"  who  had  long  dogged  the  President  for 
an  appointment,  failing  to  obtain  which  he  shot  him.     That  his  brain  was  partly 


ASSASSINATION  OF  PRESIDENT   GABPIE"LD. 


HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

awry,  with  perhaps  a  taint  of  insanity,  cannot  be  questioned,  but,  none  the  less, 
it  was  shown  that  he  clearly  knew  the  difference  between  right  and  wrong  and 
was  morally  responsible  for  his  unspeakable  crime.  He  was  given  a  fair  trial, 
and,  having  been  found  guilty,  was  hanged  on  the  30th  of  June,  1882. 

THE    TWENTY-FIRST    PRESIDENT. 

Chester  Alan  Arthur,  who  was  immediately  sworn  in  as  President,  was 
born  in  Vermont,  October  5,  1830.  He  received  his  education  at  Union 
College,  from  which  he  was  graduated  in  1849.  He  taught  school  for  a  time 
in  his  native  State,  and  then  removed  to  the  City  of  New  York,  where  he 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  His  ability  speedily  brought  him 
to  the  front  and  gave  him  a  lucrative  practice.  He  was  quartermaster-general 

of  the  State  of  New  York  during  the  war  and 
displayed  fine  executive  ability.  When  the  war 
ended,  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law  and  was 
made  collector  of  customs  for  the  port  of  New 
York  in  1871.  Seven  years  later  he  was  re 
moved  by  President  Hayes,  and  shortly  after  he  en 
tered  the  presidential  canvass  of  1880.  He  died 
November  18,  1886. 

Arthur  took  the  oath  of  office  in  New  York, 
on  the  day  succeeding  the  death  of  Garfield,  and 
left  at  once  for  Washington.  Chief  Justice  Waite 
administered  the  oath  again  to  him  in  the  vice- 

TABLET     IN     THE      WAITING-  >  i       ±1  A  ,1  r-( 

BOOM    OF    THE    RAILWAY  president  s  room.     Among  those  present  were  Gen- 


, 

Mil  t   \»M 


GARFIELD  eral  Grant,  General  Sherman,  Senator  Sherman, 
and  ex-President  Hayes. 

While  President  Arthur  showed  slight  disposition  to  change  the  policy  of 
the  administration,  he  inherited  many  vexatious  matters  from  his  predecessor. 
One  of  the  worst  of  these  was  the  "  Star  Route  Frauds." 

The  rapid  settlement  of  the  West  naturally  created  a  demand  for  improved 
mail  facilities.  In  a  number  of  places,  fast  mail  routes  had  been  organized  by 
the  postoffice  department,  and  these  were  designated  on  the  official  documents 
by  the  figures  of  stars.  The  authorized  expenditures  of  the  postoffice  depart 
ment  were  clearly  defined,  but  a  clause  in  the  law  permitted  it  to  "  expedite  " 
such  routes  as  proved  to  be  inefficient.  This  opened  the  door  for  fraud,  and,  as 
is  always  the  case,  it  lost  no  time  in  entering. 

The  contracts  were  let  at  the  legal  rates,  and  then,  availing  themselves  of 
the  legal  authority,  the  same  routes  were  "  expedited  "  at  immense  profits.  The 
money  thus  stolen — and  it  amounted  to  immense  sums — was  divided  among  the 


THE  CHINESE. 


parties  letting  the  contracts  and  the  contractors.  Stephen  W.  Dorsey,  John  W. 
Dorsey,  and  Thomas  J.  Brady — formerly  second-assistant  postmaster-general — 
were  indicted  for  a  conspiracy  to  defraud  the  government  and  enrich  themselves. 
All  were  prominent  politicians,  and  their  trial  attracted  national  attention.  Al 
though  the  testimony  seemed  to  establish  the  guilt  of  the  parties  accused,  all 
three  escaped,  the  miscarriage  of  justice  causing  a  qualm  of  disgust  and  indig 
nation  among  right-minded  citizens. 

One  of  the  famous  structures  in  the  country  is  the  Brooklyn  Bridge,  which 
was  completed  and  opened  for  traffic  May  24,  1883.  Operations  on  it  were 
begun  January  3,  1870,  and  the 
towers  were  finished  six  years  later. 
The  first  wire  reaching  from  tower 
to  tower  was  strung  August  14, 
1876.  Each  of  the  four  cables  con 
tains  5,296  wires,  untwisted,  lying 
straight,  and  held  in  place  by  other 
wires  coiled  tightly  around  them. 
The  length  of  the  main  span  is 
l,595i  feet;  the  two  land  spans  are 
930  feet  each ;  the  masonry  ap 
proach  on  the  New  York  side  is 
1,562  feet  long,  and  that  on  the 
Brooklyn  side  971  feet,  The  total 
distance,  therefore,  is  about  6,000 
feet,  or  more  than  a  mile.  The 
middle  of  the  main  span  is  about 
135  feet  above  the  water  in  summer, 
and  in  winter,  owing  to  the  con 
traction  caused  by  cold,  it  is  three 
feet  more.  Tiie  height  is  such  that 
nearly  any  ship  can  pass  under  the 
bridge  without  lowering  its  top-mast.  Twenty  persons  were  killed  during  the 
construction  of  the  bridge.  Although  the  day  was  inclement  and  unfavorable, 
the  opening  of  the  structure  to  travel  was  attended  with  many  ceremonies,  in 
cluding  civic  and  military  processions,  oratory,  salutes  by  naval  vessels,  and 
illuminations  and  fireworks  in  the  evening. 

THE    CHINESE. 

The  State  of  California,  on  account  of  its  situation,  received  thousands  of 
Chinese  immigrants  every  year  from  across  the  Pacific.     These  people  live  so 


CHESTER  ALAN   ARTHUR 
(1830-1836.)    One  partial  term,  issi-istfo 


440 


HA  YES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 


meanly  that  they  could  afford  to  work  for  wages  upon  which  a  white  man  would 
starve.  Consequently  they  crowded  out  other  laborers  and  caused  so  much  dis 
content  that  something  in  the  nature  of  a  revolt  took  place  against  them.  The 
grievance  of  the  Californians  was  so  well-founded  that  Congress,  while  Hayes 
was  President,  passed  a  bill  which  forbade  the  immigration  of  Chinese  laborers  to 
this  country,  and  requiring  those  already  here  to  take  out  certificates,  if  they  left 
the  United  States,  so  as  to  identify  themselves  before  being  allowed  to  return. 
President  Hayes  vetoed  the  bill,  but  it  was  passed  in  1882.  The  amazing 


THE   BROOKLYN 


ingenuity  of  the  Chinese  has  enabled  them  to  evade  the  law  in  many  instances, 
but  their  immigration  was  substantially  checked.  Probably  there  is  no  more 
degraded  community  on  the  face  of  the  earth  than  the  part  in  San  Francisco 
known  as  "  Chinatown."  Most  of  the  yellow  celestials  live  underground,  where 
their  unspeakable  villainies  are  a  flaming  reproach  to  the  authorities  that  permit 
them. 

THE    MORMONS. 

The  Mormons  proved  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  the  body  politic.     Their  polyg 
amous  practices  led  to  the  passage  in  1882  of  Senator  Edmunds'  bill  which 


EXPLORATION  OF  ALASKA. 


441 


excluded  polygamists  from  holding  office.  A  good  many  persons  were  convicted 
and  sentenced  for  violation  of  the  law,  which  was  upheld  by  the  Supreme  Court. 
While  this  legislation  did  much  to  abate  the  crime,  it  cannot  be  said  that 
it  effectually  ended  it,  for,  at  this  writing,  one  of  the  representatives  from  the 
new  State  of  Utah  is  the  husband  of  several  wives,  and  it  is  apparent  that  still 
more  severe  legislation  will  be  required  to  stamp  out  the  evil. 

EXPLORATION   OF   ALASKA. 

Attention  was  so  generally  directed  toward  Alaska,  our  recent  purchase 


SCENE  IN   CHINATOWN,  SAN  FRANCISCO. 

from  Eussia,  that  an  exploring  expedition  visited  that  country  in  1883,  under 
the  command  of  Lieutenant  Frederick  Schwatka.  It  should  be  stated  that  the 
party,  which  was  a  small  one,  went  thither  without  authority  from  the  govern 
ment,  its  departure  from  Portland,  Oregon,  May  22d,  being  secret.  It  was  gone 
for  several  months,  and  brought  back  interesting  and  valuable  information. 
One  bit  of  knowledge  was  new.  The  explorers  learned  that  the  length  of  the 
great  river  Yukon  is  2,044  miles,  which  makes  it  the  third  in  length  in  the 
United  States,  the  fourth  in  North  America,  the  seventh  in  the  western  hemb- 


440  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

phere,  and  the  seventeenth  in  the  world.     The  area  drained  by  this  immense 

stream  is  200,000  square  miles. 

THE    YORKTOWX    CENTENNIAL. 

We  have  learned  of  the  centennial  celebration  of  the  birth  of  our  republic 
in  Philadelphia.     Many  other  celebrations  of  important  events  were  held  in  di 
ferent  parts  of  the  coumrv,  the  most  important  of  which  was  the  commemoration 
of  the  great  victory  at  Yorktown,  which  brought  the  Revolution  to  a  close  and 
secured  the  independence  of  our  country. 

As  was  befitting  preparations  were  made  on  a  grand  scale  for  this  celebra 
tion  '  Thousands  journeyed  thither  days  before  the  exercises  opened.    President 
Arthur  arrived  at  ten  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  October  18,  1881,  in  a  govern 
ment  steamer,  his  approach  being  announced  by  salute  after  salute,  each  < 
twentv-one  guns,  from  the  different  ships  of  the  fleet. 

The  exercises  were  opened  with  prayer  by  Rev.  Robert  Nelson,  grandson 
of  Governor  Nelson,  who  commanded  the  Virginia  militia  at  Yorktown  and 
directed  the  fire  so  as  to  destroy  his  own  home,  in  which  Cornwallis  had  his 
headquarters,  after  which  Governor  Holliday,  of  Virginia,  made  the  address. 
At  its  conclusion,  the  sword  was  held  up  to  view  which  was  presented  to  the 
horseman  who  rode  at  high  speed  to  Philadelphia  with  the  news  of  the  sur 
render  of  Cornwallis.  Another  interesting  fact  was  that  W.  W.  Henry,  the 
grandson  of  Patrick  Henry,  was  sitting  at  that  moment  on  the  platform. 

The  corner-stone  of  the  monument  was  laid  with  Masonic  ceremonies.  The 
chair  in  which  the  Grand  Master  for  the  occasion  sat  was  one  that  had  been 
used  by  Washington  when  he  was  Grand  Master  of  the  Virginia  Masons.  The 
sash  and  apron  were  presented  to  him  at  Mount  Vernon  in  1784,  and  had  been 
worked  by  Mrs.  Lafayette.  The  gavel  was  made  from  a  portion  of  the  quarter 
deck  of  the  United  States  frigate  Lawrence,  flagship  of  Commodore  Perry,  when 
he  won  his  great  victory  on  Lake  Erie  in  September,  1813.  Space  cannot  be 
given  to  enumerate  the  notables  who  were  present  nor  the  eloquent  addresses 
that  were  made.  Among  the  guests  were  descendants  of  Rochambeau,  Steuben, 
and  many  German  and  French  friends.  The  centennial  ode  was  written  by 
Paul  H.  Hayne,the  Southern  poet  (who  died  in  1886),  and  the  oration  of  the 
day  was  by  Robert  C.  Winthrop. 

It  was  a  graceful  tribute  to  the  friendly  course  of  England,  when  Secretary 
Blaine,  at  the  reception  which  followed  the  ceremonies,  read  the  following 
order : 

44  In  recognition  of  the  friendly  relations  so  long  and  so  happily  existing 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  in  the  trust  and  confidence  of 


ATTEMPTS   TO  REACH  THE  NORTH  POLE.  443 

peace  and  good-will  between  the  two  countries  for  all  centuries  to  come,  and 
•especially  as  a  mark  of  the  profound  respect  entertained  by  the  American  people 
for  the  illustrious  sovereign  and  gracious  lady  who  sits  upon  the  British  throne, 
it  is  hereby  ordered  that  at  the  close  of  these  services,  commemorative  of  the 
valor  and  success  of  our  forefathers  in  their  patriotic  struggle  for  independence, 
the  British  flag  shall  be  saluted  by  the  forces  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United 
States  now  at  Yorktown.  The  secretary  of  war  and  the  secretary  of  the  navy 
will  give  orders  accordingly. 

"  CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR. 
"  By  the  PRESIDENT. 

"  JAMES  G.  BLAINE,  Secretary  of  State." 

The  final  ceremonies  of  Yorktown  occurred  on  the  20th  of  October,  at 
which  time  9,000  sailors,  regulars,  and  militia  made  an  impressive  spectacle. 
They  were  under  the  command  of  General  Hancock,  and  represented  all  of  the 
thirteen  original  States,  including  a  number  of  others.  They  passed  in  review 
before  the  President,  both  branches  of  Congress,  governors  of  the  States  and 
their  staffs,  and  the  French  and  German  guests  of  the  government. 

ATTEMPTS    TO    REACH    THE    NORTH    POLE. 

One  of  these  days  the  North  Pole  will  be  reached,  but  no  one  can  say 
when.  For  hundreds  of  years  the  attempt  has  been  made  again  and  again,  and 
daring  navigators  have  penetrated  far  into  those  icy  regions,  where  the  tempera 
ture  for  months  at  a  time  registers  forty,  fifty,  and  sixty  degrees  below  zero,  only 
to  perish  or  be  turned  back  disappointed. 

The  first  American  expedition  into  the  Arctic  regions  was  conducted  by 
Dr.  Elisha  Kent  Kane.  He  sailed  from  New  York  in  the  steamer  Advance, 
May  30,  1853.  He  reached  Smith  Strait,  as  far  as  Cape  George  Russell,  and 
then  returned  to  Van  Rensselaer  Harbor  for  the  winter.  A  number  of  excur 
sions  were  made  from  that  point,  and  125  miles  of  coast  were  traced  to  the 
north  and  east,  Two  of  the  men  penetrated  to  Washington  Land  in  latitude 
82°  27',  and  discovered  an  open  channel,  which  they  named  Kennedy.  Kane 
came  home  in  1855,  having  been  further  north  than  any  other  explorer.  He 
was  obliged  to  abandon  his  ship  and  proceed  overland  to  the  Danish  settle 
ments  in  the  south,  where  he  was  met  by  a  relief  party. 

One  of  the  members  of  this  expedition  was  Dr.  Isaac  I.  Hayes,  who,  in 
1860,  attained  81°  35'  north  latitude,  when  he  was  forced  to  return  without 
having  accomplished  anything  of  importance.  Sir  John  Franklin,  an  English 
navigator,  had  been  lost  in  the  Arctic  regions  a  number  of  years  before,  and 
several  expeditions  had  been  sent  in  search  of  him,  but  all  failed  to  secure 


444  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

any  definite  information.  In  1860,  Dr.  Charles  F.  Hall,  of  Connecticut,  led  an 
expedition  in  quest  of  the  lost  explorer.  He  was  unfortunate  enough  to  lose 
his  boat  and  was  obliged  to  return.  The  most  interesting  discoveries  made  by 
Dr.  Hall  were  a  number  of  relics  of  Frobisher's  expedition  to  those  dismal 
regions  fully  300  years  before.  A  second  party,  under  Hall,  found  the  same 
year  several  relics  of  Franklin,  and  dissipated  all  possible  hope  that  he  or  any 
of  his  men  were  still  living. 

Dr.  Hall  was  an  enthusiastic  explorer  of  those  inhospitable  regions  and 
spent  five  years  among  the  Eskemos.  Coming  home,  he  organized  a  third 
party,  for,  cheerless  and  dismal  as  are  those  frozen  solitudes,  they  seemed  to  hold 
a  resistless  fascination  to  all  who  have  visited  them.  This  expedition  reached 
80°  north  latitude,  where  Hall  died. 

THE   GREELY    EXPEDITION. 

In  1880,  the  proposal  was  made  by  an  international  polar  commission  that 
the  leading  countries  should  unite  in  establishing  meteorological  stations  in  the 
polar  region.  This  was  with  no  intention  of  helping  explorations  toward  the 
North  Pole,  but  to  permit  the  study  of  weather  phenomena  and  the  actions  of 
the  magnetic  needle,  respecting  which  much  remains  to  be  learned. 

Congress  appropriated  funds  with  which  to  establish  a  scientific  colony  for 
Americans,  one  at  Point  Barrow  in  Alaska  and  the  other  at  Lady  Franklin 
Bay  in  Grinnell  Land.  These  stations  were  to  be  occupied  for  periods  varying 
from  one  to  three  years. 

The  party  designed  for  Lady  Franklin  Bay  consisted  of  First  Lieutenant 
Adolphus  W.  Greely,  U.  S.  A.,  Commander;  Lieutenants  F.  S.  Kislingbury 
and  James  B.  Lockwood,  U.  S.  A.,  as  assistants ;  and  Dr.  O.  Pavy  as  surgeon 
and  naturalist.  In  addition,  there  were  twenty-two  sergeants,  corporals,  and 
privates,  all  belonging  to  the  army,  and  two  Eskemos.  All  the  other  attempts  to 
establish  circumpolar  stations,  numbering  about  a  dozen,  were  successful. 

The  steamer  Proteus  conveyed  the  expedition  to  Lady  Franklin  Bay,  the 
start  being  made  from  the  harbor  of  St.  John's,  Newfoundland.  It  would  seem 
that  every  needed  precaution  had  been  taken  to  avert  disaster.  Since  the  expedi 
tion  had  an  attainable  point  fixed  upon  as  its  destination,  it  would  seem  that  it  had 
only  to  establish  a  base,  where  the  government  would  deposit  abundant  supplies, 
to  which  Greely  could  return  when  he  chose  or  when  he  found  himself  com 
pelled  to  retreat.  Then  he  could  carry  forward  supplies  on  his  sleds  and  leave 
them  at  different  points  along  his  route,  so  that  he  would  be  sure  of  finding 
them  on  his  return.  This  scheme  is  so  simple  that  it  would  seem  that  there 
was  no  possible,  or  at  least  probable,  way  of  going  wrong.  Yet  misfortune  has 
been  the  fate  of  most  of  the  Arctic  expeditions. 


THE   GREELY  EXPEDITION.  445 

It  was  arranged  that  two  ships  were  to  go  to  Lady  Franklin  Bay  in  the 
summer  of  1883  to  bring  back  the  explorers.  These  ships  were  to  be  the 
steam  whaler  Proteus  and  the  United  States  gunboat  Yantic,  commanded  by 
Lieutenant  E.  A.  Garlington  ;  but  the  Proteus,  when  near  Cape  Sabine  and 
before  she  had  landed  her  supplies,  was  crushed  by  the  ice  and  sunk.  With 
great  difficulty,  Garlington  and  his  men  escaped  from  the  wreck  in  small  boats 
and  made  their  way  to  Upernavik,  where  they  had  left  the  Yantic.  The  party 
then  returned  to  the  United  States,  without  having  left  an  ounce  of  supplies  at 
Lady  Franklin  Bay,  where  Greely  expected  to  find  all  he  needed  on  his  return. 

Now  let  us  follow  the  exploring  party  under  Greely  which  left  St.  John's, 
Newfoundland,  July  7,  1881,  in  the  Proteus,  that  was  afterward  lost.  Icebergs 
were  soon  encountered,  but  seven  hundred  miles  were  passed  without  any  land 
appearing.  The  days  had  lengthened,  light  appearing  shortly  after  midnight 
and  lasting  until  ten  o'clock  the  succeeding  night,  but  the  fog  was  dense  and  all- 
pervading.  On  July  16th,  the  Proteus  was  steaming  cautiously  through  the 
mist,  when  the  icy  coast  of  Disco  Island,  several  hundred  feet  in  height,  loomed 
up  directly  ahead. 

The  most  interesting  sight  was  a  vast  iceberg  in  two  parts,  joined  by  an 
immense  overhanging  arch,  under  which  it  would  have  been  easy  for  the  ship 
to  sail.  The  captain  was  too  wise  to  make  any  such  attempt.  He  steamed  to 
one  side  of  it,  and,  when  some  distance  beyond,  fired  a  signal  gun  for  a  pilot.  The 
report  was  followed  by  a  thunderous  rumbling,  and,  looking  back,  the  crew  saw 
the  vast  arch,  weighing  thousands  of  tons,  descend  to  the  water  with  a  crash 
that  caused  the  steamer  to  rock  to  and  fro  for  several  minutes.  Had  she  been 
caught  beneath  the  mass,  she  would  have  been  crushed  like  a  tiny  insect. 

A  landing  was  made  at  the  settlement  of  Disco.  In  this  squalid  town  all 
the  dwellings  were  mere  huts,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  the  inspector  and 
governor.  It  was  a  strange  sight  to  find  in  one  of  these  dwellings  in  the  North 
a  piano,  billiard  table,  carpets,  and  many  of  the  luxuries  of  civilized  life.  The 
visitors  were  treated  with  the  utmost  hospitality  and  took  part  in  a  dance  in 
progress. 

Returning  to  the  Proteus  the  party  steamed  through  the  fog  to  Upernavik, 
which  was  reached  on  the  23d  of  July.  They  were  never  out  of  sight  of  ice 
bergs,  but  they  caused  no  trouble,  and  were  easily  avoided.  By  means  of  the 
steam  launch,  several  men  made  a  passage  through  inner  waters  to  Proven,  a 
sparse  settlement,  where  they  procured  some  clothing  suitable  for  the  high 
latitudes. 

These  settlements,  far  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle,  belong  to  Denmark,  which 
exercises  a  nominal  control  over  them.  One  of  the  industries  of  Proven  is  the 
furnishing  of  supplies  to  Arctic  explorers.  A  liberal  quantity  of  fresh  food  was 


446  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

secured,  beside  two  native  guides  and  thirty-two  Eskemo  dogs.  It  was  near 
here  that  McClintock,  the  explorer,  was  frozen  in  for  an  entire  year;  but  the 
weather  continued  unusually  mild.  A  mountainous  iceberg  while  drifting 
slowly  with  the  current  sloughed  off  so  much  from  one  side  that  its  centre  of 
gravity  was  displaced  and  the  mountain  of  ice  turned  a  complete  somersault 
before  it  settled  to  rest. 

There  is  hardly  any  limit  to  the  time  in  which  provisions  can  be  preserved 
in  the  polar  regions.  A  cache  was  found  among  the  Cary  Islands  which  had 
been  left  by  JSir  George  Nares  years  before,  and  nearly  all  was  in  as  good  condi 
tion  as  when  placed  there.  One  of  the  strange  phenomena  of  the  Arctic  regions 
is  the  red  snow,  mentioned  by  Sir  John  Ross,  which  was  seen  by  the  Greely 
party.  This  color  is  found  to  be  due  to  myriads  of  tiny  plants  deposited  on  the 
crust.  That  most  eminent  botanist,  Robert  Brown,  subjected  it  to  careful 
examination  and  pronounced  it  to  be  a  unicellular  plant  of  the  order  Algce,  and 
Dr.  Greville,  of  Edinburgh,  gave  it  its  name  (Protococcus  nivalis),  by  which 
it  is  now  known  to  the  scientific  world. 

The  steamer  halted  at  Littleton  Island  on  the  2d  of  August.  A  number 
of  articles  were  found  at  "  Life-Boat  Cove,"  that  had  been  left  by  the  Polaris 
expedition  in  1873.  A  quantity  of  coal  was  unloaded  here  to  be  taken  aboard 
on  the  return. 

Steaming  up  Kennedy  Channel,  a  deposit  of  provisions  was  made  near 
Franklin  Island  and  Carl  Ritter  Bay.  A  short  distance  north,  an  immense  ice 
pack  stopped  the  ship  which  repeatedly  tried  in  vain  to  butt  its  way  through. 
It  was  compelled  to  drift  with  the  pack  until  the  llth  of  August,  when  an 
opening  appeared  and  the  Proteus  forced  a  passage  to  Bellot  Island,  at  the 
entrance  to  Discovery  Harbor. 

AT    LADY    FRANKLIN    BAY. 

The  steamer  had  now  reached  Lady  Franklin  Bay,  which  was  its  destina 
tion,  and  near  which  Fort  Conger,  a  signal  station,  was  to  be  established.  The 
ship  was  unloaded  and  a  house  built,  the  men  living  in  tents  the  meanwhile, 
and  on  the  19th  of  August  the  Proteus  bade  the  explorers  good-by  and  started 
on  her  return  to  Newfoundland. 

A  number  of  musk  oxen  were  shot  in  the  vicinity,  and  now  and  then  a 
ptarmigan  was  bugged.  The  men  moved  into  the  house  in  the  latter  pant  of 
August,  and  Lock  wood  directed  the  laying  out  of  the  observatory  and  the  dig 
ging  of  the  foundation  pier  for  the  transit.  The  earth  was  frozen  so  hard  that 
it  was  like  chipping  solid  ice.  The  house  gave  the  men  comfortable  quarters. 
On  the  first  Sunday  all  work  was  stopped  and  religious  services  held.  The 
ntention  was  to  send  an  exploring  expedition  along  the  northern  coast  of 


INTOLERABLE  LONELINESS.  447 

Greenland,  and  it  was  placed  in  charge  of  Lockwood.  It  would  have  been 
given  to  Kislingbury,  the  senior  officer,  but  for  the  fact  that  he  and  Greely 
were  not  on  good  terms. 

Men  were  sent  to  examine  St.  Patrick's  Bay  to  the  northeast,  for  a  site  to 
establish  a  depot  on  the  channel  of  exploration.  Such  a  place  was  found  and 
the  exploring  parties  were  continually  active,  some  of  them  going  a  good  many 
miles  from  camp.  Game  was  plentiful,  but  the  wolves  were  fierce.  Numbers 
were  poisoned  by  means  of  arsenic  mixed  with  meat  thrown  in  their  way.  It 
being  the  beginning  of  their  Arctic  experience,  the  men  enjoyed  themselves  to 
an  extent  that  would  hardly  be  supposed.  This  was  mainly  because  they  were 
kept  busy  and  the  novelty  of  their  life  had  not  yet  worn  off.  One  pleasant 
custom  was  that  of  celebrating  the  birthdays  of  different  members  of  the  party, 
which  was  done  with  a  vigor  that  sometimes  reached  good-natured  boisterous-* 
ness. 

When  the  sun  sank  far  from  sight  on  the  16th  of  October,  every  one  knew 
that  it  would  not  show  itself  again  for  four  months.  It  will  be  admitted,  too, 
that  the  weather  had  become  keen,  for  it  registered  forty  degrees  below  zero 
most  of  the  time  and  the  moisture  within  the  house  was  frozen  to  the  depth  of 
an  inch  on  the  window-panes. 

With  the  coming  of  the  long,  dismal  night  the  wolves  became  fiercer,  and 
prowled  so  closely  around  the  building  that  no  one  dared  venture  far  from  the 
door  without  firearms  in  his  hands,  and  the  men  generally  went  in  company, 
ready  for  an  attack  that  was  liable  to  be  made  at  any  minute. 

INTOLERABLE    LONELINESS. 

Time  always  hangs  heavy  when  one  is  forced  to  remain  idle  and  the 
dismal  night  stretches  through  a  third  or  half  of  the  year.  On  the  1st.  of 
November,  Lieutenant  Lockwood,  accompanied  by  seven  men,  left  the  dwelling 
to  try  the  passage  of  the  straits,  hoping  to  push  his  way  to  the  place  where 
Captain  Hall  made  his  winter  quarters.  They  dragged  a  heavily  loaded  sled 
after  them,  upon  which  rested  a  boat,  which  they  expected  to  use  in  case  they 
reached  open  water.  The  men  set  out  bravely  and  toiled  hard,  but  were  com 
pelled  to  turn  back,  finding  it  impossible  to  make  any  progress. 

No  one  can  describe  the  horrible  loneliness  of  such  a  life  as  the  party  were 
now  compelled  to  lead.  They  played  cards  and  games,  told  stories,  and  held 
discussions  until  all  such  things  palled  on  their  taste.  Then  they  grew  weary 
of  one  another's  company,  and  hours  would  pass  without  a  man  speaking  a 
word.  Dr.  Hayes  has  related  that,  when  thus  placed,  he  has  dashed  out  of  the 
dwelling  in  desperation  and  wandered  for  miles  through  the  frozen  solitudes,  for 
no  other  reason  than  that  the  company  of  his  friends  had  become  unbearable. 


448  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

He  stated  further  that  a  rooster  on  his  ship  deliberately  flew  overboard   and 
committed  suicide  out  of  sheer  loneliness. 

One  means  resorted  to  by  the  explorers  for  relieving  the  frightful 
monotony  was  the  publication  of  a  paper  called  the  Arctic  Moon.  The  contents 
were  written  and  copies  made  by  the  hektograph  process.  Then  Greely  formed 
a  class  in  arithmetic,  and  Lockwood  taught  a  class  in  geography  and  grammar. 
Matters  were  quite  lively  on  Thanksgiving  Day  (the  party  being  careful  to  note 
the  passage  of  the  regular  days),  when  foot-races  were  run  and  shooting  matches 
indulged  in,  Greely  distributing  the  prizes. 

One  of  the  many  curious  facts  regarding  life  in  the  Arctic  regions  is  that 
its  rigors  are  often  withstood  better  by  the  inexperienced  than  by  the  experi 
enced.  The  two  Eskemo  guides  were  the  most  depressed  of  the  whole  party,  and 
one  of  them  wandered  off  in  a  dazed  condition.  When  found  miles  away,  he 
was  running  as  if  in  fear  of  his  life,  and  it  was  with  great  difficulty  he  was  per 
suaded  to  return.  The  second  native  would  have  run  off  had  he  not  been  closely 
watched. 

In  the  middle  of  February,  the  thermometer  fell  to  sixty-five  degrees  below 
zero,  an  intensity  of  cold  which  few  living  men  have  experienced.  At  such  a 
terrible  temperature  pure  brandy  and  glycerine  freeze  hard,  and  a  man,  though 
heavily  clothed,  will  perish  in  a  few  minutes.  The  Eskemo  dogs  by  choice 
slept  in  the  snow  outside  rather  than  within  the  building. 

THE   GRAVE   OF    DR.    HALL. 

On  the  last  day  of  February,  Lieutenant  Lockwood,  accompanied  by 
Brainard,  Jewell,  Long,  the  two  Eskemos,  and  a  couple  of  dog  teams,  started  on 
a  journey  to  Thank  God  Harbor,  seventy-five  miles  away.  The  journey  was 
made  without  accident  and  the  observatory  was  found  still  standing,  while  near 
at  hand  was  the  grave  of  the  Arctic  explorer,  Captain  C.  F.  Hall.  The  grave 
was  marked  by  a  metallic  headboard,  put  up  by  the  English  and  the  other  by 
Hall's  comrades.  On  the  British  board  are  these  words  :  "  To  Captain  Hall, 
who  sacrificed  his  life  in  the  advancement  of  science,  November  8,  1871.  This 
tablet  has  been  erected  by  the  Britisli  Polar  Expedition  of  1875,  which  followed 
in  his  footsteps  and  profited  by  his  experience."  The  American  inscription  is  ' 
as  follows : 

IN    MEMORY    OF 

CHARLES   FRANCIS    HALL, 

LATE   COMMANDER    U.    S.    STEAMER    POLARIS,    NORTH    POLE   EXPEDITION. 

DIED    NOVEMBER    8,    1871. 

"I    AM    THE    RESURRECTION    AND    THE    LIFE;    HE    THAT    BELIEVETH    IN    ME, 
THOUGH    HE   WERE    DEAD,    YET    SHALL   HE    LIVE." 


LOCKWOOD'S  EXPEDITION. 


449 


The  great  ambition  of  Lieutenant  Lockwood  was  to  lead  an  expedition 
along  the  northern  coast  of  Greenland,  to  which  Arctic  explorers  hitherto  had 
paid  comparatively  slight  attention.  His  intelligence,  daring,  and  skill  caused 
Greely  to  give  him  his  full  confidence  and  to  leave  the  entire  arrangement  of  the 
venture  in  his  hands. 

Lockwood's  intention  was  to  start  about  the  1st  of  April.  Sergeant  Brainard 
was  to  go  with  the  supporting  parties  in  advance  to  Cape  Sumner  and  leave 
supplies.  Then  when  Lockwood's  party  reached  the  same  point,  with  all  the 
provisions  they  could  carry  with  comfort,  the  explorers  would  be  well  supplied. 

LOCKWOOD'S  EXPEDITION  TO  THE  FAR  NORTH. 

Amid  the  firing  of  pistols,  waving  of  flags,  and  cheers,  the  start  was  made 
by  Lockwood 
on  the  2d  of 
April.  Three 
days  later,  the 
party  drag 
ging  a  sled 
laden  with 
pemmican 
reached  a 
snow-house, 
where  they 
found  Brain 
ard  and  his ' 
friends  return 
ing.  There 
were  thirteen 

in  all,  and  they  were  crowded  in  their  close  quarters,  but  the  fact  gave  them 
additional  warmth. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  long  Arctic  night  was  about  ended.  In  the 
misty  light,  a  dark  object  was  discerned  on  the  top  of  a  neighboring  iceberg, 
which  being  scrutinized  was  recognized  as  an  eagle.  It  was  accepted  as  a  good 
omen  by  the  men,  who  cheered  the  noble  bird  that  vividly  reminded  them  of 
their  distant  home. 

The  direction  was  now  to  the  northeast.  They  crossed  the  straits  at  Cape 
Beechy,  pushing  to  within  a  few  miles  of  the  eastern  shore,  whence  they  were 
to  proceed  directly  to  Fort  Sumner.  In  order  to  follow  the  course  of  the  party 
intelligently  the  reader  needs  to  keep  a  reliable  map  of  the  Arctic  regions 
before  him. 

29 


A  FUNERAL   IN   THE   ARTIC  REGIONS. 


450  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

Fort  Conger  stood  close  to  the  intersection  of  sixty-fifth  meridian  and  the 
eighty-second  parallel,  being  a  little  south  of  the  latter  and  east  of  the  former. 
From  this  starting-point,  the  route  of  Lockwood  was  slightly  south  of  northeast 
to  its  termination.  Almost  from  the  beginning,  the  traveling  was  so  difficult 
that  the  bravest  explorers  could  not  have  been  blamed  for  turning  back. 

The  ice  was  tumbled  together  in  irregular  masses  many  feet  in  thickness,, 
through  which  they  often  had  to  cut  the  way  with  axes  for  their  sledges.  The 
wind  rose  to  a  hurricane,  and  was  of  piercing  coldness,  and  so  filled  with  fine  par 
ticles  that  they  cut  the  face  like  bird-shot.  Most  of  the  time  they  could  not  see 
one  another  when  separated  by  a  few  feet.  Muffled  to  their  eyes,  the  brave 
explorers  fought  their  way  onward,  often  compelled  to  stop  and  turn  their  backs- 
to  the  gale,  which  almost  swept  them  off  their  feet.  Frequently  they  crouched 
behind  the  piles  of  ice  to  regain  their  breath  while  the  furious  wind  roared 
above  their  heads. 

Toughened,  as  were  all  the  men,  some  of  them  succumbed  under  the  fearful 
work.  These  returned  to  camp,  and  the  party  was  reduced  to  nine.  This 
occurred  on  the  10th  of  April,  very  near  where  the  82d  parallel  crosses  the  60th 
meridian.  There  Lieutenant  Lockwood  came  to  a  halt,  and  turned  back  with 
the  dogs  to  Fort  Conger.  The  round  journey  was  a  hundred  miles,  but  it  was 
necessary  to  get  supplies  that  could  be  obtained  in  no  other  way,  and  to  secure 
new  runners  for  their  sledges,  which  were  battered  by  their  rough  usage. 

Accompanied  by  the  two  Eskemos,  Lockwood  made  a  new  start  on  the  14th 
of  April,  and  averaged  two  miles  an  hour  until  he  reached  his  new  camp. 
From  that  point  the  nine  men  had  three  sledges,  which  they  dragged,  and  a 
fourth  that  was  drawn  by  the  dogs.  With  indomitable  pluck  they  struggled 
onward,  and  all  were  thrilled  on  the  25th  of  the  month  by  the  knowledge  that 
they  had  reached  a  point  further  north  than  had  ever  been  attained  by  an 
American,  and  they  hoped  to  surpass  all  others. 

The  heroic  explorers  had  by  no  means  finished  their  task.  At  regular 
points  they  cached  their  provisions  against  the  return.  If  the  reader  will  locate 
on  his  map  the  intersection  of  the  55th  meridian  with  the  parallel  of  82°  20', 
he  will  have  a  point  close  to  Cape  Bryant,  where  the  supports  of  the  party 
withdrew  and  started  on  their  return  to  camp.  All  who  were  now  left  were 
Lieutenant  Lockwood,  Sergeant  Brainard,  and  the  Eskemo  Frederick. 

Lockwood  apportioned  rations  for  twenty-five  days  among  the  three. 
Consequently  the  northward  journey  and  the  return  must  be  made  within  that 
time,  since  they  believed  it  impossible  to  obtain  food  in  that  fearful  region. 
Shaking  hands  with  their  companions,  who  wished  them  good-speed,  the  little 
party  broke  into  two  divisions,  one  tramping  southward,  while  the  other  resumed 
its  laborious  journey  toward  the  northeast. 


LOCKWOOD 'S  EXPEDITION.  451 

Before  Lockwood  left  Cape  Sabine,  Lieutenant  Greely  gave  it  as  his  belief 
that  his  brave  assistant  might  succeed  in  reaching  Cape  Britannia,  which  lies 
about  40°  east  and  82°  45'  north.  The  explorer  Beaumont  saw  this  cape,  but 
was  unable  to  reach  it.  When  Lockwood  and  Brainard  arrived  there,  however, 
they  had  no  thought  of  stopping.  A  cairn  was  built,  a  written  account  of  their 
travels  deposited,  and  five  days'  rations  left.  Then  the  heroes  bent  to  their 
herculean  task  again. 

The  Eskemo  was  left  with  the  dogs,  while  the  two  white  men,  wrapped  in 
their  furs,  laboriously  climbed  an  adjoining  mountain,  half  a  mile  in  height 
From  the  crest  they  scanned  the  snowy  landscape,  the  very  picture  of  desola 
tion.  Twenty  miles  to  the  northeast,  the  direction  they  were  traveling,  they 
made  out  a  dark  promontory,  terminating  in  a  rocky  headland  and  penetrating 
the  Polar  Ocean,  while  between  it  and  them  a  number  of  islands  reared  their 
heads  and  were  separated  by  fiords.  Half  of  the  remaining  horizon  was  filled 
with  the  dismal  ice  of  the  Frozen  Sea. 

They  had  no  expectation  of  meeting  with  animal  life  in  this  world  of  deso 
lation,  but  they  fired  several  times  (and  missed)  at  ptarmigan,  and,  having 
wounded  a  rabbit,  succeeded  in  running  it  down.  It  was  a  mystery  to  them 
how  this  little  animal  found  the  means  of  sustaining  life  so  near  the  Pole. 

It  may  be  wondered  how  far  these  three  men  would  have  gone  had  it  been 
possible  to  travel.  They  became  accustomed  to  the  exhaustive  work,  but  the 
end  of  the  journey  was  reached  on  the  13th  of  May,  when  they  paused  on  the 
edge  of  an  immense  fissure  in  the  ice,  extending  indefinitely  to  the  right  and  left, 
and  too  broad  to  be  crossed.  They  searched  for  a  long  time,  only  to  learn  that 
it  was  utterly  out  of  their  power  to  go  a  foot  further.  Nothing  remained  but  to 
learn  their  exact  location. 

While  Lockwood  was  preparing  to  take  an  observation,  the  sun  was  ob 
scured  by  fog.  All  the  next  day  so  furious  a  storm  raged  that  they  could  do 
nothing  but  huddle  in  their  tent  and  wait  for  it  to  pass.  Finally,  the  condi 
tions  became  favorable  and  Lockwood  made  his  observations  with  the  utmost 
care.  When  they  were  completed  the  astounding  truth  was  revealed  that  their 
latitude  was  84°  24i'  north  and  40°  46i'  west  from  Greenwich.  This  surpassed 
the  achievement  of  the  Nares  expedition  sent  out  by  England,  in  1875-76,  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  reaching  the  furthest  northern  point  possible.  Lockwood 
and  Brainard,  therefore,  had  attained  the  highest  point,  which  up  to  that  time 
had  never  been  reached  by  man.  On  the  7th  of  April,  1895,  however,  Dr. 
Fridtjof  Nansen,  the  Norwegian  explorer,  penetrated  to  86°  15',  which  surpassed 
that  of  Lockwood  and  Brainard  by  200  miles  and  was  within  225  miles  of  the 
Pole  itself. 

The  return  journey  was  as  exhausting  and  trying  as  the  outward  one,  but 


452  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR. 

the  little  party  never  lost  courage.  Fort  Conger  was  reached  early  in  June, 
and,  as  may  be  supposed,  the  explorers  received  a  royal  welcome  from  their 
comrades.  The  three  men  were  suffering  from  snow  blindness,  rheumatism, 
and  various  ills  brought  on  by  their  exposure  and  terrific  labors,  but  all  were 
in  high  spirits,  as  they  might  well  be,  when  they  recalled  the  wonderful 
achievement  they  had  made. 

WEARY    WAITING. 

The  brief  summer  was  at  hand.  The  snow  melted  during  the  middle  of 
the  day  and  the  first  rain  they  had  seen  fell.  On  the  4th  of  July  they  had 
shooting  matches  and  engaged  in  a  game  of  baseball.  It  can  hardly  be  said, 
however,  that  the  American  game  has  gained  much  of  a  foothold  north  of  the 
Arctic  Circle. 

All  suffered  from  intense  depression  of  spirits  which  could  not  be  shaken  off. 
Again  hours  would  pass  without  a  man  speaking  a  word.  They  seemed 
mutually  repellent  and  miserable.  This  sad  condition  resulted  from  purely 
physical  causes  and  no  one  could  be  blamed  for  it. 

The  company  were  now  waiting  for  the  Proteus  which  was  due.  Several 
reports  that  she  was  in  sight  threw  all  into  pleasurable  excitement,  but  it  need 
not  be  said  they  were  doomed  to  disappointment,  since  the  relief  ship  was  at  the 
bottom  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  little  steam  launch  had  been  repaired  and 
enabled  the  party  to  explore  the  neighboring  coasts  for  a  distance  of  several 
hundred  miles.  A  number  of  musk  oxen  were  shot,  but,  except  at  certain  sea 
sons,  their  flesh  is  so  strongly  impregnated  with  musk  that  it  is  unpalatable  for 
food. 

As  the  weary  days  passed  without  bringing  the  wished-for  steamer,  hope 
sank.  Many  were  sure  some  accident  had  befallen  the  ship  and  she  would 
never  be  seen  again.  If  so  (and  of  course  such  was  the  fact),  more  months 
must  pass  before  the  news  could  be  carried  to  the  United  States  and  a  new  relief 
expedition  be  sent.  It  was  hard  thus  to  be  forgotten  by  their  friends  at  home. 
As  a  last  resort  the  party  could  retreat  in  their  boats,  but  all  dreaded  the  almost 
hopeless  recourse.  Gradually  the  summer  drew  to  a  close  and  once  more  they 
saw  the  low-sweeping  sun  dip  below  the  horizon  not  to  appear  again  for  months. 
The  long,  horrible  Arctic  night  again  enveloped  them  in  misery  and  gloom. 

When  the  month  of  January  came  every  member  of  the  party,  including 
Greely  himself,  were  convinced  that  their  country  had  abandoned  them  and 
they  must  look  out  for  themselves.  He  announced  that  if  no  relief  appeared 
they  would  start  for  home  not  later  than  the  8th  of  August, 

Lieutenant  Lock  wood  seems  to  have  been  about  the  only  member  of  the 
party  who  for  a  time  kept  up  his  high  spirits.  He  was  not  satisfied  with  what 
he  had  already  done,  and  insisted  upon  another  chance  to  push  northward. 


THE   FARTHEST   NORTH  REACHED  BY    LIEUT.   LOCKWOOD    ON    THE    GREELY    EX- 

PEDITION. 

4o3 


454  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AXD  ARTHUR. 

He  had  fixed  upon  the  eighty-fourth  parallel  as  the  point  to  reach,  and  he 
urged  the  matter  so  strongly  that  Greely,  who  greatly  admired  his  courage, 
gave  his  consent,  though  confident  that  he  would  find  it  impossible  to  do  as  well 
sis  in  the  former  instance. 

A    FAILURE. 

Lockwood  made  his  start  on  the  morning  of  March  27,  1883,  his  com 
panions  being  the  same  as  before.  Two  weeks  later,  as  Greely  was  lying  in  his 
tent,  wondering  how  his  friend  was  making  out,  Lockwood  walked  in  with  a 
smile : 

"  Too  much  water,"  he  said ;  "  if  it  had  only  been  ice,  we  could  have  man 
aged  it,  but  we  had  no  means  of  getting  across  the  water.  Better  luck  next 
time." 

The  next  time,  however,  never  came.  Greely,  Lockwood,  and  Brainard 
always  remained  on  good  terms,  but  it  was  not  the  case  with  some  of  the  others. 
Companionship,  under  such  conditions,  is  a  bore,  and  many  a  time  the  three 
gentlemen  named  went  off  on  explorations  that  occupied  several  days,  with  no 
other  object  than  to  get  away  from  those  whose  company  was  distasteful  beyond 
bearing. 

THE   START    HOMEWARD. 

Greely  had  given  up  all  hope  of  receiving  help  from  the  United  States  and 
determined  to  start  for  home  as  soon  as  his  surroundings  would  permit.  His 
plan  was  to  proceed  to  Littleton  Island,  where  it  was  possible  they  might  find 
a  vessel  that  would  take  them  to  Newfoundland.  The  explorers,  twenty-five  in 
nil,  made  their  start  southward,  August  9,  1883.  Their  boats  were  the  steam 
launch  referred  to,  a  whale  boat,  an  English  boat,  and  a  smaller  one,  which  il 
was  thought  would  prove  useful  in  the  event  of  an  accident. 

For  a  time  the  progress  was  encouraging.  The  water  wras  quite  open,  but 
ice  soon  appeared.  They  saved  their  boats  from  being  nipped  by  drawing  them 
up  on  a  floe.  When  open  water  again  showed,  they  took  to  the  boats  and 
reached  Sun  Bay  without  mishap.  Then  they  made  their  way  to  Cape  Lieber, 
twenty  miles  south  from  Fort  Conger,  where  they  were  almost  overwhelmed  in 
a  blinding  snowstorm.  There  they  landed  and  waited  for  the  ice  to  move  and 
open  the  way  for  them  along  the  western  shore  of  the  strait,  A  fog  kept  them 
there  several  days,  and  when  they  started  again  it  was  in  the  midst  of  another 
blinding  snowstorm.  One  of  the  incidents  of  the  struggle  against  ice  and 
tempest  was  the  falling  overboard  of  Lieutenant  Greely  and  an  accident  to  the 
launch.  Scoresby  Bay  was  reached  on  the  22d  of  August,  and  found  to  be  full 
of  floating  ice.  It  was  necessary  again  to  save  the  boats  by  drawing  them  up 
on  the  floe.  By  that  time,  too,  the  supply  of  coal  had  become  so  low  that  Greely 
held  a  consultation  with  his  officers  over  their  situation,  which  was  not  only 


THE  LAST  EXTREMITY.  455 

dangerous  but  rapidly  becoming  more  so.  He  proposed  to  abandon  the  launch 
and  use  the  other  boats  with  which  to  pusli  along  the  western  shore,  but  the 
majority  believed  they  had  a  chance  of  making  Littleton  Island.  Ere  long  it 
was  found  necessary  to  leave  behind  the  smallest  boat,  and  when  that  was  done 
most  of  the  party  believed  all  were  doomed.  The  elements  and  even  the  tides 
were  against  them. 

The  launch  soon  became  useless  and  was  abandoned.  Resort  was  then  had 
to  sledge  travel,  two  carrying  a  boat  between  them,  and  all  pulled  by  the  men. 
They  had  not  gone  far  in  this  toilsome  manner  when  another  of  the  boats  had 
to  be  left  behind,  giving  them  only  one.  Even  the  courageous  Lockwood  now 
expressed  his  belief  that  none  of  the  party  would  escape  alive.  Still  it  was  better 
to  die  struggling  than  to  sit  down  and  fold  their  hands. 

Misfortunes  crowded  upon  them.  The  current  continued  the  wrong  way 
and  the  floe  upon  which  they  were  drifting  carried  them  toward  Baffin  Bay. 
Sludge  ice,  the  most  troublesome  of  all,  abounded,  and  their  poor  rations  grew 
scant.  In  the  latter  part  of  September  enough  of  the  floes  came  in  contact  to 
permit  the  men  to  pass  over  them  to  solid  land,  some  twelve  miles  from  Cape 
Sabine.  A  reconnoitering  party  in  attempting  to  reach  that  point  was  turned 
back  by  the  open  water.  Another  company,  however,  got  through  and  brought 
back  important  news.  The  Proteus  had  been  wrecked  and  a  couple  of  caches, 
left  by  English  ships,  together  with  the  stores  brought  from  the  wreck  of  the 
Proteus,  were  discovered.  As  may  be  supposed,  they  formed  a  welcome  addi 
tion  to  the  meagre  stock  of  food. 

THE    LAST    EXTREMITY. 

It  being  inevitable  that  another  winter  must  be  passed  in  the  land  of  deso 
lation,  preparations  were  made  for  doing  so.  The  spot  selected  was  between 
Cape  Sabine  and  Cocked  Hat  Island.  A  hut  was  erected  and  the  supplies 
moved  thither.  Greely  informed  the  men  that  he  had  decided  to  reduce  the 
rations  so  that  they  would  last  until  the  coming  March.  A  cairn  was  built  at 
Cape  Sabine  in  which  was  placed  a  record  of  what  had  been  done  by  the 
explorers. 

All  admitted  the  necessity  of  reducing  the  rations,  but  it  was  done  to  that 
extent  that  the  men  suffered  continually  from  hunger.  They  were  glad  to  eat 
mouldy  potatoes,  and,  when,  occasionally,  a  fox  was  shot,  nothing  was  left  but 
the  shining  bones.  If  the  preceding  period  was  horrible  it  was  now  more  so, 
for  all  felt  they  had  every  reason  for  depression,  gloom,  and  despair.  The 
meagre  food  made  them  more  susceptible  to  cold,  and,  although  Greely  strove 
to  awaken  an  interest  in  different  educational  subjects,  the  conditions  were  so 
woful  that  he  accomplished  little.  It  may  seem  strange,  but  it  was  natural  that 
the  men's  thoughts  should  dwell  almost  continually  upon  delicacies  in  the  way 


456  HAYES,  GARFIELD,  AND  ARTHUR 

of  eating.  They  talked  about  the  choicest  viands  and  smacked  their  lips  over 
tempting  feasts  which,  alas !  existed  only  in  imagination. 

Every  man  uttered  a  prayer  of  thanks  when  the  21st  of  December  arrived, 
for  it  meant  that  the  appalling  polar  night  was  half  over,  but  how  endless  the 
other  half  seemed  to  them  ! 

In  the  following  month  the  feet  of  Corporal  Ellison  were  so  badly  frozen 
that  they  sloughed  off,  as  did  several  of  his  fingers.  Soon  afterward  one  of  the 
men  died.  The  brave  Lockwood  felt  himself  growing  so  weak  that  he  privately 
requested  Greely  to  leave  him  behind,  if  he  should  be  alive,  when  the  home 
ward  start  was  made.  Greely  replied  that  under  no  conceivable  circumstances 
would  he  abandon  any  one  if  alive,  provided  he  himself  survived  the  period  of 


waiting. 


An  attempt  was  made  in  February  to  reach  Littleton  Island  in  the  hope  of 
finding  the  relief  ship  or  stores,  but  the  open  water  compelled  the  men  to  turn 
back.  The  same  cause  prevented  their  getting  to  the  Greenland  shore,  which 
could  be  seen  when  the  weather  was  clear. 

When  the  middle  of  March  came  all  were  placed  on  starvation  rations. 
None  of  the  canned  vegetables,  coffee,  or  chocolate  was  left.  The  straits  re 
mained  open  and  shut  them  off  from  reaching  Greenland,  where  they  might 
have  found  game.  The  bravest  of  the  party  lost  heart  and  sank  into  the  apathy 
of  despair.  They  felt  themselves  simply  waiting  for  death.  Lockwood  wrote 
in  his  diary :  "  I  am  glad  that  each  day  comes  to  an  end.  It  brings  us  nearer 
the  end  of  this  life,  whatever  that  end  may  be." 

The  fuel,  which  had  been  carefully  husbanded,  gave  out  in  the  latter  part 
of  March.  The  famishing  sufferers  gathered  their  furs  more  tightly  around 
them  and  huddled  together  to  secure  the  mutual  warmth  of  their  emaciated 
bodies.  The  furs  and  shoes  could  be  gnawed  and  eaten  when  the  last  extremity 
arrived.  Unexpectedly  to  all,  Sergeant  Lynn  and  one  of  the  Eskemos  died  at 
the  beginning  of  April.  When  there  was  a  chance  to  shoot  game  the  men  were 
too  weak  to  hunt  for  it. 

Lieutenant  Lockwood,  the  hero  of  the  wonderful  achievement  narrated, 
whose  high  spirits  and  exalted  courage  carried  him  through  all  manner  of 
perils,  died  early  on  the  morning  of  April  9th,  his  death  being  due  to  starvation. 
When  the  brave  fellow  had  passed  away  there  had  not  been  a  mouthful  of  food 
within  reach  for  several  days. 

Before  this,  it  became  evident  that  some  one  was  stealing  from  the  scanty 
store.  Investigation  disclosed  the  wretched  thief  to  be  a  man  named  Henry. 
Greely  warned  him,  for  he  was  imperiling  the  lives  of  all.  He  stole  againr 
whereupon,  by  orders  of  Greely,  he  was  shot.  When  the  final  extremity  came 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  cannibalism  was  indulged  in,  though  not  to  much 


THE  RESCUE.  457 

extent.     There  is  no  certainty,  however,  on  die  matter,  and  the  survivors  denied 
having  seen  it. 

THE    RESCUE. 

Though  it  may  seem  that  the  Greely  party  was  forgotten  at  home,  yet  such 
was  not  the  fact  The  loss  of  the  Proteus  caused  the  gravest  fears  for  their 
safety,  and,  in  the  spring  of  1884,  the  navy  department  fitted  out  a  new  relief 
expedition,  consisting  of  the  Thetis,  the  Bear,  and  the  Alert,  under  Commander 
Wmfield  S.  Schley,  who  made  such  a  brilliant  record  in  our  late  war  with 
Spain. 

Commander  Schley  sailed  from  Brooklyn  in  May,  and  lost  not  an  hour. 
Be  left  St.  John's  on  the  12th,  meeting  a  great  deal  of  ice  in  Baffin  Bay  and 
Smith  Sound,  but  he  fought  his  way  through,  and  sent  a  strong  party  ashore 
June  22d  to  hunt  for  signs  of  the  missing  explorers.  The  steam  launch  of  the 
Bear  took  the  party  to  Brevoort  Island,  where  Lieutenant  Lockwood's  letter 
was  found,  giving  their  location  and  stating  that  they  were  nearly  out  of 
provisions.  Since  the  letter  was  dated  eight  months  before,  the  dismayed 
commander  and  his  officers  believed  it  hardly  possible  that  any  of  the  men 
would  be  found  alive. 

The  Bear  was  pushed  on,  and  the  launch  started  out  again  early  the  next 
morning.  Before  sunset  Greely's  camp  was  discovered.  Making  all  haste 
forward,  the  relief  party  lifted  the  flap  and  breathlessly  peered  in. 

They  saw  Greely  on  his  knees,  muttering  the  prayers  for  the  dying  over 
one  of  his  comrades.  He  looked  up,  dazed,  bewildered,  and  unable  to  read  the 
full  meaning  of  what  met  his  eyes.  Around  him,  in  different  postures,  were 
stretched  his  comrades,  some  dead  and  the  others  close  to  death.  Those  still 
living  were  Greely,  Brainard,  Biederbeck,  Fredericks,  Long,  Connell,  and 
Ellison.  A  few  days'  later  arrival  on  the  part  of  the  Bear,  and  not  one  would 
have  been  breathing.  As  it  was  their  lives  were  still  in  great  danger,  and  it 
was  necessary  to  nurse  them  with  the  utmost  care.  The  remains  of  all  who  had 
died,  with  the  exception  of  the  Eskemo,  were  brought  back  to  the  United  States. 
During  the  halt  in  the  harbor  of  Disco,  to  leave  the  body  of  the  Eskemo, 
Corporal  Ellison,  who  had  been  so  badly  frozen,  died.  The  relief  expedition 
reached  St.  John's  on  July  17th  and  Xew  York  on  the  8th  of  August. 

In  1886  the  prize  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  Great  Britain  and 
the  back  premium  were  awarded  to  Captain  Adolphus  W.  Greely  and  Sergeant 
David  L.  Brainard,  for  having  attained  the  greatest  results  for  the  year  in 
adding  to  geographical  knowledge  by  examinations  or  explorations.  No  one 
can  deny  that  this  recognition  and  honor  were  well  won. 

The  Greely  expedition  possesses  so  much  interest  that  we  have  given  con 
siderable  space  to  the  narration.  Among  the  many  explorations  of  the  far 


458  HAYES,    GARFIELD,   AND   ARTHUR. 

North,  few  or  none  equal  this,  not  only  in  heroic  daring  but  in  results  accom 
plished.  It  may  be  said  that  the  fate  of  the  Sir  John  Franklin  party  was  made 
clear  in  1880,  by  Lieutenant  Frederick  Schwatka,  of  the  United  States  army, 
who  discovered  the  skeletons  of  several  of  the  unfortunate  explorers,  together 
with  various  relics  of  the  expedition. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1884. 

In  the  presidential  election  of  1884  the  Democratic  candidates  were  Grover 
Cleveland,  of  New  York,  and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana.  The  Repub 
lican  were  James  G.  Elaine,  of  Maine,  and  General  John  A.  Logan,  of  Illinois. 
The  chief  issue  with  the  Republicans  was  the  tariff,  while  the  Democrats  put 
forward  that  of  civil  service  reform.  There  was  much  bitter  discussion,  some 
of  the  leading  Republican  papers  refusing  to  support  Elaine  because  of  charges 
affecting  his  personal  integrity.  On  the  other  hand,  Cleveland  was  attacked 
with  scarcely  less  bitterness.  The  quarrel  between  the  leading  parties  caused 
some  of  the  weaker  ones  to  put  forward  candidates,  with  a  result  as  follows: 
Grover  Cleveland  and  T.  A.  Hendricks,  219:  James  G.  Elaine  and  John  A. 
Logan,  182;  John  P.  St.  John  and  William  Daniel,  Prohibition,  received 
151,809  popular  votes;  and  Benjamin  F.  Butler  and  A.  M.  West,  People's 
party,  133,825. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


ADMINISTRATION     OK     CLEVELAN  D   (FIRST) 
OK    HARRISON,    1SS5-1893. 

Grover  Cleveland — Completion  of  the  Washington  Monument — The  Bartholdi  Statue — Death  of  General 
Grant — Death  of  Vice-President  Heudricks — The  First  Vice- President  to  Die  in  Office — George 
Clinton— Elbridge  Gerry— William  R.  King— Henry  Wilson— Death  of  General  McClellan— Of 
General  Hancock — His  Career — The  Dispute  Between  Capital  and  Labor — Arbitration — The  Anarch 
istic  Outbreak  in  Chicago — The  Charleston  Earthquake — Conquest  of  the  Apaches — Presidential 
Election  of  1888 — Benjamin  Harrison — The  Johnstown  Disaster — Threatened  War  with  Chili — The 
Indian  Uprising  of  1890-91— Admission  of  New  States— Presidential  Election  of  1892. 

THE    TWENTY-SECOXD    PRESIDENT. 

THE  city  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  has  the  distinction  of  being  the  only  one  in  the 
United  States  which   has  furnished  r  - 

two  presidents  of  the  country.  Mil- 
lard  Fillmore  hailed  from  Buffalo 
and  Grover  Cleveland  went  from 
that  city  to  occupy  the  highest  office 
in  the  gift  of  the  American  people. 
His  native  place,  however,  was  Cald- 
well,  New  Jersey,  where  he  was 
born,  March  18,  1837.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  clergyman  and  received  a 
fair  education  in  the  public  schools, 
and  became  an  instructor  for  a  time 
in  an  institution  for  the  blind  at 
Clinton,  N.  Y.  He  removed  to 
Buffalo  in  1855,  and,  having  en 
gaged  in  the  study  of  law,  soon  be 
came  prominent  at  the  bar.  He  was 
appointed  assistant  district  attorney 
in  1863,  and  in  1870  was  elected 
sheriff  of  the  county.  His  course 
gained  the  confidence  of  the  com 
munity  and  led  to  his  election  as 
mayor  of  Buffalo,  in  1881,  though  the  city  was  naturally  strongly  Republican 

in  politics.  ' 


GROVER  CLEVELAND. 
(1837-       .)    Two  terms,  1885-1889—1893-1897. 


460  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND.. 

Mr.  Cleveland  added  to  his  popularity  by  his  able  administration  and  was 
nominated  for  governor  of  the  State  in  the  autumn  of  the  following  year.  His 
success  by  the  unprecedented  majority  of  192,854  attracted  national  attention 
and  led  the  Democrats  to  believe  he  was  their  most  available  candidate  for  the 
presidency.  His  course  as  governor  commended  itself  to  his  friends,  who  were 
so  numerous  that,  when  his  name  was  presented  at  Chicago,  he  received  683 
votes  against  137  for  all  others. 

It  will  be  noted  that  Mr.  Cleveland  was  the  first  Democratic  President 
since  the  opening  of  the  war.  He  assumed  his  office  with  the  best  wishes  of  the 
people,  though  it  is  worth  noting  in  this  place  that  the  majority  by  which  he 
was  elected  was  much  less  than  a  glance  at  the  returns  would  suggest.  At  a 
public  reception  of  Mr.  Elaine,  during  the  canvass,  a  clergyman  referred  to  the 
Democratic  party  as  that  of  "  Rum,  Romanism,  and  Rebellion."  This  unfor 
tunate  expression  drove  away  a  number  of  votes  from  Mr.  Blaine,  who  was 
defeated  in  New  York  by  a  few  hundreds  only  ;  but  they  were  sufficient  to  turn 
the  thirty-six  electoral  votes  to  Mr.  Cleveland  and  secure  his  election  by  the 
majority  already  named. 

COMPLETION    OF    THE    WASHINGTON    MONUMENT. 

For  years  preceding  the  Civil  War,  and  for  a  long  time  afterward,  the 
Washington  monument  was  a  source  of  reproach  and  jest  among  the  people, 
because  so  long  a  period  was  allowed  to  pass  before  its  completion.  The  corner 
stone  was  laid  July  4,  1848,  at  which  time  Robert  C.  Winthrop,  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  delivered  the  address.  The  occasion  was  made 
notable  by  the  presence  of  Daniel  Webster,  Henry  Clay,  John  C.  Calhoun,  and 
President  Polk.  The  memorial  to  the  greatest  American  citizen  that  ever  lived 
was  allowed  to  stand  uncompleted  for  thirty-seven  years,  its  formal  dedication 
taking  place  February  21st  (the  22d  fell  on  Sunday),  1885.  The  address  of 
the  venerable  W.  W.  Corcoran,  first  vice-president  of  the  Washington  Monu 
ment  Society,  formed  in  1833,  was  read  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Welling,  president  of 
Columbia  University,  and  the  ceremonies  were  of  an  interesting  character. 
The  Masonic  services  were  conducted  by  the  Grand  Lodge  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  which  used  the  gavel  that  Washington  had  employed  in  laying  the 
corner-stone  of  the  national  capitol,  September  18,  1793,  while  the  Bible  was  the 
one  upon  which  he  took  his  vows  when  made  a  Mason.  A  second  Bible  was 
the  one  upon  which  he  was  sworn  into  office,  April  30,  1789,  when  inaugurated 
President  of  the  United  States.  This  relic  is  now  the  property  of  St.  John 
Lodge,  No.  1,  of  New  York  City. 

President  Arthur's  address  was  as  follows: 


WASHINGTON     MONUMENT,     WASHINGTON,    D.    C. 


462  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

"FELLOW-COUNTRYMEN  :  Before  the  dawn  of  the  century  whose  eventful 
years  will  soon  have  faded  into  the  past— when  death  had  but  lately  robbed  the 
republic  of  its  most  beloved  and  illustrious  citizen— the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  pledged  the  faith  of  the  nation  that  in  this  city,  bearing  his  honored  name, 
and  then,  as  now,  the  seat  of  the  general  government,  a  monument  should  be 
erected  'to  commemorate  the  great  events  of  his  military  and  political  life/ 

"The  stately  column  that  stretches  heavenward  from  the  plain  whereon 
we  stand  bears  witness  to  all  who  behold  it  that  the  covenant  which  our  fathers 
made  their  children  have  fulfilled.  In  the  completion  of  this  great  work  of 
patriotic  endeavor  there  is  abundant  cause  for  national  rejoicing;  for  while  this 
structure  shall  endure  it  shall  be  to  all  mankind  a  steadfast  token  of  the  affec 
tionate  and  reverent  regard  in  which  this  people  continue  to  hold  the  memory 
of  Washington.  Well  may  he  ever  keep  the  foremost  place  in  the  hearts  of  his- 
countrymen;  the  faith  that  never  faltered;  the  wisdom  that  was  broader  and 
deeper  than  any  learning  taught  in  schools;  the  courage  that  shrank  from  no- 
peril  and  was  dismayed  by  no  defeat;  the  loyalty  that  kept  all  selfish  purposes 
subordinate  to  the  demands  of  patriotism  and  honor;  the  sagacity  that  displayed 
itself  in  camp  and  cabinet  alike;  and,  above  all,  that  harmonious  union  of  moral 
and  intellectual  qualities  which  has  never  found  its  parallel  among  men;  these 
are  the  attributes  of  character  which  the  intelligent  thought  of  this  century 
ascribes  to  the  grandest  figure  of  the  last. 

"But  other  and  more  eloquent  lips  than  mine  will  to-day  rehearse  to  you 
the  story  of  his  noble  life  and  its  glorious  achievements.  To  myself  has  been 
assigned  a  simpler  and  more  formal  duty,  in  fulfillment  of  which  I  do  now,  as- 
President  of  the  United  States  and  in  behalf  of  the  people,  receive  this  monu 
ment  from  the  hands  of  the  builder,  and  declare  it  dedicated  from  this  time 
forth  to  the  immortal  name  and  memory  of  George  Washington." 

The  ceremonies  at  the  monument  being  completed,  those  within  the  capitol 
followed.  General  Sheridan  was  in  charge  of  the  military,  and  the  oration  of 
Robert  C.  Winthrop,  who  was  kept  away  by  illness,  was  read  by  Governor 
Long.  John  W.  Daniel,  a  leading  soldier  on  the  side  of  the  Confederacy 
during  the  Civil  War  and  afterward  a  member  of  Congress  from  Virginia, 
delivered  a  graphic  sketch  of  Washington,  and  closed  with  the  eloquent 
peroration  : 

"Long  live  the  republic  of  Washington !  Respected  by  mankind,  beloved 
by  all  its  sons,  long  may  it  be  the  asylum  of  the  poor  and  oppressed  of  all  lands 
and  religions — long  may  it  be  the  citadel  of  that  liberty  which  writes  beneath 
the  eagle's  folded  wings :  'We  will  sell  to  no  man,  we  will  deny  to  no  man  right 
and  justice.' 


'1HE  BART  HOLD  1  STATUE.  463 

"  Long  live  the  United  States  of  America  !  Filled  with  the  free,  magnani 
mous  spirit,  crowned  by  the  wisdom,  blessed  by  the  moderation,  hovered  over  by  the 
guardian  angel  of  Washington's  example,  may  they  ever  be  worthy  in  all 
things  to  be  defended  by  the  blood  of  the  brave  who  knew  the  rights  of  man — 
may  they  each  be  a  column,  and  all  together,  under  the  Constitution,  a  perpetual 
temple  of  peace,  unshadowed  by  a  Caesar's  palace,  at  whose  altar  may  freely 
commune  all  who  seek  the  union  of  liberty  and  brotherhood. 

"  Long  live  our  country  !  Oh,  long  through  the  undying  ages  may  it 
stand,  far  removed  in  fact,  as  in  space,  from  the  Old  World's  feuds  and  follies — 
solitary  and  alone  in  its  grandeur  and  glory — itself  the  immortal  monument 
of  him  whom  Providence  commissioned  to  teach  man  the  power  of  truth,  and 
to  prove  to  the  nations  that  their  Redeemer  liveth." 

It  is  worth  noting  that  the  Washington  Monument  with  its  555  feet  is  the 
highest  in  the  world  ;  the  Cathedral  at  Cologne,  511  feet,  is  next;  while  the 
height  of  the  Great  Pyramid  is  486  feet.  The  cap-stone  was  put  in  position 
December  6,  1884,  and  the  whole  cost  of  the  monument  was  $1,187,710,  of 
which  Congress  furnished  $900,000.  An  iron  stairway  of  900  steps  and  an 
elevator  provide  means  for  ascending  the  interior. 

THE    BARTHOLDI    STATUE. 

When  a  person  enters  New  York  harbor  on  his  visit  or  return  to  the  New 
World,  the  most  striking  object  upon  which  his  eyes  rest  is  the  Statue  of  Liberty. 
This  represents  the  idea  of  Liberty  enlightening  the  world,  as  conceived  by 
Frederick  Auguste  Bartholdi,  the  eminent  French  sculptor.  He  began  circula 
ting  his  subscriptions  for  the  work  through  France  in  1874.  The  popularity 
of  the  scheme  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  contributions  were  received  from  180 
cities,  forty  general  councils,  a  large  number  of  chambers  of  commerce  and 
of  socities,  and  more  than  10,000  subscribers.  On  the  22d  of  February,  1877, 
Congress  voted  to  accept  the  gift,  and  set  apart  Bedlow's  Island  for  the  site. 
The  statue  was  finished  in  1883,  and  displayed  to  public  view  for  some  time  in 
Paris.  Its  official  presentation  to  the  minister  of  the  United  States  took  place 
July  4,  1884. 

The  French  transport  Isere,  with  the  Liberty  statue  on  board,  arrived  at 
New  York,  June  24,  1885,  and  was  saluted  and  welcomed  by  a  hundred 
different  vessels.  The  dedication  ceremonies,  October  28, 1886,  were  among  the 
most  impressive  ever  witnessed  in  the  metropolis  of  our  country.  Among  those 
on  the  reviewing  stand,  near  the  Worth  Monument,  were  President  Cleveland, 
General  Sheridan,  the  members  of  the  President's  cabinet,  M.  Bartholdi,  M.  de 
Lesseps,  representative  of  the  diplomatic  corps  at  Washington,  and  many 
distinguished  American  citizens. 


464 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 


The  following  facts  will  give  an  idea  of  the  size  of  this  great  statue :  the 
forefinger  is  more  than  eight  feet  long ;  the  second  joint  is  about  five  feet  in 
circumference ;  the  finger-nail  is  a  foot  long,  and  the  nose  nearly  four  feet ;  the 
head  is  fourteen  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  can  accommodate  forty  persons,  while 
the  hollow  torch  will  hold  twelve  persons.  The  copper  sheets  which  form  the 
outside  of  the  statue  weigh  eighty-eight  tons.  From  the  base  to  the  top  of  the 
torch  is  slightly  more  than  150  feet,  which  is  305  feet  above  low-water  mark. 

DEATH  OF  GENERAL  GRANT. 

In  no  event  of  Cleveland's  first  administration  was  the  public  more  deeply 


THE   FUNERAL  TRAIN   OF   GENERAL  GRANT   PASSING  "WEST  POINT. 

concerned  than  in  the  death  of  General  Grant,  the  foremost  defender  of  the 
Union.  After  his  return  from  his  triumphant  journey  around  the  world,  he 
engaged  in  business  in  the  city  of  New  York.  The  soul  of  honor  himself,  it 
was  hard  for  him  to  believe  the  dishonesty  of  others ;  but  he  became  the  victim 
of  unscrupulous  persons,  and  lost  not  only  all  his  own  savings  but  those  of  many 
of  his  friends.  He  did  everything  in  his  power  to  make  good  his  losses,  but 
succeeded  only  to  a  slight  extent.  He  was  ruined  financially,  though  a  grateful 
nation  would  never  permit  him  to  suffer  want. 

It  was  at  this  sad  period  that  a  cancer  developed  at  the  root  of  his  tongue, 
and,  though  he  received  the  best  medical  attention  in  the  country,  the  malignant 
excrescence  soon  made  it  evident  that  he  was  beyond  human  help.  He  devoted 


OTHER    VICE-PRESIDENTS    WHO  DIED  IN  OFFICE.  465 

himself  heroically  to  writing  his  memoirs,  and,  with  the  grim  determination 
which  was  so  marked  a  feature  of  his  character,  he  fought  off  the  last  great 
enemy  until  the  valuable  work  was  finished. 

General  Grant's  last  days  were  spent  with  his  family  at  Mount  McGregor 
in  New  York  State,  where  he  quietly  breathed  his  last  on  the  evening  of  July 
22,  i885.  The  body  was  embalmed  and  removed  to  the  City  Hall  in  New 
York,  where  it  was  viewed  by  mourning  thousands  before  its  removal  to  the 
last  resting-place  in  Riverside  Park.  The  final  impressive  scenes,  when  the  re 
mains  were  deposited  in  the  mausoleum  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  took  place 
in  1897. 

DEATH    OF    VICE-PRESIDENT    HENDRICKS. 

Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  died  November 
25,  1885,  at  his  home  in  Indianapolis,  from  paralysis  of  the  heart.  He  was 
born  in  Ohio  in  1819,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1843.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Indiana  Legislature  in  1848,  and  three  years  later  became  Demo 
cratic  member  of  Congress  from  the  central  district  of  Indiana.  He  was  chosen 
a  United  States  senator  in  1868,  and  strongly  opposed  the  impeachment  of 
President  Johnson.  He  was  prominently  named  several  times  for  the  presidency 
of  the  United  States.  In  Indianapolis,  where  he  had  long  made  his  home,  he 
was  universally  respected  by  members  of  all  parties. 

OTHER   VICE-PRESIDENTS   WHO    DIED    IX    OFFICE. 

Since  Mr.  Hendricks  was  not  the  first  Vice-President  to  die  in  office,  it  will 
be  interesting  to  complete  the  list.  George  Clinton  served  one  term  under  Jef 
ferson,  and  had  nearly  ended  another  under  Madison,  when  he  died  in  1812. 
His  career  had  been  extraordinary.  He  was  a  soldier  in  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  was  a  sailor  on  a  privateer,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Revolu 
tion,  but  was  unsuccessful  in  his  defense  of  the  Highland  forts  in  1777.  At  one 
time  he  was  a  member  of  the  Provincial  Congress  and  was  the  first  governor  of 
New  York,  serving  for  eighteen  years,  from  1777  to  1795,  and  again  1801-04, 
when  he  became  Vice-President.  His  death  occurred  in  Washington,  and  the 
eight  pall-bearers  were  Revolutionary  soldiers. 

It  was  a  curious  coincidence  that  the  next  Vice-President  to  die  in  office  was 
the  immediate  successor  of  Clinton,  Elbridge  Gerry,  who  died  November  23, 
1814.  He  was  a  native  of  Massachusetts,  a  member  of  its  colonial  House  of 
Representatives  and  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress.  He  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  and  aided  in  framing  the  Constitution,  though  he 
refused  to  sign  it,  on  the  ground  that  it  conferred  too  much  power  on  the  national 
government.  He  held  a  number  of  important  public  offices  and  was  governor 
of  Massachusetts  in  1810  and  1811.  In  the  latter  year,  the  Republicans  (modern 

30 


466  ADMINISTRATION   OF   CLEVELAND. 

Democrats)  carried  out  a  ^districting  sclieme  by  which  the  Essex  district  took 
a  form  which  many  fancied  bore  a  resemblance  to  a  salamander.  It  was  from 
this  incident  that  the  word  "gerrymander,"  so  often  heard  in  politics  in  these 
days,  took  its  name. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  when  Franklin  Pierce  became  President,  the  Vice- 
President,  William  R.  King,  was  an  invalid  in  Cuba,  where  he  took  the  oath  of 
office  before  the  American  consul.  He  was  in  the  last  stages  of  consumption 
and  died  shortly  after  his  return  to  his  home  in  Alabama. 

Henry  Wilson,  Vice-President  with  General  Grant,  died  November  25, 
1875,  his  death  being  hastened,  it  is  believed,  by  the  news  of  the  death  of  his 
intimate  friend,  Senator  Ferry,  of  Connecticut. 

The  death  of  General  McClellan  has  already  been  mentioned  as  taking 
place  on  the  29th  of  October,  1885.  A  few  months  later,  February  9,  1886, 
General  Hancock  died  at  his  home  on  Governor's  Island. 

DEATH    OF    GENERAL    HANCOCK HIS   CAREER. 

General  Winfield  Scott  Hancock  was  an  ideal  American  soldier  and  officer,. 
brave,  chivalrous,  courteous  to  foe  as  well  as  friend,  patriotic,  a  gentleman  at  all 
times  and  under  all  circumstances,  genial,  remarkably  handsome  and  prepos 
sessing  in  manner,  who  made  friends  everywhere.  His  conduct  of  political 
affairs  in  a  section  of  the  South  during  the  troublous  reconstruction  days  won 
the  commendation  of  his  government  and  the  respect  of  the  South,  who  pro 
nounced  him  a  "just  man,"  for  whom  they  formed  a  strong  personal  affection. 
But  for  Hancock's  unfortunate  slip,  he  assuredly  would  have  been  elected  Presi 
dent  of  the  United  States  in  1880. 

The  two  peculiarities  of  Hancock's  birth  was  that  he  was  a  twin  and  was 
born  on  St.  Valentine's  day,  February  14,  1824,  in  Montgomery  County,  Penn 
sylvania.  Appointed  to  West  Point,  he  found  among  his  fellow-cadets  U.  S. 
Grant,  G.  B.  McClellan,  Rosecrans,  Longstreet,  and  Stonewall  Jackson. 

Hancock  entered  the  Mexican  War  as  second  lieutenant,  taking  part  in 
three  engagements,  receiving  a  wound  and  winning  the  brevet  of  first  lieutenant. 
He  was  appointed  quartermaster  in  1855,  with  the  rank  of  captain.  Three 
years  later  he  was  a  member  of  the  expedition  to  Utah  to  bring  the  Mormons  to 
terms.  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he  was  at  Los  Angeles,  Southern 
California,  where  considerable  sympathy  was  shown  for  the  Southern  Con 
federacy.  The  tact  of  the  United  States  forces  in  that  section  held  the  State 
true,  a  patriotic  speech  of  General  Hancock  contributing  greatly  to  the  same 
end. 

His  patriotism  would  not  allow  him  to  remain  idle,  and,  when  he  learned 
of  the  grave  condition  of  affairs  in  the  East,  he  applied  to  be  called  thither. 


DEATH  OF  GENERAL  HANCOCK 


467 


The  request  was  granted,  and  he  was  so  anxious  to  serve  his  country  that  he 
did  not  pause  to  call  on  his  parents  while  on  the  way  to  Washington. 

Hancock's  first  appointment  was  as  quartermaster-general  in  General 
Robert  Anderson's  command  in  Kentucky;  but  McClellan,  who  knew  his 
worth,  made  a  personal  request  of  President  Lincoln  to  appoint  him  brigadier- 
general.  His  commission  was  dated  September  23,  1861.  McClellan  said  of 
him :  "  He  was  a  man  of  the  most  chivalrous  courage  and  of  superb  presence, 
especially  in  action  ;  he  had  a  wonderfully  quick  and  correct  eye  for  ground 


CITY  HALL,  PHILADELPHIA. 

Equestrian  statues  of  Generals  Reynolds  and  McClellan  ornament  the  plaza,  and  one  of  General  Hancock  is  to  be  erected  on  one 

of  the  vacant  corners. 

and  for  handling  troops ;  his  judgment  was  good,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to 
find  a  better  corps  commander." 

General  Hancock  gave  invaluable  help  in  moulding  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  into  the  magnificent  form  it  attained,  and  his  brigade  was  conceded  to 
be  the  finest  and  most  effective  in  the  whole  army  at  the  time  the  landing  was 
made  on  the  peninsula  between  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  James  River. 

In  the  bloody  battle  of  Williamsburg,  his  skill  and  personal  courage  were 
of  the  highest  order.  Making  a  feint  of  retreating,  he  drew  the  enemy  after 


468  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

him  into  the  position  he  intended,  when  he  turned  and  assailed  them  with  a 
furious  musketry  fire.  It  was  his  men  who  captured  the  first  colors  taken  by 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  it  was  on  that  occasion  that  Hancock  used  the 
expression  which  has  been  often  quoted.  In  the  midst  of  the  tumult  and  swirl  of 
battle  he  shouted  :  "  Now,  gentlemen,  we  will  give  them  the  bayonet !  "  Han 
cock  received  the  personal  thanks  of  McClellan  for  his  fine  work. 

He  was  always  loyal  to  his  superiors,  McClellan,  Burnside,  McClellan 
again,  Hooker,  and  Meade,  rapidly  rising  in  prominence  until  at  the  great  battle 
of  Gettysburg  he  contributed  perhaps  more  than  any  single  man  to  the  success 
of  the  Union  arms.  Among  the  titles  applied  to  him  by  his  admiring  country 
men  were  "The  Superb  "  and  "  The  Hero  of  Gettysburg." 

The  Confederates  who  came  in  contact  with  him  expressed  their  admiration 
of  his  dauntless  courage  and  coolness.  He  was  painfully  wounded,  but,  while 
lying  on  a  stretcher,  he  sent  a  message  to  General  Meade  that  the  Confederate 
army  was  in  retreat.  Meade  replied  with  his  grateful  thanks  and  sympathy, 
and  Congress  also  thanked  him. 

His  ardent  patriotism  placed  him  in  the  saddle  before  his  wound  had 
healed,  and  at  one  time  during  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness  he  was  obliged  to 
give  up  his  command.  At  Cliancellorsville  he  captured  the  whole  division  of 
General  Edward  Johnson.  When  that  officer  was  brought  into  Hancock's  tent 
the  latter  extended  his  hand  to  his  old  acquaintance,  exclaiming  heartily,  "  How 
are  you,  Ned  ?  " 

"  I  refuse  to  take  your  hand,"  replied  the  humiliated  prisoner. 

"  All  right,"  said  Hancock,  "  I  shouldn't  have  offered  it  to  you  under  any 
other  circumstances." 

Hancock  was  in  command  of  the  Second  Army  Corps  for  the  last  time  at 
the  battle  of  Boydton.  His  remarkable  skill  in  training  soldiers  caused  Secretary 
Stanton  to  assign  to  him  the  task  of  organizing  the  First  Veteran  Corps,  com 
posed  of  soldiers,  all  of  whom  had  been  in  service  two  years.  He  afterward 
commanded  the  Army  of  the  Shenandoah,  and  was  in  charge  at  Washington  at 
the  time  of  the  assassination  of  Lincoln. 

In  1809,  he  was  transferred  from  the  command  of  the  division  of  the 
Atlantic  and  assigned  to  that  of  Dakota,  where  he  remained  until  1872,  when 
he  resumed  command  of  the  division  of  the  Atlantic.  His  last  public  appear 
ance  was  when  he  commanded  the  military  forces  which  assisted  in  the  funeral 
ceremonies  of  General  Grant. 

As  a  proof  that  General  Hancock's  skill  with  the  pen  was  hardly  less  than 
that  with  the  sword,  the  following  extract  is  given  from  an  article  by  him  on 
the  battle  of  Gettysburg  : 

"  Cemetery  Hill   has  since  become  consecrated  ground.     The  place  where 


CAPITAL  AND  LABOR.  469 

General  Howard  was  superseded  in  command  on  the  first  day  of  the  fight  is 
now  covered  with  the  graves  of  thousands  of  gallant  soldiers  whose  bones  lie 
buried  at  the  base  of  the  beautiful  monumental  column  which  commemorates 
their  fame.  Two  of  the  marble  statues  ornamenting  the  pedestal  personify  War 
and  History.  War,  symbolized  by  a  soldier  resting  from  the  conflict,  narrates 
to  History  the  story  of  the  struggle  and  the  deeds  of  the  martyr-heroes  who  fell 
in  that  famous  battle.  In  remembrance  of  these  noble  comrades  who  laid  down 
their  lives  for  the  general  weal,  it  were  simply  sacrilege  for  any  survivor  to  pour 
into  the  ears  of  History  an  incorrect  account  of  the  contest,  still  more  to  assume 
to  himself  honors  belonging  perhaps  less  to  the  living  than  to  the  dead. 

"The  historian  of  the  future  who  essays  to  tell  the  tale  of  Gettysburg 
undertakes  an  onerous  task,  a  high  responsibility,  a  sacred  trust.  Above  all 
things,  justice  and  truth  should  dwell  in  his  mind  and  heart.  Then,  dipping 
his  pen  as  it  were  in  the  crimson  tide,  the  sunshine  of  heaven  lighting  his  page, 
giving  'honor  to  whom  honor  is  due,'  doing  even,  justice  to  the  splendid  valor 
alike  of  friend  and  foe,  he  may  tell  the  world  how  the  rain  descended  in  streams 
of  fire,  and  the  floods  came  in  the  billows  of  rebellion,  and  the  winds  blew  in 
blasts  of  fraternal  execration,  and  beat  upon  the  fabric  of  the  Federal  Union,  and 
that  it  fell  not,  for,  resting  on  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people,  it  was 
founded  upon  a  rock."  General  Hancock  died  February  9,  1886. 

CAPITAL   AND    LABOR. 

Perhaps  the  gravest  problem  which  confronts  our  country  is  the  eternal 
strife  between  capital  and  labor.  It  is  a  problem  which  wrhen  solved  will  prove 
one  of  the  most  beneficent  boons  that  ever  blessed  mankind.  Disputes  continu 
ally  arise  between  employers  and  employes ;  strikes  have  occurred  without 
number,  many  of  them  attended  by  violence,  the  destruction  of  property  and 
lamentable  loss  of  life.  Arbitration  is  the  best  and  most  sensible  cure  for  the 
grave  peril  which  at  times  has  seemed  to  threaten  the  safety  of  our  institutions, 
and  when  the  employer  and  those  dependent  upon  him  for  the  support  of  them 
selves  and  families  meet  in  a  friendly  spirit  and  discuss  their  differences,  they 
are  certain  to  reach  an  amicable  agreement. 

That  men  have  the  right  to  strike  and  combine  against  a  lowering  of  their 
wages  or  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  them  is  beyond  all  dispute.  That  they 
have  the  right  to  destroy  property  or  prevent  other  men  from  taking  their 
places  is  contended  by  no  intelligent  person,  but,  so  long  as  human  nature 
remains  as  it  is,  they  will  do  so,  with  the  result  that  in  almost  every  instance 
it  is  the  laborers  themselves  who  are  the  greatest  losers  and  sufferers. 

One  fact  for  which  all  ought  to  be  grateful  is  that  the  murderous  anarchists 
who  once  plotted  and  struck  with  the  venom  of  rattlesnakes  have  either  disap 
peared  or  ceased  their  evil  work.  They  are  scarcely  heard  of  in  these  days,  and 


470  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

that  it  may  ever  remain  thus  is  the  fervent  wish  of  every  patriotic  and  right- 
minded  citizen. 

It  is  inevitable  that  so  long  as  the  United  States  remains  an  asylum  for  the 
persecuted  and  oppressed  of  all  nations,  it  must  receive  many  of  the  miscreants 
that  have  been  compelled  to  flee  from  their  own  countries  to  escape  the  penalty 
of  their  crimes.  Despite  the  ravings  of  the  anarchists,  we  have  good-naturedly 
let  them  alone,  not  believing  they  would  ever  dare  to  carry  out  any  of  the 
threats  which  they  were  so  fond  of  making.  Thus  they  became  emboldened 
and  finally  ventured  to  put  their  execrable  principles  into  practice. 

There  were  a  good  many  strikes  in  different  parts  of  the  country  in  the 
early  months  of  1886.  A  number  were  settled  by  arbitration,  such  as  the 
strike  on  the  elevated  railroads  in  New  York  City,  but  others  were  fought  out 
to  the  bitter  end. 

A  strike  occurred  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  Railroad  in  the  spring  of  1886. 
The  strikers  became  violent,  destroyed  property,  and  a  number  of  lives  were  lost. 
The  end  came  in  May,  and,  as  is  generally  the  case,  it  was  against  the  em 
ployes,  many  of  whom  were  unable  to  regain  the  places  that  had  been  taken  by 
others. 

ANARCHISTIC   OUTBREAK    IN    CHICAGO. 

The  cry  for  eight  hours,  at  the  same  rate  of  wages  previously  paid  for  ten, 
was  raised  in  New  York  and  Chicago  in  May,  1886.  Here  and  there  a  com 
promise  of  nine  hours  was  agreed  upon  with  a  half  of  each  Saturday  for  the  em 
ployes,  but  in  other  cases  the  employers  would  not  yield  anything.  This  issue 
led  to  the  strike  of  40,000  workmen  in  Chicago,  who  were  chiefly  lumbermen, 
brickmakers,  freight-handlers,  iron-workers,  and  men  employed  in  factories. 
So  many  people  were  idle  that  business  of  all  kinds  suffered.  Naturally  there 
were  many  parades  and  much  speech-making.  That  "an  idle  mind  is  the 
devil's  workshop"  was  proven  by  the  appearance  of  the  communistic  red  flag 
in  some  of  the  parades  and  by  the  savage  utterances  of  their  speech-makers. 

The  pork  packers  and  brewers  amicably  adjusted  the  strikes  of  their  men, 
but  the  majority  of  the  employers  refused  to  concede  anything.  Sunday,  the 
2d  of  May,  passed  without  incident,  but  the  police  knew  the  anarchists  were 
plotting  and  trouble  was  at  hand.  Probably  12,000  strikers  gathered  the  next 
day  at  the  McCormick  Reaper  Works  on  Western  Avenue,  where  they  shattered 
the  windows  with  stones.  At  the  moment  an  attack  was  about  to  be  made  upon 
the  buildings,  a  patrol  wagon  dashed  up  with  twelve  policemen,  who  sprang  to 
the  ground.  Drawing  their  revolvers  they  faced  the  mob  and  ordered  them  to 
disperse.  They  were  answered  with  a  volley  of  stones.  The  policemen  fired 
twice  over  the  heads  of  the  rioters,  thereby  encouraging  instead  of  intimidating 
them.  Seeing  the  folly  of  throwing  away  their  shots,  the  policemen  now  fired 


ANARCHISTIC  OUTBREAK  IN  CHICAGO 


471 


directly  at  the  rioters,  who  answered  with  pistol-shots,  but  they  did  not  hit  any 
of  the  officers. 

Other  patrol  wagons  hurried  up,  and  the  officers  did  not  wait  until  they 
could  leap  out  before  opening  fire.  Their  brave  attack  forced  back  the  mob, 
and  in  the  course  of  an  hour  the  streets  were  cleared.  The  terrified  workmen 
were  escorted  by  the  policemen  to  their  homes.  But  for  such  protection  they 
would  have  been  killed  by  the 
infuriated  rioters. 

Tuesday  was  marked  by 
many  affrays  between  the  offi 
cers  and  law-breakers,  but  no 
serious  conflict  occurred.  Pla 
cards  were  distributed  during 
the  day,  calling  upon  the 
"  workingmen "  to  meet  that 
evening  at  the  old  Haymarket 
Place,  and  the  organ  of  tlie 
anarchists  urged  the  men  to 
arm  against  the  police.  At  the 
meeting  the  most  incendiary 
speeches  were  made,  and  the 
speakers  had  roused  the  several 
thousand  listeners  to  the  high 
est  pitch  of  excitement,  when 
Inspector  Bon  field  at  the  head 
of  a  column  of  officers  forced 
his  way  to  the  stand,  ordered 
the  speaker  to  stop,  and  com 
manded  the  crowd  to  disperse. 
He  was  answered  with  jeers 
and  a  storm  of  missiles.  While 
the  policemen  were  calmly 
-awaiting  the  orders  of  the  in 
spector,  some  one  in  the  crowd  threw  a  sputtering  dynamite  bomb  at  the  feet 
of  the  officers. 

A  moment  later  it  exploded,  killing  seven  and  crippling  eleven  for  life. 
The  enraged  survivors  dashed  into  the  mob,  shooting  and  using  their  clubs  with 
fearful  effect,  Within  five  minutes  the  crowd  was  scattered,  but  many  lny  dead 
and  wounded  on  the  ground.  In  the  investigation  that  followed,  it  was  shown 
that  the  anarchists  had  planned  to  slay  hundreds  of  innocent  people  and  plunder 


OLD   HAYMARKET  PLAZA,  CHICAGO. 

This  monument  shows  the  spot  where  on  May  3, 1886,  a  dynamite  bomb 
was  thrown  by  anarchists  into  a  group  of  policemen,  killing  seven,  crip 
pling  eleven  for  life,  and  injuring  twelve  others  so  they  were  unable  to  do 
duty  for  a  year. 


472  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

the  city.  Their  leaders  were  brought  to  trial,  ably  defended,  and  the  most 
prominent  sentenced  to  death.  One  committed  suicide,  a  number  were  hanged, 
and  others  sentenced  to  long  terms  of  imprisonment.  All  of  the  latter  were 
pardoned  by  Governor  Altgeld  when  he  assumed  office.  Since  that  time,  as 
has  been  stated,  the  anarchists  have  given  little  trouble. 

THE    CHARLESTON    EARTHQUAKE. 

The  year  1886  was  marked  by  one  of  the  most  terrifying  visitations  that 
can  come  to  any  country.  Earthquake  shocks  have  been  felt  in  different  places 
in  the  United  States,  and  the  earth-tremors  are  so  frequent  in  California  that 
they  cause  little  alarm,  for  very  few  have  inflicted  any  damage  to  property  or 
life. 

On  the  night  of  August  31st,  the  city  of  Richmond,  Virginia,  was  thrown 
into  consternation  by  a  series  of  earthquake  shocks.  The  convicts  in  the  peni 
tentiary  became  so  panic-stricken  that  the  militia  had  to  be  called  out  to  control 
them.  The  shock  was  felt  still  more  violently  in  Columbia,  South  Carolina, 
The  buildings  swayed  as  if  rocked  in  a  gale,  and  hundreds  of  citizens  rushed 
into  the  street  in  their  night  robes.  The  scenes  were  less  startling  in  Memphis, 
Nashville,  Raleigh,  Chattanooga,  Selma,  Lynchburg,  Norfolk,  Mobile,  St.  Louis, 
Cleveland,  Indianapolis,  Chicago,  Pittsburg,  while  the  tremor  was  felt  as  far 
north  as  Albany,  N.  Y. 

The  most  fearful  visitation,  however,  was  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina. 
Telegraphic  communication  was  cut  off  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  for  hours- 
the  horrifying  belief  prevailed  that  the  city  had  been  entirely  destroyed.  Suchr 
happily,  was  not  the  fact,  though  never  in  all  the  stormy  history  of  Charleston 
did  she  pass  through  so  terrible  an  experience. 

Late  on  the  evening  named,  the  inhabitants  found  themselves  tossed  abouty 
with  their  houses  tumbling  into  ruins.  They  ran  in  terror  into  the  streets,  many 
not  stopping  until  they  reached  the  open  country,  while  others  flung  themselves 
on  their  knees  and  begged  heaven  to  save  them. 

The  shocks  that  night  were  ten  in  number,  each  less  violent  than  its  pre 
decessor.  Fires  started  in  several  quarters,  and  twenty  houses  were  burned  be 
fore  the  firemen  gained  control.  The  next  morning  vibrations  again  shook  the 
city,  all  coming  from  the  southeast  and  passing  off  in  a  northwesterly  direction. 
The  first  warning  was  a  deep,  subterraneous  rumbling,  then  the  earth  quivered 
and  heaved,  and  in  a  few  seconds  the  terrific  wave  had  gone  by.  When  night 
came  again,  50,000  people — men,  women,  and  children — were  in  the  streets,  none 
daring  to  enter  their  houses.  They  fled  to  the  open  squares  to  escape  being* 
crushed  by  the  falling  buildings.  Many  believed  the  day  of  judgment  had  come 
and  the  negroes  were  frenzied  with  terror. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  APACHES.  473 

Singular  effects  of  the  earthquake  showed  themselves.  In  some  places, 
the  covers  were  hurled  from  the  wells  and  were  followed  by  geysers  of  mud  and 
water.  Some  wells  were  entirely  emptied,  but  they  soon  refilled.  The  shocks 
continued  at  varying  intervals  for  several  weeks,  though  none  was  as  violent  as 
at  first.  In  Charleston  fully  a  hundred  people  were  killed  and  two-thirds  of  the 
city  required  rebuilding.  While  damage  was  done  at  other  points,  none  equaled 
that  at  Charleston. 

The  country  was  quick  to  respond  to  the  needs  of  the  smitten  city.  Con 
tributions  were  forwarded  from  every  point  as  freely  as  when  Chicago  was  devas 
tated  by  fire.  Tents,  provisions,  and  many  thousands  of  dollars  were  sent  thither. 
Even  Queen  Victoria  telegraphed  her  sympathy  to  President  Cleveland.  One 
of  the  mitigations  of  such  scourges  is  that  they  seem  to  draw  humanity  closer 
into  one  general  brotherhood. 

COXQUEgT  OF  THE  APACHES. 

An  important  work  accomplished  during  the  first  administration  of  Cleve 
land  was  the  conquest  and  subjection  of  the  Apaches  of  the  Southwest.  These 
Indians  are  the  most  terrible  red  men  that  ever  lived  anywhere.  They  are  in 
credibly  tough  of  frame,  as  merciless  as  tigers,  and  capable  of  undergoing  hard 
ships  and  privations  before  which  any  other  people  would  succumb.  They  will 
travel  for  days  without  a  mouthful  of  food,  will  go  for  hour  after  hour  through 
a  climate  that  is  like  that  of  Sahara  without  a  drop  of  moisture,  will  climb  pre 
cipitous  mountains  as  readily  as  a  slight  declivity,  will  lope  across  the  burning 
deserts  all  day  without  fatigue,  or,  if  riding  one  of  their  wiry  ponies,  will  kill 
and  eat  a  portion  of  them  when  hunger  must  be  attended  to,  and  then  continue 
their  journey  on  foot. 

If  a  party  of  Apache  raiders  are  hard  pressed  by  cavalry,  they  will  break 
up  and  continue  their  flight  singly,  meeting  at  some  rendezvous  many  miles 
away,  after  the  discouraged  troopers  have  abandoned  pursuit.  They  seem  as 
impervious  to  the  fiery  heat  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  as  salamanders.  To 
night  they  may  burn  a  ranchman's  home,  massacre  him  and  all  his  family,  and 
to-morrow  morning  will  repeat  the  crime  fifty  miles  distant. 

No  men  could  have  displayed  more  bravery  and  endurance  in  running 
down  the  Apaches  than  the  United  States  cavalry.  The  metal-work  of  their 
weapons  grew  so  hot  that  it  would  blister  the  bare  hands,  and  for  days  the 
thermometer  marked  one  hundred  and  twenty  degrees. 

Captain  Bourke,  who  understands  these  frightful  red  men  thoroughly,  gives 
the  following  description  of  the  Apache  : 

"  Physically,  he  is  perfect;  he  might  be  a  trifle  taller  for  artistic  effect,  but 
his  apparent  'squattiness'  is  due  more  to  great  girth  of  chest  than  to  diminutive 


474  ADMINISTRATION   OF  CLEVELAND. 

stature.  His  muscles  are  hard  as  bone,  and  I  have  seen  one  light  a  match  on 
the  sole  of  his  foot.  When  Crook  first  took  the  Apache  in  hand,  he  had  few 
wants  and  cared  for  no  luxuries.  War  was  his  business,  his  life,  and  victory 
his  dream.  To  attack  a  Mexican  camp  or  isolated  village,  and  run  off  a  herd 
of  cattle,  mules,  or  sheep,  he  would  gladly  travel  hundreds  of  miles,  incurring 
every  risk  and  displaying  a  courage  which  would  have  been  extolled  in  a 
historical  novel  as  having  happened  in  a  raid  by  Highlanders  upon  Scotchmen; 
but  when  it  was  your  stock,  or  your  friend's  stock,  it  became  quite  a  different 
matter.  He  wore  no  clothing  whatever  save  a  narrow  piece  of  calico  or  buck 
skin  about  his  loins,  a  helmet  also  of  buckskin,  plentifully  crested  with  the 
plumage  of  the  wild  turkey  and  eagle,  and  long-legged  moccasins,  held  to  the 
waist  by  a  string,  and  turned  up  at  the  toes  in  a  shield  which  protected  him 
from  stones  and  the  'cholla'  cactus.  If  he  felt  thirsty,  he  drank  from  the 
nearest  brook  ;  if  there  was  no  brook  near  by  he  went  without,  and,  putting  a 
stone  or  a  twig  in  his  mouth  to  induce  a  flow  of  saliva,  journeyed  on.  When  he 
desired  to  communicate  with  friends  at  home,  or  to  put  himself  in  correspondence 
with  persons  whose  co-operation  had  been  promised,  he  rubbed  two  sticks 
together,  and  dense  signal  smoke  rolled  to  the  zenith,  and  was  answered  from 
peaks  twenty  and  thirty  miles  away.  By  nightfall,  his  bivouac  was  pitched  at 
a  distance  from  water,  generally  on  the  flank  of  a  rocky  mountain,  along  which 
no  trail  would  be  left,  and  up  which  no  force  of  cavalry  could  hope  to  ascend 
without  making  noise  enough  to  wake  the  dead." 

This  graphic  picture  of  the  dusky  scourge  of  the  Southwest  will  explain 
the  dread  in  which  he  was  held  by  all  who  were  compelled  to  live  away  from 
the  towns.  When  practicable,  the  ranchmen  combined  against  the  Apaches, 
but,  from  the  necessities  of  the  case,  they  were  powerless  to  extirpate  the  pests. 
Unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  by  the  military  forces,  but  nothing  definite 
was  accomplished  until  General  George  Crook  took  the  work  in  hand. 

Crook  was  an  old  Indian  campaigner  who  thoroughly  understood  the  nature 
of  the*  difficult  task  before  him.  His  preparations  being  completed,  he  ordered  his 
different  columns  to  converge,  December  9,  1872,  on  Tonto  Basin,  which  was 
one  of  the  principal  strongholds  of  the  Apaches  in  Arizona.  The  section  is 
inclosed  by  the  Mogollen,  the  Mazatzal,  and  the  Sierra  Ancha  Mountains,  and 
the  timbered  region  is  so  elevated  that  during  the  winter  months  it  is  covered 
with  snow.  Crook  himself  took  station  at  Camp  Grant,  one  of  the  most. unat 
tractive  posts  in  the  country. 

This  officer  having  started  on  his  campaign  pushed  it  with  untiring  energy. 
He  had  selected  the  best  Indian  fighters  to  be  found  anywhere,  and  they  pursued 
and  rounded  up  the  bucks  with  amazing  skill  and  persistency.  As  soon  as  they 
corralled  a  party  of  hostiles,  they  impressed  the  best  trailers  and  used  them  in 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  APACHES. 


475 


running  down  the  others.     The  Indians  were  allowed  no  time  to  rest.     When 

they  had  fled  many  miles,  and  supposed  their  pursuers  were  left  far  out  of  sight, 

as  had  hitherto  been  the  case,  they  discovered  them  *it  their  heels.     Plunging 

into  their  fastnesses  in  the  mountains  did   not  avail,  for  the  white  and  the  red 

trailers  could  follow  and  did  follow  them  wherever  they  took  refuge. 

The  pursuing  detachments   frequently  crossed  one  another's  trails,  often 

met  and  kept  within  supporting  distance.     The  danger  which  threatened  the 

Apaches    was    as    present   in    the 

darkness    as    when    the    sun    was 

shining.      One  of  the   seemingly 

inaccessible     strongholds     was 

reached  by  the  troopers  pushing 

the  pursuit  all  through  the  night. 

As  a  proof  of   the   skill   of  the 

Apache   trailers,  it  may   be   said 
they    were   often   guided   in     the 

gloom  by  the  feeling  of  their  feet, 
which  told  them  when  they  were 
on  the  trail  of  the  enemy.  Cap 
tain  Bourke,  whom  we  have 
quoted,  was  in  command  of  a 
detachment  of  the  best  Indian 
trailers  and  sharpshooters.  He 
thus  describes  the  scene  and  in 
cidents,  when,  after  hours  of 
stealthy  pursuit  through  the  rough 
region,  they  came  upon  the  hostiles, 
who  believed  themselves  beyond 
reach  of  the  most  persistent  ene 
mies  of  any  race: 

"  Lieutenant  William  J.  Eoss, 
of  the  Twenty-first  Infantry,  was 
assigned  to  lead  the  first  detachment,  which  contained  the  best  shots  from  among 
the  soldiers,  packers,  and  scouts.  The  second  detachment  came  under  my  own 
•orders.  Our  pioneer  party  slipped  down  the  face  of  the  precipice  without  acci 
dent,  following  a  trail  from  which  an  incautious  step  would  have  caused  them 
to  be  dashed  to  pieces ;  after  a  couple  of  hundred  yards  this  brought  them  face 
•to  face  with  the  cave,  and  not  two  hundred  feet  from  it,  In  front  of  the  cave 
vras  the  party  of  raiders,  just  returned  from  their  successful  trip  of  1 
robbing  in  the  settlement  near  Florence  on  the  Gila  River.  They  were  danc:** 


GENERAL  CROOK'S  APACHE   GUIDE. 


476  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

to  keep  themselves  warm  and  to  express  their  joy  over  their  safe  return.  Half 
a  dozen  or  more  of  the  squaws  had  arisen  from  their  slumbers  and  were  bending 
over  a  fire  and  hurriedly  preparing  refreshments  for  their  victorious  kinsmen. 
The  fitful  gleam  of  the  glowing  flame  gave  a  Macbethian  tinge  to  the  weird 
scene,  and  brought  into  bold  relief  the  grim  outlines  of  the  cliffs,  between  whose 
steep  walls,  hundreds  of  feet  below,  growled  the  rushing  current  of  the  swift 

Sal  ado. 

"  The  Indians,  men  and  women,  were  in  high  good  humor,  and  why  should 
they  not  be?  Sheltered  in  the  bosom  of  these  grim  precipices,  only  the  eagle, 
the  hawk,  the  turkey  buzzard,  or  the  mountain  sheep  could  venture  to  intrude 
upon  them.  But  hark  !  What  is  that  noise  ?  Can  it  be  the  breeze  of  morning 
which  sounds  '  click,  click  ?  '  You  will  know  in  one  second  more,  poor,  deluded, 
red-skinned  wretches,  when  the  'bang!  boom!'  of  rifles  and  carbines,  reverbera 
ting  like  the  roar  of  a  cannon,  from  peak  to  peak,  shall  lay  six  of  your  number 
dead  in  the  dust. 

"  The  cold,  gray  dawn  of  that  chill  December  morning  was  sending  its  first 
rays  above  the  horizon  and  looking  down  upon  one  of  the  worst  bands  of 
Apaches  in  Arizona,  caught  like  wolves  in  a  trap.  They  rejected  with  scorn 
our  summons  to  surrender,  and  defiantly  shrieked  that  not  one  of  our  party 
should  escape  from  the  cafion.  We  heard  their  death-song  chanted,  and  then 
out  of  the  cave  and  over  the  great  pile  of  rocks,  which  protected  the  entrance 
like  a  parapet,  swarmed  the  warriors.  But  we  outnumbered  them  three  to  one, 
and  poured  in  lead  by  the  bucketful.  The  bullets,  striking  the  mouth  and  roof 
of  the  cave,  glanced  among  the  savages  in  rear  of  the  parapet,  and  wounded 
some  of  the  women  and  children,  whose  wails  filled  the  air. 

"  During  the  heaviest  part  of  the  firing,  a  little  boy  not  more  than  four  years 
old,  absolutely  naked,  ran  out  at  the  side  of  the  parapet  and  stood  dumfounded 
between  the  two  fires.  Nantaje,  without  a  moment's  pause,  rushed  forward, 
grasped  the  trembling  infant  by  the  arm,  and  escaped  unhurt  with  him,  inside 
our  lines.  A  bullet,  probably  deflected  from  the  rocks,  had  struck  the  boy  on 
top  of  his  head  and  plowed  around  to  the  back  of  his  neck,  leaving  a  welt  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  but  not  injuring  him  seriously.  Our  men  suspended 
their  firing  to  cheer  Nantaje  and  welcome  the  new  arrival ;  such  is  the  incon 
sistency  of  human  nature. 

"  Again  the  Apaches  were  summoned  to  surrender,  or,  if  they  would  not 
do  that,  to  let  such  of  their  women  and  children  as  so  desired  pass  out  between 
the  lines ;  again  they  yelled  their  refusal.  Their  end  had  come.  The  detach 
ment  led  by  Major  Brown  at  the  top  of  the  precipice,  to  protect  our  retreat  in 
case  of  necessity,  had  worked  its  way  ever  to  a  high  shelf  of  rock  overlooking 
the  enemy  beneath,  and  began  to  tumble  down  great  bowlders,  which  speedily 


A    GREAT  TRANSFORMATION. 


477 


crushed  the  greater  number  of  the  Apaches.  The  Indians  on  the  San  Carlos 
reservation  still  mourn  periodically  for  the  seventy-six  of  their  relatives  who 
yielded  up  the  ghost  that  morning.  Every  warrior  died  at  his  post.  The 
women  and  children  had  hidden  themselves  in  the  inner  recesses  of  the  cave, 
which  was  of  no  great  depth,  and  were  captured  and  taken  to  Camp  McDowell. 
A  number  of  them  had  been  struck  by  glancing  bullets  or  fragments  of  falling 
rock.  As  soon  as  our  pack  trains  could  be  brought  up,  we  mounted  the  captives 
on  our  horses  and  mules  and  started  for  the  nearest  military  station,  the  one 
just  named,  over  fifty  miles  away." 

This  was  one  of  the  most  decisive  blows  received  by  the  hostiles.  No  more 
murderous  band  had  ever  desolated  the  ranches  of  Southern  Arizona.  It  had 
been  virtually  wiped  out  by  the  troopers, 
who,  complete  as  was  their  work,  lost  only 
a  single  man. 

A   GREAT   TRANSFORMATION. 

This  achievement  may  illustrate  the 
manner  in  which  the  American  troopers 
did  their  work.  A  few  days  later  a  blow 
almost  as  destructive  was  delivered  at 
Turret  Butte,  and  within  a  month  a  hun 
dred  and  ten  Apaches  in  the  Superstition 
Mountains  surrendered  to  Major  Brown 
and  accompanied  him  to  Camp  Grant. 
The  Indians  understood  the  character  of 
the  man  who  was  pressing  them  so  re 
morselessly.  They  offered  to  surrender 
to  General  Crook,  who  told  them  that,  if  they  would  stop  killing  people  and  live 
peaceful  lives,  he  would  teach  them  to  work,  find  a  market  for  their  products, 
and  prove  himself  the  truest  friend  they  could  have. 

They  accepted  the  offer,  for  they  knew  Crook  could  be  trusted.  Strange 
as  it  may  appear,  he  had  all  the  Apaches  within  a  month  at  work  digging 
ditches,  cutting  hay  and  wood,  planting  vegetables,  and  as  peaceful  and 
contented  as  so  many  farmers  in  the  interior  of  one  of  our  own  States.  This 
transformation  -included  all  the  Apaches  in  Arizona,  excepting  the  Chiricahuas, 
who  were  not  within  the  jurisdiction  of  Crook. 

The  terrible  scourge  that  had  so  long  desolated  the  Southwest  was  gone,  and 
all  would  have  been  well  but  for  the  vicious  "Indian  King"  in  Washington,  or, 
as  it  was  more  popularly  known,  the  "Tucson  King,"  who  secured  legislation  by 
which  the  6,000  Apaches  were  ordered  to  leave  the  reservation  and  go  to  that 


AN  INDIAN  -WARRIOR. 


478  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

of  San  Carlos,  where  the  soil  is  arid,  the  water  brackish,  and  the  flies  make  life 
intolerable.  As  was  inevitable,  the  Indians  were  exasperated  and  revolted.  They 
preferred  to  be  shot  down  while  resenting  the  injustice  than  to  submit  quietly 
to  it.  Again  the  reign  of  terror  opened,  and  the  blood  of  hundreds  of  innocent 
people  paid  for  the  villainy  of  the  rapacious  miscreants  who  were  beyond 
reach. 

GERONIMO,  THE  FAMOUS  APACHE  CHIEF. 

The  most  famous  chief  of  the  Warm  Spring  Apaches  was  Geronimo* 
Another  hardly  less  prominent  was  his  cousin  Chato,  who  joined  the  whites  in 
their  attempts  to  run  down  Geronimo.  They  professed  to  hate  each  other,  but 
there  is  ground  for  believing  the  two  were  secret  allies,  and  kept  up  continual 
communication  by  which  Geronimo  was  able  to  avoid  his  pursuers  and  continue 
his  fearful  career. 

General  Crook  took  the  saddle  again,  when  Geronimo  escaped  from  Fort 
Apache  in  May,  1885,  with  a  band  of  more  than  a  hundred  warriors,  women, 
and  children.  They  traveled  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  before  making 
their  first  camp.  Try  as  they  might,  the  cavalry  could  not  get  within  gunshot, 
and,  though  the  chase  was  pressed  for  hundreds  of  miles,  the  fugitives  placed 
themselves  beyond  reach  for  a  time  in  the  Sierra  Mad  re  Mountains. 

But  Crook  never  let  up,  and  finally  corralled  Geronimo.  He  held  him  just 
one  night,  when  he  escaped.  The  wily  leader  stole  back  to  camp  the  next  night, 
carried  off  his  wife,  and  was  beyond  reach  before  pursuit  could  be  made. 

There  was  an  agreement  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico  by  which 
the  troops  of  the  former  were  allowed  to  follow  any  marauding  Indians  beyond 
the  Rio  Grande  when  they  were  seeking  escape  by  entering  Mexico.  General 
H.  W.  Lawton  (who  won  fame  in  Cuba  during  our  late  war  with  Spain  and 
still  more  in  the  Philippines)  took  the  field  with  the  Fourth  Cavalry,  May  5 
1885.  Lawton  is  a  giant  in  stature  and  strength,  with  more  endurance  than 
an  Indian,  absolutely  fearless,  and  he  was  resolute  to  run  down  the  Apaches, 
even  if  compelled  to  chase  them  to  the  city  of  Mexico. 

And  he  did  it.     Geronimo  was  followed  with  such   untiring  persistency, 

losing  a  number  of  his  bucks  in  the  attacks  made  on  him,  that  in  desperation 

he  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  and  headed  again  for  the  Sierra  Madre.     A  hot  chase 

of  two  hundred  miles  brought  the  Apaches  to  bay,  and  a  brisk  fight  took  place 

within  the  confines  of  Mexico.     The  Indians  fled  again,  and  Lawton  kept  after 

The  pursuit  took  the  troopers  300  miles  south  of  the  boundary  line, 

:rail  winding  in  and  out  of  the  mountains  and  canons  of  Sonora,  repeatedly 

crossing  and  doubling  upon   itself,  but  all  the  time  drawing  nearer  the  dusky 

scourges,  who  at  last  were  so  worn  out  and  exhausted  that  when  summoned  to 

surrender  they  did  so. 


THE   TWENTY-THIRD   PRESIDENT. 


479 


Geronimo,  one  of  the  worst  of  all  the  Apaches,  was  once  more  a  prisoner 
with  his  band.  But  he  had  been  a  prisoner  before,  only  to  escape  and  renew 
his  outrages.  So  long  as  he  was  anywhere  in  the  Southwest,  the  ranchmen  felt 
unsafe.  Accordingly,  he  aiul  his  leading  chiefs  were  sent  to  Fort  Pickens, 
Florida,  the  others  being  forwarded  to  Fort  Marion,  St.  Augustine.  Their 
health  after  a  time  was  affected,  and  they  were  removed  to  Mount  Vernon, 
Alabama.  The  prisoners,  including  the  women  and  children,  number  about 
400.  A  school  was  opened,  whither  the  boys  and  girls  were  sent  to  receive 
instruction,  and  some  of  the  brightest  pupils  in  the  well-known  Indian  School 
at  Carlisle  were  the  boys  and  girls 
whose  fathers  were  merciless  raiders 
in  Arizona  only  a  few  years  ago, 
and  who  are  now  quiet,  peaceful,  con 
tented,  and  "good  Indians."  The 
Apaches  have  been  thoroughly  con 
quered,  and  the  ranchmen  and  their 
families  have  not  the  shadow  of  a 
fear  that  the  terror  that  once  shad 
owed  their  thresholds  can  ever  return. 


PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION   OF    1888. 

Although  President  Cleveland 
offended  many  of  his  party  by  his 
devotion  to  the  policy  of  civil  ser 
vice  reform,  he  was  renominated  in 
1888,  while  the  nominee  of  the  Re 
publicans  was  Benjamin  Harrison. 
Other  tickets  were  placed  in  the 
field,  and  the  November  election 
resulted  as  follows  :  Grover  Cleve 
land  and  Allen  G.  Thurman,  Demo 
crats,  168  electoral  votes  ;  Benjamin  Harrison  and  Levi  P.  Morton,  Republicans,. 
233;  Clinton  B.  Fisk  and  John  A.  Brooks,  Prohibition,  received  249,907  pop 
ular  votes  ;  Alson  J.  Streeter  and  C.  E.  Cunningham,  United  Labor,  148,105;. 
James  L.  Curtis  and  James  R.  Greer,  American,  1,591. 

THE  TWENTY-THIRD    PRESIDENT. 

Benjamin  Harrison  was  born  at  North  Bend,  Ohio,  August  20,  1833.  His- 
father  was  a  farmer,  and  his  father  was  General  William  Henry  Harrison,  gov 
ernor  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  and  afterward  President  of  the  United  States,. 


BJ5NJAMIN   HARBISON. 
(1833-       .)    One  term,  1889-1894. 


480  ADMINISTRATION  OF  HARRISON. 

and  the  first  to  die  in  office.  His  father  was  Benjamin  Harrison,  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Thus  the  twenty-third  President 
possesses  illustrious  lineage. 

Benjamin  Harrison  entered  Miami  University  when  a  boy,  and  was  grad 
uated  before  the  age  of  twenty.  He  studied  law,  and  upon  his  admission  to  the 
bar  settled  in  Indianapolis,  which  has  since  been  his  home.  He  volunteered 
early  in  the  war,  and  won  the  praise  of  Sheridan  and  other  leaders  for  his  gal 
lantry  and  bravery.  He  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1881,  and 
his  ability  placed  him  among  the  foremost  leaders  in  that  distinguished  body. 
As  a  debater  and  off-hand  speaker,  he  probably  has  no  superior,  while  his  ability 
as  a  lawyer  long  ago  placed  him  in  the  very  front  rank  of  his  profession. 

THE   JOHNSTOWX    DISASTER. 

The  Conemaugh  Valley,  in  the  eastern  part  of  Pennsylvania,  is  about  twenty 
miles  in  length.  The  city  of  Johnstown  lies  thirty-nine  miles  west-southwest  of 
Altoona  and  seventy-eight  miles  east-by-south  of  Pittsburg.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Cambria  Iron  Works,  which  give  employment  to  fully  6,000  men,  and  is  one 
of  the  leading  industrial  establishments  of  the  country.  Conemaugh  Lake  is  at 
the  head  of  the  winding  valley,  eighteen  miles  away,  and  was  the  largest  reser 
voir  of  water  in  the  world.  It  was  a  mile  and  a  half  wide  at  its  broadest  part, 
and  two  miles  and  a  half  long.  Most  of  the  lake  was  a  hundred  feet  deep. 
The  dam  was  a  fifth  of  a  mile  wide,  ninety  feet  thick  at  its  base,  and  one  hun 
dred  and  ten  feet  high.  The  mass  of  water  thus  held  in  restraint  was  incon 
ceivable. 

The  people  living  in  the  valley  below  had  often  reflected  upon  the  appalling 
consequences  if  this  dam  should  give  way.  Few  persons  comprehend  the  mighty 
strength  of  water,  whose  pressure  depends  mainly  upon  its  depth.  A  tiny  stream, 
no  thicker  than  a  pipe-stem,  can  penetrate  deeply  enough  into  a  mountain  to 
split  it  apart,  and,  should  the  reservoir  ever  burst  its  bounds,  it  would  spread 
death  and  desolation  over  miles  of  country  below. 

There  had  been  several  alarms,  but  the  engineers  sent  to  make  an  examina 
tion  of  the  dam  always  reported  it  safe,  and  the  people,  like  those  who  live  at 
the  base  of  a  volcano,  came  to  believe  that  all  the  danger  existed  in  their 
imagination. 

On  the  31st  of  May,  1889,  the  dam  suddenly  gave  way,  sliding  from  its 
base,  like  an  oiled  piece  of  machinery,  and  the  vast  mass  of  water  shot  forward 
at  the  speed  of  more  than  two  miles  a  minute.  Seven  minutes  after  the  bursting 
of  the  dam,  the  head  of  the  resistless  flood  was  eighteen  miles  down  the  valley. 
A  man  on  horseback  had  started,  at  a  dead-run,  some  minutes  before  the  catas 
trophe,  shouting  a  warning  to  the  inhabitants,  some  of  whom,  by  instantly 


A  FURIOUS   TORRENT. 


481 


taking  to  flight  up  the  mountain  side,  were  able  to  save  themselves,  but  the 
majority  waited  too  long. 

A    FURIOUS   TORRENT. 

Imagination  cannot  picture  the  awful  power  of  this  prodigious  torrent. 
Trees  were  uptorn  or  flattened  to  the  earth,  houses,  locomotives,  and  massive 
machinery  were  tumbled  over  and  over  and  bobbed  about  like  so  many  corks, 
and  the  flood  struck  Johnstown  with  the  fury  of  a  cyclone,  sweeping  everything 
before  it,  as  if  it  were  so  much  chaff.  Tearing  through  the  city  and  carrying 
with  it  thousands  of  tons  of  wreckage  of 
every  description,  it  plunged  down  the 
valley  till  it  reached  the  railroad  bridge 
belowr  Johnstown.  There,  for  the  first 
time,  it  encountered  an  obstruction  which 
it  could  not  overcome.  The  structure 
stood  as  immovable  as  a  solid  mountain, 
and  the  furious  torrent  piled  up  the  de 
bris  for  a  mile  in  width  and  many  feet  in 
depth.  In  this  mass  were  engines,  houses, 
trees,  furniture,  household  utensils,  iron  in 
all  forms,  while,  winding  in  and  out,  were 
hundreds  of  miles  of  barbed  wire,  which 
knit  the  wreckage  together.  In  many  of 
the  dwellings  people  were  imprisoned,  and 
before  a  step  could  be  taken  to  relieve 
them  fire  broke  out  and  scores  were  burned 
to  death. 

How  many  people  lost  their  lives  in 
the  Johnstown  flood  will  never  be  known. 
The  remains  of  bodies  were  found  for 
months  and  even  years  afterward.  The 

official  list,  when  made  up,  was  2,280,  of  which  741  bodies  were  unidentified; 
but  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  loss  was  fully  twice  the  number  given. 
Nothing  of  the  kind  has  ever  before  occurred  in  the  history  of  our  country, 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  such  a  disaster  will  never  be  repeated. 

Again  the  calamity  awoke  an  instant  sympathetic  response.  Provisions, 
tents,  and  money  were  sent  to  the  sufferers  from  all  parts  of  the  Union,  and 
nothing  that  could  relieve  them  was  neglected.  Johnstown  was  soon  rebuilt, 
and  to-day  there  are  no  signs  of  the  fearful  visitation  it  received,  only  a  compara 
tively  short  time  since.  On  November  14,  1892,  at  the  payment  of  the  annu 
ity  provided  for  the  orphans  of  Johnstown,  the  sum  of  $20,325  was  distributed. 

31 


INDIAN   MOTHER  AND   INFANT. 


482  ADMINISTRATION  OF  HARRISON. 

We  came  very  near  to  having  a  war  with  Chili  in  the  latter  part  of  1891. 
On  the  16th  of  October  of  that  year,  some  forty  men,  attached  to  the  American 
warship  Baltimore,  lying  in  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso,  obtained  leave  to  go 
ashore.  Sailors  at  such  times  are  as  frolicksome  as  so  many  boys  let  out  for  a 
vacation,  and  it  cannot  be  claimed  that  these  Jackies  were  models  of  order  and 
quiet  behavior.  They  were  in  uniform  and  without  weapons. 

They  had  been  in  the  city  only  a  short  time,  when  one  of  them  became 
involved  in  a  wrangle  with  a  Chilian.  His  companions  went  to  his  assistance 
whereupon  a  native  mob  quickly  gathered  and  set  upon  them.  The  Chilians 
detest  Americans,  and,  seeing  a  chance  to  vent  their  feelings,  they  did  so  with 
vindictive  fury.  They  far  outnumbered  the  sailors,  and  besides  nearly  every 
one  of  them  was  armed.  The  boatswain's  mate  of  the  Baltimore,  Riggin  by 
name,  was  killed  and  several  seriously  wounded,  one  of  whom  afterward  died 
from  his  injuries.  Thirty-five  of  the  Americans  were  arrested  and  thrown  into 
prison,  but  as  they  could  not  be  held  upon  any  criminal  charge  they  were 
released. 

The  captain  of  the  Baltimore  was  the  present  Rear-Admiral  Schley,  who 
rescued  the  Greely  party  of  Arctic  explorers,  and  gave  so  good  an  account  of 
himself,  while  in  command  of  the  Brooklyn,  during  the  destruction  of  Cervera's 
fleet  off  Santiago,  July  3,  1898.  AVhen  our  government  learned  of  the  affair, 
it  directed  Captain  Schley  to  make  a  full  investigation.  He  did  so,  and  his 
report  left  no  doubt  that  the  Chilians  had  committed  a  gross  outrage  against 
our  flag. 

The  next  act  of  our  government  was  to  demand  an  apology  from  Chili  and 
the  payment  of  an  indemnity  to  the  sufferers  and  to  the  families  of  those  who 
had  been  killed  by  the  attack  of  the  mob.  Chili  is  a  fiery  nation,  and  her 
reply  was  so  insolent  that  preparations  were  set  on  foot  to  bring  her  to  terms 
by  force  of  arms.  At  the  moment,  as  may  be  said,  when  war  impended,  she 
sent  an  apology  and  forwarded  a  satisfactory  indemnity,  whereupon  the  flurry 
subsided. 

A    GREAT    INDIAN    WAR   THREATENED    IN    1890-1891. 

A  still  greater  danger  threatened  the  country  in  the  winter  of  1890-1891, 
when  we  were  menaced  by  the  most  formidable  Indian  uprising  that  has  ever 
occurred  in.tlie  history  of  our  country. 

Indian  wars  hitherto  had  been  confined  to  certain  localities,  where,  by  the 
prompt  concentration  of  troops,  they  were  speedily  subdued  ;  but  in  the  instance 
named  the  combination  was  among  the  leading  and  most  warlike  tribes,  who 
roamed  over  thousands  of  square  miles  of  the  Northwest.  A  fact  not  generally 
suspected  is  that  the  red  men  of  this  country  are  as  numerous  to-day  as  they 
ever  were.  While  certain  tribes  have  disappeared,  others  have  increased  in 


KITTING   BULL.  4S3 

number,  with  the  result  that  the  sentimental  fancy  that  at  some  time  in  the 
future  the  red  man  will  disappear  from  the  continent  has  no  basis  in  fact.  The 
probability  is  that  they  will  increase,  though  not  so  rapidly  as  their  Caucasian 
brethren. 

The  strongest  tribe  in  the  Northwest  is  the  Sioux.  It  was  they  who  per 
petrated  the  massacres  in  Minnesota  in  1862.  If  necessary  they  could  place 
5,000  warriors  in  the  field,  with  every  man  a  brave  and  skillful  fighter  in  his 
way.  It  was  they,  too,  who  overwhelmed  Ouster  and  his  command  on  the  Little 
Big  Horn  in  June,  1876.  When  it  is  added  that  the  squaws  are  as  vicious 
fighters  as  their  husbands,  it  will  be  understood  what  a  war  with  them  means, 
especially  since  they  have  the  help  of  neighboring  tribes. 

For  a  long  time  there  have  been  two  classes  of  Indians.  The  progressives 
favor  civilization,  send  their  children  to  Carlisle  and  other  schools,  engage  in 
farming,  and,  in  short,  are  fully  civilized.  They  remain  on  their  reservation 
and  give  the  government  no  trouble.  Opposed  to  them  are  the  barbar  >ns,  or 
untamable  red  men,  who  refuse  to  accept  civilization,  hate  the  whites,  and  are 
ready  to  go  to  war  on  a  slight  pretext,  even  though  they  know  there  can  be  but 
one  result,  which  is  their  own  defeat, 

The  Indians  are  among  the  most  superstitious  people  in  the  world.  When,, 
therefore,  a  number  of  warriors  appeared  among  them,  dressed  in  white  shirts,, 
engaging  in  furious  " ghost  dances,"  and  declaring  that  the  Messiah  was  about 
to  revisit  the  earth,  drive  out  the  white  men,  and  restore  the  hunting  grounds 
to  the  faithful  Indians,  the  craze  spread  and  the  fanatical  promises  of  the  ghost 
dancers  were  eagerly  accepted  by  thousands  of  red  men. 

SITTING    BULL. 

The  most  dangerous  Sioux  Indian  was  the  medicine  man  known  as  Sitting 
Bull,  already  referred  to  in  our  account  of  the  Custer  massacre.  He  always 
felt  bitter  against  the  whites,  and  had  caused  them  a  good  deal  of  trouble.  He 
saw  in  the  ghost  dance  the  opportunity  for  which  he  longed,  and  he  began 
urging  his  people  to  unite  against  their  hereditary  enemies,  as  he  regarded  them. 

It  soon  became  apparent  that,  unless  he  was  restrained,  he  would  cause  the 
worst  kind  of  trouble,  and  it  was  determined  to  arrest  him.  The  most  effective 
officers  employed  against  the  men  are  the  Indian  police  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States  government.  These  people  did  not  like  Sitting  Bull,  and  hoped 
they  would  have  trouble  in  arresting  him,  since  it  would  give  the  pretext  they 
wanted  for  shooting  him. 

o 

Sitting  Bull's  camp  was  forty  miles  northwest  of  Fort  Yates,  North 
Dakota,  whither  the  Indian  police  rode  on  the  morning  of  December  15,  1890, 
with  the  United  States  cavalry  lingering  some  distance  in  the  rear.  The  taunts 


484  ADMINISTRATION  OF  HARRISON. 

of  Sitting  Bull's  boy  Crowfoot  caused  him  to  offer  resistance,  and  in  a  twinkling 
botli  parties  began  shooting.     Sitting  Bull,  his  son,  and  six  warriors  were  killed 
while  four  of  the  Indian  police  lost  tlu'ir  lives,  among  them  the  one  who  had 
fired  the  fatal  shot  at  the  medicine  man. 

The  remaining  members  of  Sitting  Bull's  command  fled  to  the  Bad 
Lands"  of  Dakota,  but  a  number  were  persuaded  to  return  to  Line  Ridge 
Agency  There  were  so  many,  however,  who  refused  to  come  in  that  the  peril 
assumed  the  gravest  character.  The  only  way  to  bring  about  a  real  peace  was 
to  compel  the  disarming  of  the  Indians,  for  so  long  as  they  had  weapons  in  their 
hands  they  were  tempted  to  make  use  of  them. 

It  was  the  time  for  coolness,  tact,  and  discretion,  and  the  American  officers 
displayed  it  to  a  commendable  degree.  They  carefully  avoided  giving  the 

Indians  cause  for  of 
fense,  while  insisting 
at  the  same  time  upon 
their  being  disarmed. 
On     December 
28th,  a  band  of  mal 
contents  were  located 
near  Wounded  Knee 
Creek,  by  the  Seventh 
Cavalry,    who     had 
been    hunting   several    days  for 
—     them.     They   were    sullen,    but, 
when  ordered  to  surrender  their  weapons,  made 
n.r.b.«M    a  pretense  of  doing  so.     Emerging  from  their  tepees,  how- 
INDIAN  AGENCY.    ever)  they  produced  only  a  few  worthless  weapons.     Being 
sharply  ordered  to  bring  the  remainder,  they  suddenly  wheeled  and   began  fir 
ing  upon  the  soldiers.     In  an  instant,  a  fierce  fight  was  in  progress,  with  the 
combatants  standing  almost  within  arm's  reach  of  one  another. 

SQUAWS    AS   VICIOUS    AS    WILDCATS. 

Twenty-eight  soldiers  were  killed  and  thirty  wounded,  while  fully  as  many 
of  the  Indians  were  shot  down.  In  the  fighting,  the  squaws  were  as  vicious  as 
wildcats,  and  fought  with  as  much  effectiveness  as  the  warriors.  A  wounded 
officer  was  beaten  to  death  by  several  of  them  before  he  could  be  rescued. 
Finally,  the  Indians  fled  and  joined  the  malcontents,  already  assembled  in  the 
Bad  Lands. 

This  affair  made  the  outlook  still  darker.  The  Seventh  Cavalry  had  just 
reached  camp  on  the  morning  of  December  30th,  when  a  courier  dashed  up  to 


THE  ALARMING    CLOUD  DISSOLVED.  485 

Pine  Hidge,  with  word  that  the  Catholic  Mission  building  was  on  fire  and  the 
Indians  were  killing  the  teachers  and  pupils.  The  wearied  troopers  galloped 
hurriedly  thither,  but  found  the  burning  building  was  the  day  school,  a  mile 
nearer  Pine  .Ridge.  A  strong  force  of  Indians  were  gathered  beyond,  and  the 
Seventh  attacked  them.  The  Sioux  were  so  numerous  that  the  cavalry  were  in 
great  danger  of  being  surrounded,  when  a  vigorous  attack  by  the  Ninth  Cavalry 
(colored)  on  the  rear  of  the  Indians  scattered  them. 

Warriors  continued  to  slip  away  from  the  agency  and  join  the  hostiles. 
Their  signal  fires  were  seen  burning  at  night,  and  recruits  came  all  the  way 
from  British  America  to  help  them.  It  was  remarked  at  one  time  that  the  only 
friendly  Indians  were  the  police,  a  few  Cheyennes,  and  the  scouts,  including  a 
few  Sioux  chiefs,  among  whom  American  Horse  was  the  most  conspicuous.  He 
never  wavered  in  his  loyalty  to  the  whites,  and  boldly  combated  in  argument 
his  enemies,  at  the  risk  of  being  killed  at  any  moment  by  his  infuriated  coun 
trymen. 

THE    ALARMING    CLOUD    DISSOLVED. 

There  were  a  number  of  skirmishes  and  considerable  fighting,  but  General 
Miles,  who  assumed  charge  of  all  the  military  movements,  displayed  admirable 
tact.  When  the  Sioux  began  slowly  coming  toward  the  agency,  it  was  under 
orders  from  him  that  not  a  gun  should  be  fired  nor  a  demonstration  made  except 
to  repel  an  attack  or  to  check  a  break  on  the  part  of  the  Indians.  This  course 
was  followed,  the  troopers  keeping  at  a  goodly  distance  behind  the  hostiles,  who 
seemed  more  than  once  on  the  point  of  wheeling  about  and  assailing  them, 
despite  their  promises  to  come  into  the  agency  and  surrender  their  arms. 

The  Sioux,  however,  kept  their  pledge,  and,  on  the  15th  of  January,  1891, 
the  immense  cavalcade  entered  the  agency.  Everyone  was  amazed  at  <he 
strength  displayed  by  the  Indians,  which  was  far  greater  than  supposed.  In 
the  procession  were  732  lodges,  and  careful  estimates  made  the  whole  number 
11,000,  of  whom  3,000  were  warriors.  Had  these  red  men  broken  loose  and 
started  upon  the  war  trail,  the  consequences  would  have  been  frightful. 

While  the  weapons  turned  in  by  the  Indians  were  only  a  few  in  number 
and  of  poor  quality,  General  Miles  was  satisfied  the  trouble  was  over  and  issued 
a  congratulatory  address  to  those  under  his  command.  His  opinion  of  the 
situation  proved  correct,  and  the  alarming  war  cloud  that  had  hung  over  the 
Northwest  melted  and  dissolved.  While  there  have  been  slight  troubles  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  since,  none  assumed  a  serious  character,  and  it  is 
believed  impossible  that  ever  again  the  peril  of  1890-91  can  threaten  the 
country. 

ADMISSION    OF    NEW    STATES. 

Several  States  were  admitted  to  the  Union  during  Harrison's  administration. 


486  ADMINISTRATION   OF  HARRISON. 

The  first  were  North  and  South  Dakota,  which  became  States  in  November, 
1889.  The  Dakotas  originally  formed  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase.  The 
capital  was  first  established  at  Yankton  in  March,  1862,  but  was  removed  to 
Bismarck  in  1883.  The  two  States  separated  in  1889. 

In  November  of  the  latter  year  Montana  was  admitted,  and  in  July  follow 
ing  Idaho  and  Wyoming.  Montana  was  a  part  of  Idaho  Territory  until  May, 
1864,  when  it  was  organized  as  a  separate  Territory.  Idaho  itself  was  a  part 
of  Oregon  Territory  until  1863,  and,  when  first  formed,  was  made  up  of  portions 
of  Oregon,  Washington,  Utah,  and  Nebraska.  The  boundaries  were  changed 
in  1864  and  a  part  added  to  Montana.  Wyoming  gained  its  name  from  the 
settlers  who  went  thither  from  Wyoming  Valley,  Pennsylvania.  It  first 
became  a  Territory  in  1863. 

PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1892. 

The  Republicans  renorainated  President  Harrison  in  1892,  with  Whitelaw 
Reid  the  candidate  for  Vice-President,  while  the  Democrats  put  forward  ex- 
President  Cleveland  and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson.  The  result  of  the  election  was  as 
follows  : 

Grover  Cleveland  and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson  Democrats,  277  electoral  votes ; 
Benjamin  Harrison  and  Whitelaw  Reid,  Republicans,  144.  Of  the  popular 
vote,  James  B.  Weaver  and  James  G.  Field,  People's  Party,  received  1,041,028 
votes;  John  Bidwell  and  James  B.  Cranfil,  Prohibition,  264,133;  and  Simon 
Wing  and  Charles  M.  Matchett,  Social  Labor,  21,164  votes. 


THE  HEROOFTHE  STRIKE,  CO  A  L  CR  E  E  K,  TEN  N. 

In  1892  a  period  of  great  labor  agitation  began,  lasting  for  several  years.    One  of  the  irost  heroic  figures  of  those 
troublesome  times  is  Colonel  Anderson,  under  a  flag  of  truce,  meeting  the  infuriated  iniuera  at  Coal  Creek. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 


ADMINISTRATION     OK    CLKVKLAND    (SBCOND). 

1893-1897 

Repeal  of  the  Purchase  Clause  of  the  Sherman  Bill— The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago— The 
Hawaiian  Imbroglio— The  Great  liailroad  Strike  of  1894— Coxey's  Commonweal  Army — Admission 
of  Utah—Harnessing  of  Niagara— Dispute  with  England  Over  Venezuela's  Boundary— Presidential 
Election  of  1896. 


REPEAL   OF   THE   PURCHASE   CLAUSE   OF  THE  SHERMAN   BILL. 

GROVER  CLEVELAND  was  the  first  Provident  of  tlio  United  States  who  had 
an  interval  between  his  two  terms. 
His  inauguration  was  succeeded  by 
a  financial  stringency,  which  ap 
peared  in  the  summer  and  autumn 
of  1893.  There  seemed  to  be  a 
weakening  of  general  confidence  in 
all  parts  of  the  country,  and  much 
suffering  followed,  especially  in  the 
large  cities,  greatly  relieved,  however, 
by  the  well-ordered  system  of  char 
ity.  Many  people  thought  that  one 
cause  of  the  trouble  was  the  Sher 
man  Bill,  which  provided  for  a 
large  monthly  coinage  of  silver. 
Congress  was  convened  in  extraor 
dinary  session  August  7th  by  the 
President,  who  recommended  that 
body  to  repeal  the  purchase  clause 
of  the  Sherman  act.  Such  a  repeal 
was  promptly  passed  by  the  House, 
but  met  with  strong  opposition  in 

the     Senate.       There    is    leSS    CUrb    tO    senator  from  Colsrado.    The  most  prominent  among  the  «•  Silvet 

debate  in  that  branch  of  Congress, 

and  the  senators  from  the  silver  States,  like  Colorado,  Idaho  and  Nevada,  where 

the  mining  of  silver  is  one  of  the  most  important  industries,  did  what  they  could 

(487) 


HENRY   MOORE   TELLER. 


488 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 


to  delay  legislation.  Some  of  the  speeches  were  spun  out  for  days,  with  no  other 
purpose  than  to  discourage  the  friends  of  the  measure  by  delaying  legislation. 
Finally,  however,  a  vote  was  reached  October  30th,  when  the  bill  passed  and 
was  immediately  signed  by  the  President. 

THE  WORLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION. 

The  most  notable  event  of  Cleveland's  second  administration  was  the 
World's  Columbian  Exposition,  held  in  Chicago.  Properly  the  four  hundredth 
anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  America  should  have  taken  place  in  1892,  but 
the  preparations  were  on  so  grand  a  scale  that  they  could  not  be  completed  in 
time. 

The  part  of  the  government  in  this  memorable  celebration  was  opened  by 


U.S.  HAN  OP  WAR 

•BuiLi.  fOR-t^hiBij    AT-  WORLDS-  FAIR 


a  striking  naval  parade  or  review  of  the  leading  war-ships  of  the  world.  They 
assembled  at  Hampton  Roads,  Virginia,  coming  from  points  of  the  globe  thou 
sands  of  miles  apart.  Steaming  northward  to  New  York,  the  review  took  place 
April  27,  1893.  In  addition  to  the  thirty-five  war-shij>s,  there  were  the  three 
Columbian  caravels  sent  by  Spain  and  presented  to  the  United  States.  When 
ranged  in  two  lines  on  the  Hudson,  these  ships  extended  for  three  miles,  and 
represented,  besides  our  own  country,  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Russia, 
Italy,  Spain,  Brazil,  Holland,  and  Argentina.  The  steel-clad  yacht  Dolplmn 
steamed  between  these  two  lines,  bearing  President  Cleveland  and  his  cabinet, 
while  each  ship  as  she  came  opposite  thundered  her  salute.  No  conqueror  of 
ancient  or  modern  times  ever  received  so  magnificent  a  tribute. 

Chicago,  having  won  the  prize  of  the  location  of  the  World's  Fair,  selected 


OPENING    OF  THE   GROUNDS  AND  BUILDINGS.  489 

the  site  on  the  2d  of  July,  1890.  This  covered  nearly  700  acres  of  beautiful 
laid-out  grounds  and  parks,  extending  from  the  point  nearest  the  city,  two  and 
a  half  miles,  to  the  southern  extremity  of  Jackson  Park.  The  site  selected  by 
the  directors  was  the  section  known  as  Jackson  Park  and  the  Midway  Plaisance. 
The  park  has  a  frontage  of  one  and  a  half  miles  on  Lake  Michigan  and  contains 
600  acres,  while  the  Midway  Plaisance,  connecting  Jackson  and  Washington 
Parks,^ afforded  eighty-five  acres  more.  It  is  600  feet  wide  and  a  mile  in  length. 
Since  world's  fairs  have  become  a  favorite  among  nations,  the  following 
statistics  will  give  a  correct  idea  of  the  vastness  of  the  one  held  in  Chicago,  from 
May  1  to  November  1,  1893: 


London,           1857,    21}  acres  occupied  ;   17,000  exhibitors  ;  total  receipts   $1  780  000 

Paris,                1855,    24  £ 

i 

22,000 

6,441,200 

London,           1862,    23£ 

i 

28,633 

1,644,260 

Paris,               1867,    37 

1 

52,000 

2,103,675 

Vienna,            1873,  280 

1 

142,000 

6,971,832 

Philadelphia,  1876,  236 

< 

30,864 

3,813.724 

Paris,               1878,  100 

» 

40,366 

2,531,650 

Paris,               1889,  173 

55,000 

8,300,000 

Chicago,           1893,  645 

65,422 

33,290,065.58 

The  countries  which  made  generous  appropriations  for  exhibits  were: 
Argentine  Kepublic,  Austria,  Belgium,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Colombia,  Costa  Rica, 
Denmark,  Danish  West  Indies,  Ecuador,  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain, 
Barbadoes,  British  Guiana,  British  Honduras,  Canada,  Cape  Colony,  Ceylon, 
India,  Jamaica,  Leeward  Islands,  New  South  Wales,  New  Zealand,  Trinidad, 
Greece,  Guatemala,  Hawaii,  Honduras,  Haiti,  Japan,  Liberia,  Mexico,  Morocco, 
Netherlands,  Dutch  Guiana,  Dutch  West  Indies,  Nicaragua,  Norway,  Orange 
Free  State,  Paraguay,  Peru,  Russia,  Salvador,  San  Domingo,  Spain,  Cuba, 
Sweden,  Uruguay. 

All  the  States  in  the  Union  entered  heartily  into  the  scheme,  their  total 
appropriations  amounting  to  $6,000,000.  The  original  plan  called  for  ten  main 
buildings:  Manufactures,  Administration,  Machinery,  Agriculture,  Electricity, 
Mines,  Transportation,  Horticulture,  Fisheries,  and  the  Venetian  Village;  but 
there  were  added:  the  Art  Galleries,  the  Woman's  Building,  the  Forestry, 
Dairy,  Stock,  Pavilion,  Terminal  Station,  Music  Hall,  Peristyle,  Casino,  Choral, 
Anthropological,  and  many  others. 

OPENING   OF    THE   GROUNDS   AND    BUILDINGS. 

The  grounds  and  buildings  were  opened  October  21,  1892,  with  appropriate 
ceremonies  by  Vice-President  Morton  and  other  distinguished  citizens.  The 
most  important  exhibits  were  as  follows: 

The  Transportation    Building  displayed  about  everything   that  could  ta 


490  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

possibly  used  in  transportation,  from  the  little  baby-carriage  to  the  ponderous 
locomotive.  The  progress  of  shipbuilding  from  its  infancy  to  the  present  was 
shown,  among  the  exhibits  being  an  accurate  model  of  the  Santa  Maria,  the 
principal  ship  of  Columbus,  which  was  wrecked  in  the  West  Indies,  on  his  first 
voyage.  The  Bethlehem  steam  hammer,  the  largest  in  the  world,  was  ninety- 
one  feet  high  and  weighed  125  tons. 

Among  the  locomotives  were  the  "Mississippi,"  built  in  England  in  1834; 
a  model  of  Stephenson's  "Rocket;"  a  steam  carriage,  used  in  France  in  1759; 
and  a  model  of  Trevithick's  locomotive  of  1803.  There  were  also  the  first  cable 
car  built,  the  boat  and  steam  fixtures  made  and  navigated  by  Captain  John 


r^^^^-^^^ 
Stevens   in    1804,   :m.l  the  "John  Bull," 

used   on    the   Camden  and  Amboy  Kail- 
road,  and  which,  it  is  claimed,  is  the  oldest  locomotive  in  America. 

The  exhibit  in  the  Mines  and  Mining  Building  were  divided  into  123 
classes,  including  cement  from  Heidelberg,  mosaics  in  Carlsbad  stone,  French 
asphalt  specimens,  French  work  in  gold,  platinum,  and  aluminum,  silver  and 
ores  from  nearly  every  part  of  the  world,  and  ores  from  different  sections  of  our 
own  country. 

The  Government  Building  was  specially  attractive,  with  its  exhibits  of  the 
several  departments  of  the  United  States  government.  A  case  of  humming 
birds  contained  133  varieties,  and  in  another  case  were  represented  106  families 
of  American  birds.  There  were  stuffed  fowls,  flamingoes,  nests,  Rocky  Mountain 
goats  and  sheep,  armadilloes  from  Texas,  sea  otters,  American  bisons,  a  Pacific 


OPES  US  G    0*    THL    GROUSDb   AND  JBJfLDINGti. 


walrus,  300  crocodiles  of  the  Nile,  crocodile  birds,  fishes  and  reptiles,  and  an 
almost  endless  display  of  coins  and  metals. 

The  Department  of  Ethnology  contained  figures  of  Eskemos  and  specimens 
of  their  industry, 
Canadian  Indians, 
Indian  wigwam,  an 
cient  pottery,  mod 
els  of  ruins  found 
in  Arizona,  a  brass 
lamp  used  at  a  feast 
169  years  before 
Christ ;  scrolls  of 
the  law  of  Tarah, 
made  in  the  tenth 
century  in  Asia; 
silver  spice-box  of 
the  time  of  Christ; 

phylacteries,  used  by  the  Jews  at  morning  prayers,  except  on  Saturday;  knife 
used  by  priests  in  slaying  animals  for  sacrifice. 

In  the  State  Department  thousands  of  people  gazed  with  awe  upon  what 
was  believed  to  be  the  original  Declaration  of  Independence  as  it  came  from 

the  hand  of  Thomas 
Jefferson.  It  was, 
however,  only  a  close 

K  copy,  since  the  gov 

ernment  under  no 
circumstances  will 
permit  the  original 
to  leave  the  archives 
at  Washington.  But 
among  the  original 
papers  were  the  peti 
tion  of  the  United 
Colonies  to  George 
III.,  presented  by 
Benjamin  Franklin 

in  1774;  the  original  journal  of  the  Continental  Congress:  Lincoln's  Emanci 
pation  Proclamation;  an  autograph  letter  of  George  III.:  and  various  proc 
lamations  issued  by  Presidents,  with  their  autographs  and  letters,  by  Wash- 


192 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 


>« 


ington,  Franklin,  the  Adamses,  Jefferson,  Madison,  Polk,  Van  Buren,  Monroe, 
Lincoln,  Grant,  Arthur,  and  Hayes. 

WONDERFUL    HISTORIC    RELICS. 

The  most  interesting  historic  papers   were  letters  penned  by  Napoleon, 
Alexander  of  Kussia,  and  other   foreign    potentates,   the  Webster- Ashbur ton 
treaty  signed  by  Queen  Victoria,  and  a  shark's  tooth  sent  as  a  treaty  by  the 
king  of  JSamoa.     Precious  relics  were  Washington's  commission  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  colonial  forces,  his  sword,  his  diary,  and  his  account  books  and 
army  reports;  the  sash  with  which  Lafayette  bound  up  his  wound  at  Brandy- 
wine;  the  calumet  pipe  which  Washington  smoked  when  seventeen  years  old; 
Benjamin    Franklin's  cane;  the  sword   of  General  Jackson;  a  waistcoat  em 
broidered  by  Marie 
Antoinette ;     wam 
pum    made    before 
t  h  e    discovery    of 
America;       camp 
service    of    pewter 
used  by   Washing 
ton  throughout  the 
Revolution;     Bible 
brought     over     by 
John  Alden  in  the 
Mayflower;    and    a 
piece  of  torch  car 
ried  by  "  Old  Put" 

Fsrael  Putnam)  into  the  den  of  the  wolf  which  he  killed. 
A  section  of  one  of  the  big  trees  of  California  was  20  feet  in  diameter  at 
the  top  and  20  feet  at  the  base. 

The  dreadful  sufferings  of  persons  imprisoned  for  debt  in  England,  which 
to  the  founding  of  Georgia,  were  recalled  by  a  warrant  for  the  arrest  and 
imprisonment  of  one  of  the  unfortunates,  issued  in  1721. 

There  also  were  to  be  seen  a  page  from  the  Plymouth  records  of  1620  and 

and  patent  of  1028  ;  the  royal  commission  creating  the  common  pleas 

onrtof  Massachusetts  in  1090;  a  page  from  the  horrible  witchcraft  trials  in 

a  door-knocker  brought  to  this  country  in  the  Mayflower;  and 

portraits  of  many  historical  persons. 

In  the  War  Department  were  shown  a  six-pounder  bronze  gun  presented 
by  Lafayette  to  the  colonial  forces  ;  the  four-pounder  gun  that  fired  the  first  shot 
in  the  Civil  AVar ;  the  rifled  gun  that  fired  the  last  shot;  cannon  used  in  the 


EXHIBITS   OF  THE  TREASURY  AND  POSTOFFICE. 


493 


Mexican  War ;  cast-iron  cannon  found  in  the  Hudson  River ;  Chinese  cannon 
captured  at  Corea ;  cannon  captured  at  Yorktown  ;  boot-legs  from  which  the 
starving  members  of  the  Greely  Arctic  expedition  made  soup ;  relics  of  Sir 
John  Franklin  ;  a  wagon  used  by  General  Sherman  throughout  all  his  marches; 
the  sacred  shirt  worn  by  Sitting  Bull  at  the  time  of  the  massacre  of  Custer  and 
his  command  on  the  Little  Big  Horn. 

EXHIBITS    OF    THE    TREASURY    AND    POSTOFFICE    DEPARTMENTS. 

In  the  Treasury  Department  was  represented  the  United  States  Mint  in 
operation,  besides  historic  medals, 
ancient  and  modern  coins,  including 
those  of  foreign  countries,  a  ten- 
thousand  gold  dollar  certificate  and 
a  silver  certificate  of  the  same  de 
nomination. 

The  eyes  of  the  philatelists 
sparkled  at  the  treasures  in  the 
Postoffice  Department,  which  in 
cluded  all  the  issues  of  stamps  from 
1847  to  1893.  Some  of  the  single 
stamps  were  worth  thousands  of  dol 
lars,  and  it  would  have  required  a 
fortune  to  purchase  the  whole  col 
lection,  had  it  been  for  sale.  The 
methods  of  carrying  the  mail  were 
illustrated  by  a  representation  of 
dogs  drawing  a  sled  over  the  snow 
and  a  Rocky  Mountain  stage-coach. 
It  would  require  volumes  to  convey 
an  intelligent  idea  of  the  display  in 
the  Patent  Office,  Interior  Depart 
ment,  Geological  Survey,  Agricultural  Department 
Commission.  .  . 

Everybody  knows  that  wonderful  discoveries  have  been  made  in  .  ity, 

and  no  doubt  we  are  close  upon  still  greater  ones.     The  name  of  Edison  is  con 
nected  with  the  marvelous  achievements  in  this  field,  and  there  was  much 
for  thought  and  speculation  in  the  exhibits  of  the  Electricity  Building, 
while  profoundly  interesting,  were  mainly  so  in  their  hints  of  wh 

in  the  near  future.  .  .  „, 

Machinery   Hall   was  a  favorite   with  thousands   of   the  visitors. 


THOMAS   A.   EDISON. 
(1847-       .) 

and    the   United   States 


494  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

exhibits  were   so    numerous    that    they    were   divided    into   eighty-six   classes, 
grouped  into : 

1.  Motors  and  apparatus  for  the  generation   and   transmission  of  power 
hydraulic  and  pneumatic  apparatus. 

2.  Fire-engines,  apparatus  and  appliances  for  extinguishing  fire. 

3.  Machine  tools  and  machines  for  working  metals. 

4.  Machinery  for  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics  and  clothing. 

5.  Machines  for  working  wood. 

C.  Machines  and  apparatus  for  type-setting,  printing,  stamping  and  em 
bossing,  and  for  making  books  and  paper  making. 

7.  Lithography,  zincography,  and  color  painting. 

Photo-mechanical  and  other  mechanical  processes  for  illustrating,  etc. 

9.  Miscellaneous  hand-tools,  machines  and  apparatus  used  in  various  arts. 

10.  Machines  for  working  stones,  clay,  and  other  minerals. 

11.  Machinery  used  in  the  preparation  of  foods,  etc. 

OTHER   NOTARLE   EXHIBITS. 

The  cost  of  the  model  of  the  Convent  of  Santa  Maria  de  la  Kabida,  where 
the  wearied  Columbus  stopped  to  crave  food  for  himself  and  boy,  was  $50,000. 
The  relics  of  the  great  explorer  were  numerous  and  of  vivid  interest. 

Hardly  less  interesting  was  the  reproduction  of  the  Viking  ship  unearthed 
in  a  burial  mound  in  Norway  in  1880,  the  model  being  precisely  that  of  the 
i  in  which  the  hardy  Norsemen  navigators  crossed  the  Atlantic  a  thousand 
years  ago.     It  was  seventy-six  feet  in  length,  the  bow  ornamented  with  a  large 
and  finely  carved  dragon's  head   and    the  stern  with  a  dragon's  tail.     Rows  of 
embellished  shields  ran  along  the  outside  of  the  bulwarks,  and  all  was  open  ex 
cept  a  small  deck  fore  and  aft,  while  two  water-tight  compartments  gave  protec- 
lon  to  the  men  in  stormy  weather.     The  rigging  consisted  of  one  mast  with  a 
yard,  that  could  be  readily  taken  down,  but  there  were  places  for  immense 
>ars,  whose  handling  must  have  required  tremendous  muscular  power. 

The  Agricultural   Building  had  an  almost  endless  variety  of  articles  such 

as  cocoa,  chocolate,  and  drugs  from  the  Netherlands;  wood  pulp  from  Sweden  ; 

shoes  and  agricultural  products  from   Denmark  and  from  France 

sinking  of  which  was-  the  Menier  chocolate  tower  that  weired  fifty 

;  fertilizers  and  products  from  Uruguay ;  an  elephant  tusk  seven  and  a  half 

wools,  and  feathers  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  a  Zulu  six 

?ven  and  a  half  inches  tall ;  a  Canadian  cheese  weighing  eleven  tons, 

other  exhibits  from  various  countries,  and  specimens  of  what  are  grown  in 

The  articles  were  so  numerous  that  a  list  is  too"  lengthy 
to  be  inserted  in  these  pages.  fe    J 


THE   VIKING  SHIP. 

1.  Appearance  when  discovered. 

2.  After  restoration. 

3.  Rudder,  shield,  and  dragon-head. 


49G 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 


7,1  ••••• 

-•ffTf rff rrff>  (If  jji|  F; Pf f f/f f f f f J 


The  Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts  Building  was  of  such  unprecedented 
size  tliat  its  ground  area  was  more  than  thirty  acres,  and  its  gallery  space  forty- 
four  acres.  Its  roof  structure  surpassed  any  ever  made,  and  it  was  the  largest 
building  in  the  world.  So  vast  indeed  was  it  that  it  is  worth  our  while  to  im- 

press  it  upon  our 

minds  by  several 
comparisons.  Any 
church  in  Chicago, 
which  contains  nu 
merous  large  ones, 
can  be  placed  in 
the  vestibule  of  St. 
Peter's  at  Kome, 
but  the  lattdr  is  only 
one-third  of  the 
size  of  the  Manu 
factures  and  Lib 
eral  Arts  Building. 
Coliseum  of  ancient  Rome  would  seat  80,000  persons,  but  in  the  central 

hall  of  the  Chicago  building,  which   is  a  single  room  without  a  supporting 

column,  7o,000  people  could  be  comfortably  seated,  while  the  building  itself 

would  seat  300,000 

persons.     The  iron 

and    steel    in     the 

roof     would     build 

two      Brooklyn 

bridges,  and  it  re 
quired  eleven  acres 

of  glass  to  provide 

for    the    skylights. 

In   its   construction 

17,000,000    feet    of 

lumber,   13,000,000 

pounds  of  steel,  and 

2,000,000      pounds 

iron  were  used,  with  a  total  cost  of  $1,700,000.     The  ground  plan  was  twice 
the  size  of  the  pyramid  of  Cheops. 

We  have  recorded  enough,  however,  to  give  some  idea  of  the  wealth  of 

«hib,W  at  Chicago  in  1893,  and  which  drew  visitors  from  al  " 

»  not  worth  wlnle  to  refer  at  length  to  the  display  of  the 


THE   GRAND    WORK  BY  THE  STATES.  497 

foreign  countries,  for  those  who  had  the  pleasure  of  looking  upon  them  will 
always  carry  their  pleasant  memory,  while  those  who  were  deprived  of  the  privi 
lege  can  gain  no  adequate  idea  from  the  most  extended  description.  The  Mid 
way  Plaisance  was  a  unique  feature,  with  its  Hungarian  Orpheum,  Lapland 
Village,  Dahomey  Village,  the  captive  balloon,  Chinese  Village,  Austrian  Village, 
Cyclorama  of  the  volcano  of  Kilauea,  the  Algerian  and  Tunisian  Village,  the 
Ferris  Wheel,  the  never-to-be-forgotten  street  in  Cairo,  the  numerous  natives, 
and  other  scenes  that  were  not  always  on  the  highest  plane  of  morality. 

THE  GRAND  WORK  BY  THE  STATES. 

We  as  Americans  are  prone  to  forget  some  of  the  important  events  in  our 
history.  The  memory  of  them  fades  too  soon.  A  hundred  years  must  pass 
before  our  country  will  look  upon  another  Columbian  Exposition.  That,  in 
the  nature  of  things,  will  surpass  the  one  in  1893,  as  far  as  that  surpassed  the 
ordinary  country  fairs  of  our  grandparents.  When  that  great  year — 1992 — 
comes  around,  none  of  us  will  be  here  to  look  upon  its  wonders.  It  seems 
proper,  therefore,  that,  in  dismissing  the  subject,  we  should  place  on  record  the 
amount  contributed  by  each  State,  without  which  the  grand  success  of  the 
enterprise  could  never  have  been  attained. 

Alabama •  •  •  $38,000  Nebraska $85,000 

Arizona 30,000  Nevada 10,000 

Arkansas 55,000  New  Hampshire 25,000 

California 550,000  New  Jersey 

Colorado 167,000  New  Mexico. 35,000 

Connecticut 75,000  New  York 600,000 

Delaware 20,000  North  Carolina 

Florida 50.000  North  Dakota 70,000 

Georgia 100,000  Ohio 200,000 

Idaho 100,000  Oklahoma 

Illinois 800.000  Oregon 60,000 

Indiana 135,000  Pennsylvania 360,000 

Iowa 130,000  Rhode  Island 57,500 

Kansas 165,000  South  Carolina 50,000 

Kentucky - 175,000  South  Dakota 85,00 

Louisiana 36,000  Tennessee 

Maine 57,000  Texas 

Maryland 60,000  Utah 

Massachusetts 175,000  Vermont 

Michigan 275,000  Virginia 

Minnesota 150,000  Washington.. 

Mississippi 25,000  West  Virginia 40,00 

Missouri 150,000  Wisconsin 212,00 

Montana 100,000  Wyoming 

Total  $6.060,350 

The  islands   composing   the   group  known   under  the   general    name   of 


498  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

Hawaii  have  long  been  of  interest  to  different  nations,  and  especially  to  our 
country.  A  treaty  was  made  in  1849  between  Hawaii  and  the  United  States, 
which  provided  for  commerce  and  the  extradition  of  criminals,  and  in  1875  a 
reciprocity  treaty  was  concluded.  This  gave  a  marked  impetus  to  the  sugar 
industry,  which  was  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  Further  treaty 
rights  were  confirmed  by  Congress  in  1891. 

David  Kalakaua  became  king  of  Hawaii  in  1874.  He  had  slight  ability, 
and  was  fonder  of  the  pleasures  of  life  than  of  measures  for  the  good  of  hia 
country  and  subjects.  He  was  displeased  to  see  the  hold  gained  by  foreigners 
in  his  country  and  their  rapidly  growing  power.  He  joined  with  the  native  Leg 
islature  in  its  cry  of  "  Hawaii  for  the  Hawaiians,"  and  did  all  he  could  to  check 
the  material  progress  of  the  islands.  Progressive  men,  however,  gained  control, 
and  in  1887  Kalakaua  wras  compelled  to  sign  a  new  constitution  which  deprived 
him  of  all  but  a  shadow  of  authority.  The  white  residents  were  granted  the 
right  of  suffrage  and  closer  relations  were  established  with  the  United  States. 

While  engaged  in  negotiating  a  treaty  with  our  country  Kalakaua  died,  in 
1891,  in  San  Francisco,  and  his  sister,  Liliuokalani,  succeeded  him  as  queen. 
She  was  much  of  the  same  mould  as  her  brother,  but  of  a  more  revengeful 
nature.  She  was  angered  against  the  foreigners  and  the  progressive  party,  and 
alert  for  an  opportunity  to  strike  them  a  fatal  blow.  She  thought  the  time  had 
come  in  January,  1893,  when  the  leading  party  was  bitterly  divided  over  im 
portant  measures.  She  summoned  the  Legislature  and  urged  it  to  adopt  a  new 
constitution,  which  took  away  the  right  of  suffrage  from  the  white  residents  and 
restored  to  the  crown  the  many  privileges  that  had  been  taken  from  it.  She 
was  so  radical  in  her  policy  that  her  friends  induced  her  to  modify  it  in  several 
respects.  She  was  thoroughly  distrusted  by  the  white  residents,  who  did  not 
doubt  that  she  would  break  all  her  promises  the  moment  the  pretext  offered. 
Nor  would  they  have  been  surprised  if  a  general  massacre  of  the  white  inhab 
itants  were  ordered. 

So  deep-seated  was  the  alarm  that  the  American  residents  appealed  for 

:tion  to  the  United  States   man-of-war  Boston,  which  was  lying  in   tl*e 

lonolulu.     The  commander  landed  a  company  of  marines,  against 

t  of  the  queen's  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  the  governor  of  the 

id   although  they  were  assured  that  no  attempt  would  be  made  to  interfere 

-th    their   rights.     In    the  face  of  this   assurance,  a  revolt  took   place,  the 

chy  was  declared  at  an  end,  and  a  provisional  government  was  organized, 

to  continue  until  terms  of  union  with  the  United  States  could  be  agreed  upon. 

More  decided  steps  followed.     On  February  1,  1894,  the  government  was 

lly  placed  under  the  protectorate  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Stars  and 

3  was  hoisted  over  the  government  building  by  a  party  of  marines.     There 


PRESIDENT  CLEVELAND^   CHANGE   OF  POLICY. 


499 


a  strong  sentiment  in  favor  of  annexation,  and  the  American  minister  was 
highly  pleased. 

President  Harrison  was  of  the  same  mind,  and  authorized  the  presence  on 
the  island  of  troops  that  might  be  needed  to  protect  the  lives  and  property  of 
Americans  there,  but  he  disavowed  the  protectorate.  No  doubt,  however,  he 
favored  the  movement,  but  thought  it  wise  to  "make  haste  slowly." 

In  a  short  time,  a  treaty  was  framed  which  was  acceptable  to  the  President 
It  provided  that  the  government  of  Hawaii  should  remain  as  it  was,  the  supreme 
power  to  be  vested  in  a  commissioner  of  the  United  States,  with  the  right  to 
veto  any  of  the  acts  of  the  local 
government.  The  public  debt  was 
to  be  assumed  by  the  United  States, 
while  Liliuokalani  wras  to  be  pen 
sioned  at  the  rate  of  $20,000  a 
year,  and  her  daughter  was  to 
receive  $150,000.  President  Harri 
son  urged  upon  the  Senate  the  rati 
fication  of  the  treaty,  fearing  that 
delay  would  induce  some  other  power 
to  step  in  and  take  the  prize. 

PRESIDENT  CLEVELAND'S  CHANGE 

OF  POLICY. 

Such  was  the  status  wrhen  Presi 
dent  Cleveland  came  into  office  on 
the  4th  of  March,  1893.  His  views 
were  the  very  opposite  of  his  prede 
cessor's,  and  he  took  steps  to  enforce 
them.  He  maintained  there  would 
have  been  no  revolution  in  Hawaii 
had  not  the  force  of  marines  landed 
from  the  Boston.  He  withdrew 
the  proposed  treaty  from  the  Senate,  and  sent  James  H.  Blount,  of  Georgia,  to 
Hawaii  as  special  commissioner  to  make  an  investigation  of  all  that  had  occurred, 
and  to  act  in  harmony  with  the  views  of  the  President.  On  the  1st  of  April, 
Blount  caused  the  American  flag  to  be  hauled  down,  and  formally  dissolved  the 
protectorate.  Minister  Stevens  was  recalled  and  succeeded  by  Mr.  Blount  as 
minister  plenipotentiary.  Steps  were  taken  to  restore  Liliuokalani,  and  her  own 
brutal  stubbornness  was  all  that  prevented.  She  was  determined  to  have  the  lives 
of  the  leaders  who  had  deposed  her,  and  to  banish  their  families.  This  could 


JAMES   G.  ELAINE. 


Secretary  of  State  under  Harrison's  administration. 


600  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

not  be  permitted,  and  the  Dole  government  refused  the  request  to  yield  its 
authority  to  the  queen. 

The  situation  brought  President  Cleveland  to  a  standstill,  for  he  had  first 
to  obtain  the  authority  of  Congress  in  order  to  use  force,  and  that  body  was  so 
opposed  to  his  course  that  it  would  never  consent  to  aid  him.  The  provisional 
government  grew  stronger,  and  speedily  suppressed  a  rebellion  that  was  set  on 
foot  by  the  queen.  It.  won  the  respect  of  its  enemies  by  showing  clemency  to 
the  plotters,  when  it  would  have  been  legally  justified  in  putting  the  leaders  to 
death.  The  queen  was  arrested,  whereupon  she  solemnly  renounced  for  herself 
and  heirs  all  claim  to  the  throne,  urged  her  subjects  to  do  the  same,  and 
declared  her  allegiance  to  the  republic. 

ANNEXATION    OF    HAWAII. 

Let  us  anticipate  a  few  events.  In  May,  1898,  Representative  Newlands 
introduced  into  the  House  a  resolution  providing  for  the  annexation  of  Hawaii. 
Considerable  opposition  developed  in  the  Senate,  but  the  final  vote  was  carried, 
July  Gth,  by  42  to  21.  The  President  appointed  as  members  of  the  commission, 
Senators  Shelby  M.  Cullom,  of  Illinois;  John  T.  Morgan,  of  Alabama;  Repre 
sentative  Robert  R.  Hitt,  of  Illinois;  and  President  Dole  and  Chief  Justice 
Judcl,  of  the  Hawaiian  Republic.  All  the  congressmen  named  were  members 
of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations  and  Foreign  Affairs. 

The  news  of  the  admission  of  Hawaii  to  the  Union  was  received  in  the 
islands  with  great  rejoicing.  A  salute  of  one  hundred  guns  was  fired  on  the 
Executive  Building  grounds  at  Honolulu,  and  the  formal  transfer,  August  12th, 
was  attended  with  appropriate  ceremonies.  In  1900  Hawaii  was  made  a  Terri 
tory  of  the  United  States,  Sanford  B.  Dole,  president  of  the  late  republic,  being 
continued  in  power  as  governor  of  the  Territory. 

THE   GREAT    RAILROAD   STRIKE   OF    1894. 

One  of  the  greatest  railroad  strikes  in  this  country  occurred  in  the  summer 
of  1894.  Early  in  the  spring  of  that  year,  the  Pullman  Car  Company,  whosa 
works  are  near  Chicago,  notified  their  employes  that  they  had  to  choose  between 
accepting  a  reduction  in  their  wages  or  having  the  works  closed.  They  accepted 
the  cut,  although  the  reduction  was  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  what 
they  had  been  receiving. 

When  May  came,  the  distressed  workmen  declared  it  impossible  for  them 
and  their  families  to  live  on  their  meagre  pay.  They  demanded  a  restoration 
of  the  old  rates;  but  the  company  refused,  affirming  that  they  were  running  the 
business  at  a  loss  and  solely  with  a  view  of  keeping  the  men  at  work.  On  the 
llth  of  May,  3,000  workmen,  a  majority  of  the  whole  number,  quit  labor  and 
the  company  closed  their  works. 


THE  GREAT  RAILROAD  STRIKE  OF 


501 


The  American  Railway  Union  assumed  charge  of  the  strike  and  ordered 
a  boycott  of  all  Pullman  cars.  Eugene  V.  Debs  was  the  president  of  the  Union, 
and  his  sweeping  order  forbade  all  engineers,  brakemen,  and  switchmen  to 
handle  the  Pullman  cars  on  every  road  that  used  them.  This  was  far-reaching, 
since  the  Pullman  cars  are  used  on  almost  every  line  in  the  country. 

A  demand  was  made  upon  the  Pullman  Company  to  submit  the  question 
to  arbitration,  but  the  directors  refused  on  the  ground  that  there  was  nothing  to 
arbitrate,  the  question  being  whether  or  not  they  were  to  be  permitted  to  operate 
their  own  works  for  themselves.  A  boycott  was  declared  on  all  roads  running 


ON  THE  BALTIMORE  AND  OHIO  RAILWAY. 


out  of  Chicago,  beginning  on  the  Illinois  Central.  Warning  was  given  to  every 
road  handling  the  Pullman  cars  that  its  employes  would  be  called  out,  and,  if 
that  did  not  prove  effective,  every  trade  in  the  country  would  be  ordered  to 
strike. 

The  railroad  companies  were  under  heavy  bonds  to  draw  the  Pullman  cars, 
and  it  would  have  cost  large  sums  of  money  to  break  their  contracts.  They 
refused  to  boycott,  and,  on  June  26th,  President  Debs  declared  a  boycott  on 
twenty-two  roads  running  out  of  Chicago,  and  ordered  the  committees  repre 
senting  the  employes  to  call  out  the  workmen  without  an  hour's  unnecessary 
delay. 


502  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

The  strike  rapidly  spread.  Debs  urged  the  employes  to  refrain  from  injur 
ing  the  property  of  their  employers,  but  such  advice  is  always  thrown  away. 
Very  soon  rioting  broke  out,  trains  were  derailed,  and  men  who  attempted  to 
take  the  strikers'  places  were  savagely  maltreated.  There  was  such  a  general 
block  of  freight  that  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  rose  in  Chicago  and  actual 
suffering  impended.  So  much  property  was  destroyed  that  the  companies  called 
on  the  city  and  county  authorities  for  protection.  The  men  sent  to  cope  with 
the  strikers  were  too  few,  and  when  Governor  Altgeld  forwarded  troops  to  the 
scenes  of  the  outbreaks,  they  also  were  too  weak,  and  many  of  the  militia 
openly  showed  their  sympathy  with  the  mob. 

Growing  bolder,  the  strikers  checked  the  mails  and  postal  service  and  re 
sisted  deputy  marshals.  This  brought  the  national  government  into  the  quarrel, 
since  it  is  bound  to  provide  for  the  safe  transmission  of  the  mails.  On  July  2d 
a  Federal  writ  was  issued  covering  the  judicial  district  of  northern  Illinois,  for 
bidding  all  interference  with  the  United  States  mails  and  with  interstate  railway 
commerce.  Several  leaders  of  the  strike  were  arrested,  whereat  the  mob  became 
more  threatening  than  ever.  The  government  having  been  notified  that  Federal 
troo{)s  were  necessary  to  enforce  the  orders  of  the  courts  in  Chicago,  a  strong 
force  of  cavalry,  artillery,  and  infantry  was  sent  thither.  Governor  Altgeld  pro 
tested,  and  President  Cleveland  told  him  in  effect  to  attend  to  his  own  business 
and  sent  more  troops  to  the  Lake  City. 

There  were  several  collisions  between  the  mob  and  military,  in  which  a 
number  of  the  former  were  killed.  Buildings  were  fired,  trains  ditched,  and  the 
violence  increased,. whereupon  the  President  dispatched  more  troops  thither,  with 
the  warning  that  if  necessary  he  would  call  out  the  whole  United  States  army  to 
put  down  the  lawbreakers. 

The  strike,  which  was  pressed  almost  wholly  by  foreigners,  was  not  confined 
to  Chicago.  A  strong  antipathy  is  felt  toward  railroads  in  California,  owing  to 
what  some  believe  have  been  the  wrongful  means  employed  by  such  corporations 
on  the  Pacific  coast. 

There  were  ugly  outbreaks  in  Los  Angeles,  Oakland,  and  Sacramento,  the 
difficulty  being  intensified  by  the  refusal  of  the  militia  to  act  against  the  strikers. 
A  force  of  regular  soldiers,  while  hurrying  over  the  railroad  to  the  scene  of  the 
disturbance,  was  ditched  by  the  strikers  and  several  killed  and  badly  hurt.  The 
incensed  soldiers  were  eager  for  a  chance  to  reach  the  strikers,  but  they  were 
under  fine  discipline  and  their  officers  showed  great  self-restraint. 

END    OF    THE    STRIKE. 

The  course  of  all  violent  strikes  is  short.  The  savage  acts  repel  whatever 
sympathy  may  have  been  felt  for  the  workingmen  at  first  Few  of  the  real  suf- 


COXEY'S   COMMONWEAL  ARMY.  503 

ferers  took  part  in  the  turbulent  8  .ts.  It  was  the  foreigners  and  the  desperate 
men  who  used  the  grievances  as  a  pretext  for  their  outlawry,  in  which  they  were 
afraid  to  indulge  at  other  times.  Then,  too,  the  stern,  repressive  measures  of 
President  Cleveland  had  a  salutary  effect.  Many  labor  organizations  when 
called  upon  to  strike  replied  with  expressions  of  sympathy,  but  decided  to  keep 
it  work.  President  Debs,  Vice-President  Howard,  and  other  prominent  mem 
bers  of  the  American  Hallway  Union  were  arrested,  July  10th,  on  the  charge  of 
obstructing  the  United  States  mails  and  interfering  with  the  execution  of  the 
laws  of  the  United  States.  A  number — forty-three  in  all — was  indicted  by 
the  Federal  grand  jury,  July  19th,  and  the  bonds  were  fixed  at  $10,000  each. 
Bail  was  offered,  but  they  declined  to  accept  it  and  went  to  jail.  On  December 
14th,  Debs  was  sentenced  to  six  months'  imprisonment  for  contempt,  the  terms 
of  the  others  being  fixed  at  three  months. 

On  August  5th,  the  general  committee  of  strikers  officially  declared  the 
strike  at  an  end  in  Chicago,  and  their  action  was  speedily  imitated  elsewhere. 

COXEY'S    COMMONWEAL    ARMY. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  appeals  made  directly  to  the  law-making 
powers  by  the  unemployed  was  that  of  Coxey's  "  Commonweal  Army."  De 
spite  some  of  its  grotesque  features,  it  was  deserving  of  more  sympathy  than  it 
received,  for  it  represented  a  pitiful  phase  of  human  poverty  and  suffering. 

The  scheme  was  that  of  J.  S.  Coxey,  of  Massillon,  Ohio,  who  left  that  town 
on  the  25th  of  March,  1894,  with  some  seventy-five  men.  They  carried  no 
weapons,  and  believed  they  would  gather  enough  recruits  on  the  road  to  number 
100,000  by  the  time  they  reached  Washington,  where  their  demands  made 
directly  upon  Congress  would  be  so  imposing  that  that  body  would  not  dare 
refuse  them.  They  intended  to  ask  for  the  passage  of  two  acts:  the  first  to 
provide  for  the  issue  of  $500,000,000  in  legal-tender  notes,  to  be  expended 
under  the  direction  of  the  secretary  of  war  at  the  rate  of  $20,000,000  monthly, 
in  the  construction  of  roads  in  different  parts  of  the  country;  the  second  to 
authorize  any  State,  city,  or  village  to  deposit  in  the  United  States  treasury  non- 
interest-bearing  bonds,  not  exceeding  in  amount  one-half  the  assessed  valuation 
of  its  property,  on  which  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  should  issue  legal-tender 

notes. 

This  unique  enterprise  caused  some  misgiving,  for  it  was  feared  that  such 
an  immense  aggregation  of  the  unemployed  would  result  in  turbulence  and 
serious  acts  of  violence.  Few  could  restrain  sympathy  for  the  object  of  the 
"  army,"  while  condemning  the  means  adopted  to  make  its  purpose  effective. 

The  result,  however,  was  a  dismal  fiasco.  The  trampers  committed  no 
depredations,  and  when  they  approached  a  town  and  camped  near  it  the  authori- 


604  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

ties  and  citizens  were  quite  willing  to  supply  their  immediate  wants  in  order  to 
get  rid  of  them.  But,  while  a  good  many  recruits  were  added,  hilly  as  many 
deserted.  At  no  time  did  Coxey's  army  number  more  than  500  men,  and 
when  it  reached  Washington  on  the  1st  of  May  it  included  precisely  336 
persons,  who  paraded  through  the  streets.  Upon  attempting  to  enter  the 
Capitol  -rounds  they  were  excluded  by  the  police.  Coxey  and  two  of  his 
friends  disregarded  the  commands,  and  were  arrested  and  fined  five  dollars 
apiece  and  sentenced  to  twenty  days'  imprisonment  for  violating  the  statute 
against  carrying  a  banner  on  the  grounds  and  in  not  "  keeping  off  the  grass. 
The  army  quickly  dissolved  and  was  heard  of  no  more. 

Similar  organizations  started  from  Oregon,  Montana,  Colorado,  Wyoming, 
and  different  points  for  Washington.  In  some  instances  disreputable  characters 
joined  them  and  committed  disorderly  acts.  In  the  State  of  Washington  they 
seized  a  railroad  train,  had  a  vicious  fight  with  deputy  marshals,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  call  out  the  militia  to  subdue  them.  Trouble  occurred  in  Kansas, 
Illinois,  and  Pennsylvania,  The  total  strength  of  the  six  industrial  armies 
never  reached  6,000. 

ADMISSION    OF    UTAH. 

On  the  4th  of  January,  1896,  Utah  became  the  forty-fifth  member  of  the 
Federal  Union.  The  symbolical  star  on  the  flag  is  at  the  extreme  right  of  the 
fourth  row  from  the  top.  The  size  of  the  national  flag  was  also  changed  from 
6  by  5  feet  to  5  feet  6  inches  by  4  feet  4  inches. 

Utah  has  been  made  chiefly  famous  through  the  Mormons,  who  emigrated 
thither  before  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California.  Its  size  is  about  double  that 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  its  chief  resources  are  mineral  and  agricultural. 
It  forms  a  part  of  the  Mexican  cession  of  1848,  and  its  name  is  derived  from 
the  Ute  or  Utah  Indians.  Salt  Lake  City  was  founded,  and  Utah  asked  for 
admission  into  the  Union  in  1849,  but  was  refused.  A  territorial  government 
was  organized  in  1860,  with  Brigham  Young  as  governor.  It  has  been  shown 
elsewhere  that  in  1857  it  was  necessary  to  send  Federal  troops  to  Utah  to 
enforce  obedience  to  the  laws.  Polygamy  debarred  its  admission  to  the  Union 
for  many  years. 

The  constitution  of  the  State  allows  women  to  vote,  hold  office,  and  sit  on 
juries,  and  a  trial  jury  numbers  eight  instead  of  twelve  persons,  three-fourths 
of  whom  may  render  a  verdict  in  civil  cases,  but  unanimity  is  required  to  con 
vict  of  crime.  The  constitution  also  forbids  polygamy,  and  the  Mormon 
authorities  maintain  that  it  is  not  practiced  except  where  plural  marriages  were 
contracted  before  the  passage  of  the  United  States  law  prohibiting  such  unions. 

It  has  been  said  by  scientists  that  the  power  which  goes  to  waste  at  Niagara 
Falls  would,  if  properly  utilized,  operate  all  the  machinery  in  the  world.  The 


NIAGARA   HARNESSED. 


505 


discoveries  made  in  electricity  have  turned  attention  to  this  inconceivable  storage 
of  power,  with  the  result  that  Niagara  has  been  practically  "harnessed." 

In  1886,  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company  was  incorporated,  followed 
three  years  later  by 
that  of  the  Cataract 
Construction  Com 
pany.  Work  began 
in  October,  1890, 
and  three  more 
years  were  required 
to  complete  the  tun- 
n  e  1 ,  the  surface- 
canal,  and  the  pre 
liminary  wheel-pits. 

The  first  dis 
tribution  of  power 
was  made  in  August, 
1895,  to  the  works 
of  the  Pittsburg  Re 
duction  Company, 
near  the  canal. 
Other  companies 
were  added,  and  the 
city  of  Buffalo,  in 
December,  1895, 
granted  a  franchise 
to  the  company  to 
supply  power  to  that 
city.  The  first 
customer  was  the 
Buffalo  Kail  way 
Company.  Novem 


ber  15,  1896,  at 
midnight,  the  cur 
rent  was  transmitted 
by  a  pole  line,  con- 


A  GOLD  PROSPECTING  PARTY   ON   DEBATABLE 
BRITISH   GUIANA. 


by  a  pole  line,  con- 

sistin-  of  three  continuous  cables  of  uninsulated  copper,  whose  total  length  was 
seventy-eight  miles.  Since  that  date,  the  street  cars  have  been  operated  by 
the  same  motor,  with  more  industrial  points  continually  added. 

While  our  past  history  shows  that  we  have  had  only  two  wars  witn  < 


506  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

Britain,  yet  it  shows  also  that  talk  of  war  has  been  heard  fully  a  score  of  times. 
Long  after  1812,  we  were  extremely  sensitive  as  regarded  the  nation  that  the 
majority  of  Americans  looked  upon  a*  our  hereditary  foe,  and  the  calls  for  war 
have  been  sounded  in  Congress  and  throughout  the  land  far  oftener  than  most 
people  suspect.  That  such  a  calamity  to  mankind  has  been  turned  aside  is  due 
mainly  to  the  good  sense  and  mutual  forbearance  of  the  majority  of  people  in 
both  countries.  England  and  the  United  States  are  the  two  great  English- 
speaking  nations.  Together  they  are  stronger  than  all  the  world  combined. 
With  the  same  language,  the  same  literature,  objects,  aims,  and  religion,  a  war 
between  them  would  be  the  most  awful  catastrophe  that  could  befall  humanity. 

The  last  flurry  with  the  "mother  country"  occurred  in  the  closing  weeks 
of  1895,  and  related  to  Venezuela,  which  had  been  at  variance  with  England 
for  many  years.  Until  1810,  the  territory  lying  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Orinoco  and  the  Amazon  was  known  as  the  Guianas.  In  the  year  named 
Spain  ceded  a  large  part  of  the  country  to  Venezuela,  and  in  1814  Holland 
ceded  another  to  Great  Britain.  The  boundary  between  the  Spanish  and  Dutch 
possessions  had  never  been  fixed  by  treaty,  and  the  dispute  between  England 
and  Venezuela  lasted  until  1887,  when  diplomatic  relations  were  broken  off 
between  the  two  countries. 

Venezuela  asked  that  the  dispute  might  be  submitted  to  arbitration,  but 
England  would  not  agree,  though  the  territory  in  question  was  greater  in  extent 
than  the  State  of  New  York.  The  United  States  was  naturally  interested,  for 
the  "Monroe  Doctrine"  was  involved,  and  in  February,  1895,  Congress  passed 
a  joint  resolution,  approving  the  suggestion  of  the  President  that  the  question 
should  be  submitted  to  arbitration,  but  England  still  refused.  A  lengthy 
correspondence  took  place  between  Great  Britain  and  this  country,  and,  on 
December  17,  1895,  in  submitting  it  to  Congress,  President  Cleveland  asked  for 
authority  from  that  body  to  appoint  a  commission  to  determine  the  merits  of  the 
boundary  dispute,  as  a  guide  to  the  government  in  deciding  its  line  of  action^ 
insisting  further  that,  if  England  maintained  her  unwarrantable  course,  the 
United  States  should  resist  "by  every  means  in  its  power,  as  a  willful  aggres 
sion  upon  its  rights  and  interests,  the  appropriation  by  Great  Britain  of  any 
lands,  or  the  exercise  of  governmental  jurisdiction  over  any  territory,  which 
after  investigation  we  have  determined  of  right  belongs  to  Venezuela." 

There  was  no  mistaking  the  warlike  tone  of  these  words.  The  country  and 
Congress  instantly  fired  up,  and  the  land  resounded  with  war  talk.  Congress 
immediately  appropriated  the  sum  of  $100,000  for  the  expense  of  the  commission 
of  inquiry,  and  two  days  later  the  Senate  passed  the  hill  without  a  vote  in 
opposition.  The  committee  was  named  on  the  1st  of  the  following  January  and 
promptly  began  its  work. 


PRESIDENTIAL   ELECTION  OF  18'J6.  507 

But  the  sober  second  thought  of  wist- men  in  both  countries  soon  made 
itself  felt.  Without  prolonging  the  story,  it  may  be  said  that  the  dispute 
finally  went  to  arbitration,  February  'J,  18(.)7,  where  it  should  have  gone  in  the 
first  place,  and  it  was  settled  to  the  full  satisfaction  of  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States,  and  Venezuela.  Another  fact  may  as  well  be  conceded,  without  any 
reflection  upon  our  patriotism:  ILid  England  accepted  our  challenge  to  war,  for 
which  she  was  fully  prepared  with  her  invincible  navv,  and  we  were  in  a  state 


COUDERT  WHITE.  BREWER.  ALVEV.  OILMAN. 

VENEZUELAN   COMMISSION. 

Appointed  by  President  Cleveland,  January,  1890,  to  determine  the  true  boundary  between  British  Guiana  and  Venezuela. 

of  uneasiness,  the  United  States  would  have  been  taught  a  lesson  that  she 
would  have  remembered  for  centuries  to  come.  Thank  God,  the  trial  was  spared 
to  us,  and  in  truth  can  never  come  while  common  sense  reigns. 

THE    PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION    OF    1896. 

The  presidential  election  in  the  fall  of  180G  was  a  remarkable  one.  The 
month  of  September  had  hardly  opened  when  there  were  eight  presidential 
tickets  in  the  field.  Given  in  the  order  of  their  nominations  they  were : 


508 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 


Prohibition  (May  27th)— Joshua  Levering,  of  Maryland;  Hale  Johnson, 
of  Illinois. 

National  Party,  Free  Silver,  Woman-Suffrage  offshoot  of  the  regular  Pro- 
hibition  (May  28th)— Charles  E.  Bentley,  of  Nebraska;  James  H.  Southgate, 
of  North  Carolina. 

Republican  (June  18th) — William  McKinley,  of  Ohio;  Garret  A.  Hobart, 
of  New  Jersey. 

Social  1st -Labor  (July  4th) — Charles  H.  Matchett,  of  New  York;  Matthew 

Maguire,  of  New  Jersey. 

Democratic  (July  10th  to  llth) 
-William     Jennings     Bryan,      of 
Nebraska;  Arthur  Sewall,  of  Maine. 
People's  Party    (July    24th  to 
25th) — William  Jennings  Bryan,  of 
Nebraska;  Thomas  E.  Watson,  of 
Georgia. 

National  Democratic  Party 
(September  8th) — John  McAuley 
Palmer,  of  Illinois;  Simon  Boliver 
Buckner,  of  Kentucky. 

As  usual,  the  real  contest  was 
between  the  Democrats  and  Republi 
cans.  The  platform  of  the  former 
demanded  the  free  coinage  of  silver, 
which  was  opposed  by  the  Republi 
cans,  who  insisted  upon  preserving 
the  existing  gold  standard.  This 
question  caused  a  split  in  each  of  the 
leading  parties.  When  the  Repub 
lican  nominating  convention  inserted 

the  gold  ami  silver  plank  in  its  platform,  Senator  Teller,  of  Colorado,  led 
thirty-two  delegates  in  their  formal  withdrawal  from  the  convention.  A  large 
majority  of  those  to  the  National  Democratic  Convention  favored  the  free 
coinage  of  silver  in  the  face  of  an  urgent  appeal  against  it  by  President 
Cleveland.  They  would  accept  no  compromise,  and,  after  "jamming"  through 
their  platform  and  nominating  Mr.  Bryan,  they  made  Arthur  Sewall  their 
candidate  for  Vice-President,  though  he  was  president  of  a  national  bank  and  a 
believer  in  the  gold  standard. 

In  consequence  of  this  action,  the  Populists  or  People's  Party  refused  to 


WM.  JENNINGS   BRYAN. 
Democratic  candidate  for  President.  1896. 


PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION  OF  1896.  509 

accept  the  candidature  of  Mr.  Sewall,  and  put  in  his  place  the  name  of  Thomas 
E.  Watson,  who  was  an  uncompromising  Populist. 

There  was  also  a  revolt  among  the  "Sound  Money  Democrats,"  as  they 
were  termed.  Although  they  knew  they  had  no  earthly  chance  of  winning, 
they  were  determined  to  place  themselves  on  record,  and,  after  all  the  other 
tickets  were  in  the  field,  they  put  Palmer  and  Buckner  in  nomination.  In  their 
platform  they  condemned  the  platform  adopted  by  the  silver  men  and  the  tariff 
policy  of  the  Republicans.  They  favored  tariff  for  revenue  only,  the  single 
gold  standard,  a  bank  currency  under  govermental  supervision,  international 
arbitration,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  independence  and  authority  of  the 
Supreme  Court. 

Mr.  Bryan  threw  all  his  energies  into  the  canvass  and  displayed  wonderful 
industry  and  vigor.  He  made  whirlwind  tours  through  the  country,  speaking 
several  times  a  day  and  in  the  evening,  and  won  many  converts.  Had  the 
election  taken  place  a  few  weeks  earlier  than  the  regular  date,  it  is  quite  probable 
he  would  have  won.  Mr.  McKinley  made  no  speech-making  tours,  but  talked 
many  times  to  the  crowds  who  called  upon  him  at  his  home  in  Canton,  Ohio. 
The  official  vote  in  November  was  as  follows : 

McKinley  and  Hobart,  Republican,  7,101,401  popular  votes;  271  electoral 
votes. 

Bryan  and  Sewall,  Democrat  and  Populist,  6,470,656  popular  votes;  176 
electoral  votes. 

Levering  and  Johnson,  Prohibition,  132,007  popular  votes. 

Palmer  and  Buckner,  National  Democrat,  133,148  popular  votes. 

Matchett  and  Maguire,  Socialist-Labor,  36,274  popular  votes. 

Bentley  and  Southgate,  Free  Silver  Prohibition,  13,969  popular  votes. 

Despite  the  political  upheavals  that  periodically  occur  throughout  our 
country,  it  steadily  advances  in  prosperity,  progress  and  growth.  Its  resources 
were  limitless,  and  the  settlement  of  the  vast  fertile  areas  in  the  West  and 
Northwest  went  on  at  an  extraordinary  rate.  In  no  section  was  this  so  strik 
ingly  the  fact  as  in  the  Northwest.  So  great  indeed  was  the  growth  in  that 
respect  that  the  subject  warrants  the  special  chapter  that  follows. 


CORNER  AT  TOP  OF  STAIRWAY  NEW  CONGRESSIONAL    LIBRARY,   WASHINGTON,   D.  C- 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


ADMINISTRATION    OK    CLKVELANID   (SECONO- 
CONCLUDED),    1893-1897. 

THE   GREAT  NORTHWEST. 

BY  ALBERT  SHAW,  PH.D., 
Editor  "Review  of  Reviews,"  formerly  editor  of  "  Minneapolis  Tribune." 

Settling  the  Northwest — The  Face  of  the  Country  Transformed — Clearing  Away  the  Forests  and  its 
Effects — Tree-planting  on  the  Prairies — Pioneer  Life  in  the  Seventies — The  Granary  of  the  World — 
The  Northwestern  Farmer — Transportation  and  Other  Industries — Business  Cities  and  Centres — 
United  Public  Action  and  its  Influence— The  Indian  Question— Other  Elements  of  Population- 
Society  and  General  Culture. 

"NORTHWEST"  is  a  shifting,  uncertain   designation.     The  term  has  been 

used  to  cover  the  whole  stretch  of  country  from 
Pittsburg  to  Puget  Sound,  north  of  the  Ohio 
River  and  the  thirty-seventh  parallel  of  latitude. 
Popularly  it  signified  the  old  Northwestern  Terri 
tory — including  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan, 
and  Wisconsin — until  about  the  time  of  the  Civil 
War.  In  the  decade  following  the  war,  Illinois 
and  Iowa  were  largely  in  the  minds  of  men  who 
spoke  of  the  Northwest.  From  1870  to  1880, 
Iowa,  Kansas,  northern  Missouri,  and  Nebraska 
constituted  the  most  stirring  and  favored  region — 
the  Northwest  par  excellence.  But  the  past  dec 
ade  has  witnessed  a  remarkable  development  in 
the  Dakotas;  and  Minnesota,  North  and  South 
Dakota,  and  Montana,  with  Iowa  and  Nebraska, 
are  perhaps  the  States  most  familiarly  comprised  in  the  idea  of  the  Northwest 
These  States  are  really  in  the  heart  of  the  continent — midway  between  oceans; 
and  perhaps  by  common  consent  the  term  Northwest  will,  a  decade  hence, 
have  moved  on  and  taken  firm  possession  of  Oregon,  Washington,  Idaho, 
and  Wyoming,  while  ultimately  Alaska  may  succeed  to  the  designation. 

But  for  the  present  the  Northwest  is  the  great  arable  wedge  lying  between 

(511) 


A.LBERT   SHAW. 


512  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  Kivers,  and  between  the  Missouri  River  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  a  region  that  is  pretty  clearly  defined  upon  a  map 
showing  physical  characteristics.  For  the  most  part,  it  is  a  region  of  great 
natural  fertility,  of  regular  north-temperate  climate,  of  moderate  but  sufficient 
rainfall,  of  scant  forests  and  great  prairie  expanses,  and  of  high  average  alti 
tude  without  mountains.  In  a  word,  it  is  a  region  that  was  adapted  by  nature  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  cereals  and  leading  crops  of  the  temperate  zone  without 
arduous  and  time-consuming  processes  for  subduing  the  wilderness  and  redeem 
ing  the  soil. 

SETTLING    THE   NORTHWEST. 

This  "New  Northwest,"  in  civilization  and  in  all  its  significant  character 
istics,  is  the  creature  of  the  vast  impulse  that  the  successful  termination  of  the 
war  gave  the  nation.  No  other  extensive  area  was  ever  settled  under  similar 
conditions.  Tlie  homestead  laws,  the  new  American  system  of  railroad  building, 
and  the  unprecedented  demand  for  staple  food  products  in  the  industrial  centres 
at  home  and  abroad,  peopled  the  prairies  as  if  by  magic.  Until  1870,  fixing 
the  date  very  roughly,  transportation  facilities  followed  colonization.  The  rail 
roads  were  built  to  serve  and  stimulate  a  traffic  that  already  existed.  The 
pioneers  had  done  a  generation's  work  before  the  iron  road  overtook  them.  In 
the  past  two  decades  all  has  been  changed.  The  railroads  have  been  the 
pioneers  and  colonizers.  They  have  invaded  the  solitary  wilderness,  and  the 
population  has  followed.  Much  of  the  land  has  belonged  to  the  roads,  through 
subsidy  grants,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  mileage  has  been  laid  without  the 
encouragement  of  land  subsidies  or  other  bonuses,  by  railway  corporations  that 
were  willing  to  look  to  the  future  for  their  reward. 

It  would  be  almost  impossible  to  overestimate  the  significance  of  this 
method  of  colonization.  Within  a  few  years  it  has  transformed  the  buffalo 
ranges  into  the  world's  most  extensive  fields  of  wheat  and  corn.  A  region 
comprising  northern  and  western  Minnesota  and  the  two  Dakotas,  which  con 
tributed  practically  nothing  to  the  country's  wheat  supply  twelve  or  fifteen 
years  ago,  has,  by  this  system  of  railroad  colonization,  reached  an  annual  pro 
duction  of  100,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  alone— about  one-fourth  of  the  crop 
of  the  entire  country.  In  like  manner,  parts  of  western  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and 
Kansas,  that  produced  no  corn  before  1875  or  1880,  are  now  the  centre  of  corn- 
raising,  and  yield  many  hundreds  of  millions  of  bushels  annually.  These 
regions  enter  as  totally  new  factors  into  the  world's  supply  of  foods  and  raw 
materials.  ^  A  great  area  of  this  new  territory  might  be  defined  that  was 
inhabited  in  1870  by  less  than  a  million  people,  in  1880  by  more  than  three 
millions,  and  in  1899  by  from  eight  to  ten  millions. 

Let  us  imagine  a  man  from  the  East  who  has  visited  the  Northwestern 


SETTLING   THE  NORTHWEST. 

States  and  Territories  at  some  time  between  the  years  1870  and  1875,  and  who 
retains  a  strong  impression  of  what  he  saw,  but  who  has  not  been  west  of 
Chicago  since  that  time,  until,  in  the  World's  Fair  year,  he  determines  upon  a 
new  exploration  of  Iowa,  Nebraska,  the  Datokas,  Minnesota,  and  Wisconsin. 
However  well  informed  he  had  tried  to  keep  himself  through  written  descrip 
tions  and  statistical  records  of  Western  progress,  he  would  see  what  nothing 
but  the  evidence  of  his  own  eyes  could  have  made  him  believe  to  be  possible. 
Iowa  in  1870  was  already  producing  a  large  crop  of  cereals,  and  was  inhabited 


A  DISPUTE   OVER  A  BRAND 

by  a  thriving,  though  very  new,  farming  population.  But  the  aspect  of  the 
country  was  bare  and  uninviting,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  the  older  com 
munities  on  the  Mississippi  Eiver.  As  one  advanced  across  the  State  the  farm 
houses  were  very  small,  and  looked  like  isolated  dry-goods  boxes;  there  were 
few  well-built  barns  or  farm  buildings;  and  the  struggling  young  cotton  wood 
and  soft-maple  saplings  planted  in  close  groves  about  the  tiny  houses  were  so 
slight  an  obstruction  to  the  sweep  of  vision  across  the  open  prairie  that  they  only 
seemed  to  emphasize  the  monotonous  stretches  of  fertile,  but  uninteresting, 
plain.  Now  the  landscape  is  wholly  transformed.  A  railroad  ride  in  June 

33 


514  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

through  the  best  parts  of  Iowa  reminds  one  of  a  ride  through  some  of  the 
pleasautest  farming  districts  of  England.  The  primitive  "  claim  shanties "  of 
thirty  years  ago  have  given  place  to  commodious  farm-houses  flanked  by  great 
barns  and  hay-ricks,  and  the  well-appointed  structures  of  a  prosperous  agricul 
ture.  In  the  rich,  deep  meadows  herds  of  fine-blooded  cattle  are  grazing. 
What  was  once  a  blank,  dreary  landscape  is  now  garden-like  and  inviting.  The 
poor  little  saplings  of  the  earlier  days,  which  seemed  to  be  apologizing  to  the 
robust  corn-stalks  in  the  neighboring  fields,  have  grown  on  that  deep  soil  into 
great,  spreading  trees.  One  can  easily  imagine,  as  he  looks  off  in  every  direc 
tion  and  notes  a  wooded  horizon,  that  he  is — as  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  or  Kentucky — 
in  a  farming  region  which  has  been  cleared  out  of  primeval  forests.  There  are 
many  towns  I  might  mention  which  twenty-five  years  ago,  with  their  new,  wooden 
shanties  scattered  over  the  bare  face  of  the  prairie,  seemed  the  hottest  place  on 
earth  as  the  summer  sun  beat  upon  their  unshaded  streets  and  roofs,  and 
seemed  the  coldest  places  on  earth  when  the  fierce  blizzards  of  winter  swept 
unchecked  across  the  prairie  expanses.  To-day  the  density  of  shade  in  those 
towns  is  deemed  of  positive  detriment  to  health,  and  for  several  years  past 
there  has  been  a  systematic  thinning  out  and  trimming  up  of  the  great,  cluster 
ing  elms.  Trees  of  from  six  to  ten  feet  in  girth  are  found  everywhere  by  the 
hundreds  of  thousands.  Each  farm-house  is  sheltered  from  winter  winds  by  its 
own  dense  groves.  Many  of  the  farmers  are  able  from  the  surplus  growth  of 
wood  upon  their  estates  to  provide  themselves  with  a  large  and  regular  supply 
of  fuel.  If  I  have  dwelt  at  some  length  upon  this  picture  of  the  transformation 
of  the  bleak,  grain-producing  Iowa  prairies  of  thirty  years  ago  into  the  dairy 
and  live-stock  farms  of  to-day,  with  their  fragrant  meadows  and  ample  groves, 
it  is  because  the  picture  is  one  which  reveals  so  much  as  to  the  nature  and 
meaning  of  Northwestern  progress. 

CLEARING    AWAY    THE    FORESTS    AND    ITS    EFFECTS. 

Not  a  little  has  been  written  regarding  the  rapid  destruction  of  the  vast 
white-pine  forests  with  which  nature  has  covered  large  districts  of  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  It  is  true  that  this  denudation  has  progressed  at  a 
rate  with  which  nothing  of  a  like  character  in  the  history  of  the  world  is  com 
parable.  It  is  also  true,  doubtless,  that  the  clearing  away  of  dense  forest  areas 
has  been  attended  with  some  inconvenient  climatic  results,  and  particularly  with 
some  objectionable  effects  upon  the  even  distribution  of  rainfall  and  the  regu 
larity  of  the  flow  of  rivers.  But  most  persons  who  have  been  alarmed  at  the 
rapidity  of  forest  destruction  in  the  white-pine  belt  have  wholly  overlooked  the 
great  compensating  facts.  It  happens  that  the  white-pine  region  is  not  espe 
cially  fertile,  and  that  for  some  time  to  come  it  is  not  likely  to  acquire  a  pros- 


THE   CATHEDRAL   SPIRES,   COLORADO 


515 


516  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

perous  agriculture.  But  adjacent  to  it  and  beyond  it  there  was  a  vast  region  of 
country  which,  though  utterly  treeless,  was  endowed  with  a  marvelous  richness 
of  soil  and  with  a  climate  fitted  for  all  the  staple  productions  of  the  temperate 
zone.  This  region  embraced  parts  of  Illinois,  almost  the  whole  of  Iowa,  south 
ern  Minnesota,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  South  Dakota,  North  Dakota,  and  parts  of 
Montana — a  region  of  imperial  extent.  Now,  it  happens  that  for  every  acre 
of  pine  land  that  has  been  denuded  in  Michigan,  northern  Wisconsin,  and 
northern  Minnesota  there  are  somewhere  in  the  great  treeless  region  further 
south  and  west  two  or  three  new  farm-houses.  The  railroads,  pushing  ahead 
of  settlement  out  into  the  open  prairie,  have  carried  the  white-pine  lumber  from 
the  gigantic  sawmills  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries;  and  thus 
millions  of  acres  of  land  have  been  brought  under  cultivation  by  farmers  who 
could  not  have  been  housed  in  comfort  but  for  the  proximity  of  the  pine  forests. 
The  rapid  clearing  away  of  timber  areas  in  Wisconsin  has  simply  meant  the 
rapid  settlement  of  North  and  South  Dakota,  western  Iowa,  and  Nebraska. 

TRKE    PLANTING    ON    THE    PRAIRIES. 

The  settlement  of  these  treeless  regions  means  the  successful  growth  on 
every  farm  of  at  least  several  hundred  trees.  Without  attempting  to  be  statis 
tical  or  exact,  we  might  say  that  an  acre  of  northern  Minnesota  pine  trees 
makes  it  possible  for  a  fanner  in  Dakota  or  Nebraska  to  have  a  house,  farm 
buildings,  and  fences,  with  a  holding  of  at  least  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres 
upon  which  he  will  successfully  cultivate  several  acres  of  forest  trees  of  different 
kinds.  Even  if  the  denuded  pine  lands  of  the  region  south  and  west  of  Lake 
Superior  would  not  readily  produce  a  second  growth  of  dense  forest — which,  it 
should  be  said  in  passing,  they  certainly  will — their  loss  would  be  far  more  than 
made  good  by  the  universal  cultivation  of  forest  trees  in  the  prairie  States.  It 
is  at  least  comforting  to  reflect,  when  the  friends  of  scientific  forestry  warn  us 
against  the  ruthless  destruction  of  standing  timber,  that  thus  far  at  least  in  our 
Western  history  we  have  simply  been  cutting  down  trees  in  order  to  put  a  roof 
over  the  head  of  the  man  who  was  invading  treeless  regions  for  the  purpose  of 
planting  and  nurturing  a  hundred  times  as  many  trees  as  had  been  destroyed 
for  his  benefit !  There  is  something  almost  inspiring  in  the  contemplation  of 
millions  of  families,  all  the  way  from  Minnesota  to  Colorado  and  Texas,  living 
in  the  shelter  of  these  new  pine  houses  and  transforming  the  plains  into  a 
shaded  and  fruitful  empire. 

PIONEER    LIFE    IN    THE   SEVENTIKS. 

The  enormous  expansion  of  our  railway  systems  will  soon  Uave  made  it 
quite  impossible  for  any  of  the  younger  generation  to  realize  what  hardships 
were  attendant  upon  such  limited  colonization  of  treeless  prairie  regions  as  pre- 


PIONEER   LIFE  IN   THE  SEVENTIES. 


51V 


ceded  the  iron  rails.  In  1876  I  spent  the  summer  in  a  part  of  Dakota  to  which 
a  considerable  number  of  hardy  but  poor  farmers  had  found  their  way  and  taken 
up  claims.  They  could  not  easily  procure  wood  for  houses,  no  other  ordinary 
building  material  was  accessible,,  and  they  were  living  in  half-underground 
''dug-outs,"  so-called.  There  was  much  more  pleasure  and  romance  in  the 
pioneer  experiences  of  my  own  ancestors  a  hundred  years  ago,  who  were  living 

in  comfortable  log-houses  with  huge  fire      ^^^>laces,  and  shooting 

abundant  supplies  of  deer  and  wild  ^^  ^^^turkey    in     the 

deep  woods  of  southern  Ohio.     S  ^^The    pluck 

and  industry  of  these  1 );lk()t<1  Jj^S^  ^L  pioneers, 

most  of  whom  were  Irish    ^8  S^fKl  ^men  and 

Norwegians, won  my  heart 
iest   sympathy    and    re 
spect,       Poor    as    they 
were,  they   maintained 
one    public    institution 
in    common  —  namely, 
a  school,  with  its  place 
of     public     assemblage. 
The  building  had  no  floor 
but  the  beaten  earth,  and  g 
its  thick  walls  were  blocks  ]• 

m 

of  matted  prairie  turf,  itsj 
roof  also  being  of  sods 
supported  upon    some 
poles     brought      from 
the    scanty    timber- 
growth    along  the  margin 
of  a  prairie   river.     To-day 
these  poor  pioneers  are  enjoying 
their   reward.      Their   valley 
traversed    by    several    railroads 
prosperous    villages    have   sprung 

up;  their  lands*"  are  of  considerable  value;  they  all  live  in  well-built  farm, 
houses;  their  shade  trees  have  grown  to  a  height  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet;  a  bus 
tling  and  ambitious  city,  with  fine  churches,  opera-houses,  electric  illumination, 
and  the  most  advanced  public  educational  system,  is  only  a  few  miles  away  from 
them.  Such  transformations  have  occurred,  not  alone  in  a  few  spots  in  Iowa 
and  South  Dakota,  but  are  common  throughout  a  region  that  extends  from  the 
British  dominions  to  the  Indian  Territory,  and  from  the  Mississippi  River  to 


SLUICE-GATE. 


518 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 


the  Rocky  Mountains — a  region  comprising  more  than  a  half-million  square 
miles. 

THE  GRANARY  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Naturally  the  industrial  life  of  these  Northwestern  communities  is  based 

solidly  upon  agriculture.  There  is,  per 
haps,  hardly  any  other  agricultural  re 
gion  of  equal  extent  upon  the  face  of  the 
earth  that  is  so  fertile  and  so  well 
adapted  for  the  production  of  the  most 
necessary  articles  of  human  food.  During 
the  past  decade  the  world's  markets  have 
been  notably  disturbed  and  affected,  and 
profound  social  changes  and  political  agi 
tations  have  occurred  in  various  remote 

parts    of     the 
earth.     It  is 
within 
bounds 
to   as- 


BETWEEN    THE 
MILLS. 


sert     that    the    most 
potent    and    far-reach 
ing  factor  in   the  altered 
conditions  of  the  industrial 
world    during     thess      recent 
years    lias    been    the    sudden 
invasion  and  utilization  of  this 
great  new  farming  region.     Most  parts  of  the  world  which  are  fairly  prosperous 
t  produce  staple  food  supplies  in  appreciable  surplus  quantities.     Several 
vh.ch  are  not  highly  prosperous  sell  surplus  food  products  out  of  their 
poverty  rather   than  out  of  their  abundance.     That  is  to  say,  the  people  of 


BARREL-HOIST  AND  TUNNEL  THROUGH  THE 
WASHBURN  MILL. 


THE  NORTHWESTERN  FARMER.  519 

India  and  the  people  of  Russia  have  often  been  obliged,  in  order  to  obtain 
money  to  pay  their  taxes  and  other  necessary  expenses,  to  sell  and  send  away 
to  prosperous  England  the  wheat  which  they  have  needed  for  hungry  mouths  at 
home.  They  have  managed  to  subsist  upon  coarser  and  cheaper  food.  But  in 
•our  Northwestern  States  the  application  of  ingenious  machinery  to  the  cultiva 
tion  of  fertile  and  virgin  soils  has  within  the  past  twenty-five  years  precipitated 
upon  the  world  a  stupendous  new  supply  of  cereals  and  of  meats,  produced  in 
quantities  enormously  greater  than  the  people  of  the  Northwestern  States 
•could  consume.  These  foodstuffs  have  powerfully  affected  agriculture  in  Ireland, 
England,  France,  and  Germany,  and,  in  fact,  in  every  other  part  of  the  accessible 
and  cultivated  globe. 

THE    NORTHWESTERN    FARMER. 

So  much  has  been  written  of  late  about  the  condition  of  the  farmer  in  these 
regions  that  it  is  pertinent  to  inquire  who  the  Western  farmer  is.  In  the  old 
States  the  representative  farmer  is  a  man  of  long  training  in  the  difficult  and 
honorable  art  of  diversified  agriculture.  He  knows  much  of  soils,  of  crops  and 
their  wise  rotation,  of  domestic  animals  and  their  breeding,  and  of  a  hundred 
•distinct  phases  of  the  production,  the  life,  and  the  household  economics  that 
belong  to  the  traditions  and  methods  of  Anglo-Saxon  farming.  If  he  is  a  wise 
man,  owning  his  land  and  avoiding  extravagance,  he  can  defy  any  condition  of 
the  markets,  and  can  survive  any  known  succession  of  adverse  seasons.  There 
are  also  many  such  farmers  in  the  West,  But  there  are  thousands  of  wheat- 
raisers  or  corn-growers  who  have  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  railway  and  taken 
lip  government  or  railroad  land,  and  who  are  not  yet  farmers  in  the  truest  and 
best  sense  of  the  word.  They  are  unskilled  laborers  who  have  become  specu 
lators.  They  obtain  their  land  for  nothing,  or  for  a  price  ranging  from  one 
•dollar  and  fifty  cents  to  five  dollars  per  acre.  They  borrow  on  mortgage  the 
money  to  build  a  small  house  and  to  procure  horses  and  implements  and  seed- 
:grain.  Then  they  proceed  to  put  as  large  an  acreage  as  they  can  manage  into 
a  single  crop — wheat  in  the  Dakotas,  wheat  or  corn  in  Nebraska  and  Kansas. 
They  speculate  upon  the  chances  of  a  favorable  season  and  a  good  crop  safely 
Inirvested;  and  they  speculate  upon  the  chances  of  a  profitable  market.  They 
hope  that  the  first  two  crops  may  render  them  the  possessor  of  an  unincumbered 
•estate,  supplied  with  modest  buildings,  and  with  a  reasonable  quantity  of 
machinery  and  live  stock.  Sometimes  they  succeed  beyond  their  anticipations. 
In  many  instances  the  chances  go  against  them.  They  live  on  the  land,  and  the 
title  is  invested  in  them;  but  they  are  using  borrowed  capital,  use  it  unskillfully, 
meet  an  adverse  season  or  two,  lose  through  foreclosure  that  which  has  cost 
them  nothing  except  a  year  or  two  of  energy  spent  in  what  is  more  nearly  akin 
to  gambling  than  to  farming,  and  finally  help  to  swell  the  great  chorus  that 


520 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 


calls  the  world  to  witness  the  distress  of  Western  agriculture.  It  cannot  be 
said  too  emphatically  that  real  agriculture  in  the  West  is  safe  and  prosperous 
and  that  the  unfortunates  are  the  inexperienced  persons,  usually  without  capital' 
who  attempt  to  raise  a  single  crop  on  new  land.  For  many  of  them  it  would 
be  about  as  wise  to  take  borrowed  money  and  speculate  in  wheat  in  the  Chicago 
bucket-shops. 

The  great  majority,  however,  of  these  inexperienced  and  capital-less  wheat 
and  corn  producers  gradually  be 
come  farmers.  It  is  inevitable,  at 
first,  that  a  country  opened  by  the 
railroads  for  the  express  purpose 
of  obtaining  the  largest  possible 
freightage  of  cereals  should  for  a 


MOSSBB^E. 


few  seasons  be  a  "sinHe-oron 


following 


of 


by  year        matgin  of 


ten 


TRANSPORTATION  AND    OTHER  INDUSTRIES. 


ther  West,  and  the  single-crop  sort  of  fanning  tends  to  recede.  The  wheat 
growers  produce  more  barley  and  oats  and  flax,  try  corn  successfully,  introduce 
live  stock  and  dairying,  and  thus  begin  to  emerge  as  real  farmers. 

Unless  this  method  of  Western  settlement  is  comprehended,  it  is  not  pos 
sible  to  understand  the  old  Granger  movement  and  the  more  recent  legislative 
conflicts  between  the  farmers  of  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Minnesota,  and  the 
Dakotas,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  great  transportation  and  grain-handling  cor 
porations  on  the  other.     It  was  fundamentally  a  question  of   the  division   of 
profits.       The     railroads      had 
"made"  the  country:  were  they 
entitled    to    allow    the    farmers 
simply  a  return  about   equal   to 
the   cost  of  production,  keeping 
for  themselves  the  difference  be 
tween  the  cost  and  the  price  in 
the  central  markets,  or  were  they 
to   base  their  charges   upon  the 
cost  of  their  service,  and  leave 
the   farmers   to    enjoy    whatever 
profits  might  arise  from  the  pro 
duction  of  wheat  or  corn  ?     Out 
of    that    protracted    contest   has 
been  developed  the  principle  of 
the   public   regulation    of   rates. 
The  position  of  these  communi 
ties  of  farmers  with  interests  so 
similar,  forming  commonwealths 
so    singularly  homogeneous,  has 
led  to  a  reliance  upon  State  aid 
that  is  altogether  unprecedented 
in  new  and  sparsely  settled  re 
gions,  where   individualism    has   usually   been    dominant,    and   govei 
activity  relatively  inferior. 

TRANSPORTATION    AND   OTHER    INDUSTRIES. 

But  agriculture,  while  the  basis  of  Northwestern  wealth,  is  not  the  sole 
pursuit.     Transportation    has   become   in   these   regions   a    powerful 
because  of  the  vast  surplus  agricultural  product  to  be  carried  away  and  o 
great  quantities  of  lumber,  coal,  salt,  and  staple  supplies  m  general,  t     *  d 
tributed  throughout  the  new  prairie  communities.     The  transformation  of  the 


ANCIENT   BLOCK-HOUSE,  ALASKA. 


522  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

pine  forests  into  the  homes  of  several  million  people  has,  of  course,  developed 
marvelous  sawmill  and  building  industries;  and  the  furnishing  of  millions  of 
new  homes  has  called  into  being  great  factories  for  the  making  of  wooden 
furniture,  iron  stoves,  and  all  kinds  of  household  supplies.  In  response  to  the 
demand  for  agricultural  implements  and  machinery  with  which  to  cultivate  five 
hundred  million  acres  of  newly  utilized  wild  land,  there  have  come  into  exist 
ence  numerous  great  establishments  for  the  making  of  machines  that  have  been 
especially  invented  to  meet  the  peculiarities  and  exigencies  of  Western  farm  life. 
Through  Illinois,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas,  Indian  corn  has  become  a 
greater  product  in  quantity  and  value  than  wheat;  while  in  Wisconsin,  Minne 
sota,  and  North  and  South  Dakota  the  wheat  is  decidedly  the  preponderant 
crop.  Although  in  addition  to  oats  and  barley,  which  flourish  in  all  the 
Western  States,  it  has  been  found  possible  to  increase  the  acreage  of  maize  in 
the  northern  tier,  it  is  now  believed  that  the  most  profitable  alternate  crop 
in  the  latitude  of  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul  is  to  be  flax.  Already  a  region 
including  parts  of  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and  the  Dakotas  has 
become  the  most  extensive  area  of  flax  culture  in  the  whole  world.  The  crop 
has  been  produced  simply  for  the  seed,  which  has  supplied  large  linseed  oil 
factories  in  Minneapolis,  Chicago,  and  various  Western  places.  But  now  it  has 
been  discovered  that  the  flax  straw,  which  has  heretofore  been  allowed  to  rot  in 
the  fields  as  a  valueless  product,  can  be  utilized  for  a  fibre  which  will  make  a 
satisfactory  quality  of  coarse  linen  fabrics.  Linen  mills  have  been  established 
in  Minneapolis,  and  it  is  somewhat  confidently  predicted  that  in  course  of  time 
the  linen  industry  of  that  ambitious  city  will  reach  proportions  even  greater 
than  its  wonderful  floifr  industry,  which  for  a  number  of  years  has  been  without 
a  rival  anywhere  in  the  world. 

THE    "  TWIN    CITIES." 

The  railroad  system  of  the  Northwest  has  been  developed  in  such  a  way 
that  no  one  centre  may  be  fairly  regarded  as  the  commercial  capital  of  the 
region.     Chicago,  with  its  marvelous  foresight,  has  thrown  out  lines  of  travel 
that  draw  to  itself  much  of  the  traffic  which  would  seem  normally  to  belong  to 
Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  and  Duluth  on  the  north,  or  to  St.  Louis  and  Kansas 
Sty  on  the  south.     But,  in  the  region  now  under  discussion,  the  famous  "Twin 
ities,"  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul,  constitute  unquestionably  the  greatest  and 
most  distinctive  centre,  both  of  business  and  of  civilization.     They  are  beauti- 
situated,  and  they  add  to  a  long  list  of  natural  advantages  very  many 
equally  desirable  attractions  growing  out  of  the  enterprising  and  ambitious  fore 
thought  of  the  inhabitants.     They  are  cities  of  beautiful  homes,  pleasant  parks, 
enterprising  municipal  improvements,  advanced  educational  establishments,  and 


UNITED  PUBLIC  ACTION  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE. 


523 


varied  industrial  interests.  Each  is  a  distinct  urban  community,  although  they 
lie  so  near  together  that  they  constitute  one  general  centre  of  commerce  and 
transportation  when  viewed  from  a  distance.  Their  stimulating  rivalry  has  had 
the  effect  to  keep  each  city  alert  and  to  prevent  a  listless,  degenerate  local 
administration.  About  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  at  Minneapolis,  great  manu 
facturing  establishments  are  grouping  themselves,  and  each  year  adds  to  the 
certainty  that  these  two  picturesque  and  charming  cities  have  before  them  a 
most  brilliant  civic  future. 


THE  FALLS   OF   ST.  ANTHONY,  1885. 
UNITED    PUBLIC    ACTION    AND    ITS    INFLUENCE. 

The  tendency  to  rely  upon  united  public  action  is  illustrated  in  the  growth 
of  Northwestern  educational  systems.  The  universities  of  these  commonwealths 
are  State  universities.  Professional  education  is  under  the  State  auspices  and 
control.  The  normal  schools  and  the  agricultural  schools  belong  to  the  State. 
The  public  high  school  provides  intermediate  instruction.  The  common 
district  school,  supported  jointly  by  local  taxation  and  State  subvention,  gives 
elementary  education  to  the  children  of  all  classes.  As  the  towns  grow  the 
tendency  to  graft  manual  and  technical  courses  upon  the  ordinary  public  school 
curriculum  is  unmistakably  strong.  The  Northwest,  more  than  any  other  part 
of  the  country,  is  disposed  to  make  every  kind  of  education  a  public  function. 

Radicalism  has  flourished  in  the  homogeneous  agricultural  society  of  the 


524  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

Northwest.  In  the  anti-monopoly  conflict  there  seemed  to  have  survived  some 
of  the  intensity  of  feeling  that  characterized  the  anti-slavery  movement;  and  a 
tinge  of  this  fanatical  quality  has  always  been  apparent  in  the  Western  and 
Northwestern  monetary  heresies.  But  it  is  in  the  temperance  movement  that 
this  sweep  of  radical  impulse  has  been  most  irresistible.  It  was  natural  that 
the  movement  should  become  political  and  take  the  form  of  an  agitation  for 
prohibition.  The  history  of  prohibition  in  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  the  Dakotas,  and 
of  temperance  legislation  in  Minnesota  and  Nebraska,  reveals — even  better 
perhaps  than  the  history  of  the  anti-monopoly  movement — the  radicalism, 
homogeneity,  and  powerful  socializing  tendencies  of  the  Northwestern  people. 
Between  these  different  agitations  there  has  been  in  reality  no  slight  degree  of 
relationship;  at  least  their  origin  is  to  be  traced  to  the  same  general  conditions 
of  society. 

The  extent  to  which  a  modern  community  resorts  to  State  action  depends 
in  no  small  measure  upon  the  accumulation  of  private  resources.  Public  or 
organized  initiative  will  be  relatively  strongest  where  the  impulse  to  progress  is 
positive  but  the  ability  of  individuals  is  small.  There  are  few  rich  men  in  the 
Northwest.  Iowa,  great  as  is  theHawkeye  State,  has  no  large  city  and  no  large 
fortunes.  Of  Kansas  the  same  thing  may  be  said.  The  Dakotas  have  no  rich 
men  and  no  cities.  Minnesota  has  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul,  and  Nebraska 
has  Omaha ;  but  otherwise  these  two  States  are  farming  communities,  without 
large  cities  or  concentrated  private  capital.  Accordingly  the  recourse  to  public 
action  is  comparatively  easy.  South  Dakota  farmers  desire  to  guard  against 
drought  by  opening  artesian  wells  for  irrigation.  They  resort  to  State  legisla 
tion  and  the  sale  of  county  bonds.  North  Dakota  wheat-growers  are  unfor 
tunate  in  the  failure  of  crops.  They  secure  seed-wheat  through  State  action 
and  their  county  governments.  A  similarity  of  condition  fosters  associated 
action  and  facilitates  the  progress  of  popular  movements. 

In  such  a  society  the  spirit  of  action  is  intense.  If  there  are  few  philoso 
phers,  there  is  remarkable  diffusion  of  popular  knowledge  and  elementary 
education.  The  dry  atmosphere  and  the  cold  winters  are  nerve-stimulants,  and 
life  seems  to  have  a  higher  tension  and  velocity  than  in  other  parts  of  the 
country. 

THE    INDIAN    QUESTION. 

The  Northwest  presents  a  series  of  very  interesting  race  problems.  The 
first  one,  chronologically  at  least,  is  the  problem  that  the  American  Indian  pre 
sents.  It  is  not  so  long  ago  since  the  Indian  was  in  possession  of  a  very  large 
portion  of  the  region  we  are  now  considering.  A  number  of  tribes  were  gradu 
ally  removed  further  West,  or  were  assigned  to  districts  in  the  Indian  Territory. 
But  most  of  them  were  concentrated  in  large  reservations  in  Minnesota, 


OTHER  ELEMENTS   OF  POPULATION. 


525 


Nebraska,  North  and  South  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Wyoming.  The  past  few 
years  have  witnessed  the  rapid  reduction  of  these  reservations,  and  the  adoption 
of  a  policy  which,  if  carried  to  its  logical  conclusion  with  energy  and  good 
faith,  will  at  an  early  date  result  in  the  universal  education  of  the  children,  in 
the  abolition  of  the  system  of  reservations,  and  in  the  settlement  of  the  Indian 
families  upon  farms  of  their  own,  as  fully  enfranchised  American  citizens. 

OTHER    ELEMENTS    OF    POPULATION. 

The  most  potent  single  element  of  population  in  the  Northwest  is  of  New 
England  origin,  although  more  than  half  of  it  has  found  its  way  into  Iowa, 
Minnesota,  the  Dakotas,  Nebraska, 
and  Kansas,  by  filtration  through 

the   intermediate  States   of    New       /  ^\ 

York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Mich-    J&gL*..'  \ 

igan,  Wisconsin,  and  Illinois. 
But  there  has  also  been  a  vast 
direct  immigration  from  abroad; 
and  this  element  has  come  more 
largely,  by  far,  from  the  northern 
than  from  the  central  and  south 
ern  races  of  Europe.  The  Scan 
dinavian  peninsula  and  the  coun 
tries  about  the  Baltic  and  North 
Seas  have  supplied  the  Northwest 
with  a  population  that  already 
numbers  millions.  From  Chi 
cago  to  Montana  there  is  now  a 
population  of  full  Scandinavian 
origin,  which,  perhaps,  may  be 
regarded  as  about  equal  in  numbers  to  the  population  that  remains  in  Sweden 
and  Norway.  In  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  and  South  Dakota,  as 
well  as  in  northern  Iowa  and  in  some  parts  of  Nebraska,  there  are  whole  counties 
where  the  population  is  almost  entirely  Scandinavian.  Upon  all  this  portion  of 
the  country  for  centuries  to  come  the  Scandinavian  patronymics  will  be  as  firmly 
fixed  as  they  have  been  upon  the  Scotch  and  English  coasts,  where  the  North 
men  intrenched  themselves  so  numerously  and  firmly  about  nine  hundred  or  a 
thousand  years  ago.  The  Scandinavians  in  the  Northwest  become  Americans 
with  a  rapidity  unequal ed  by  any  other  non-English-speaking  element.  Their 
political  ambition  is  as  insatiate  as  that  of  the  Irish,  and  they  already  secure 
ofiices  in  numbers.  Their  devotion  to  the  American  school  system,  their  polit- 


LAKE-SHORE   DRIVE,   CHICAGO. 


626  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND. 

ical  aptitude  and  ambition,  and  their  enthusiastic  pride  in  American  citizen 
ship  are  thoroughly  hopeful  traits,  and  it  is  generally  believed  that  they  will 
contribute  much  of  strength  and  sturdiness  to  the  splendid  race  of  North 
western  Americans  that  is  to  be  developed  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  and  Mis 
souri  Valleys.  The  Northwestern  Germans  evince  a  tendency  to  mass  in  towns, 
as  in  Milwaukee,  and  to  preserve  intact  their  language  and  national  traits. 

SOCIETY    AND   GENERAL    CULTURE. 

The  large  towns  of  the  Northwest  are  notable  for  the  great  numbers  of  the 
brightest  and  most  energetic  of  the  young  business  and  professional  men  of  the 
East  that  they  contain.  While  they  lack  the  leisure  class  and  the  traditions  of 
culture  that  belong  to  older  communities,  they  may  justly  claim  a  far  higher 
percentage  of  college-bred  men  and  of  families  of  cultivated  tastes  than  belong 
to  Eastern  towns  of  like  population.  The  intense  pressure  of  business  and 
absorption  of  private  pursuits  are,  for  the  present,  seeming  obstacles  to  the 
progress  of  Western  communities  in  the  highest  things;  but  already  the  zeal 
for  public  improvements  and  for  social  progress  in  all  that  pertains  to  true 
culture  is  very  great.  Two  decades  hence  no  man  will  question  the  quality  of 
Northwestern  civilization.  If  the  East  is  losing  something  of  its  distinctive 
Americanism  through  the  influx  of  foreign  elements  and  the  decay  of  its  old- 
time  farming  communities,  the  growth  of  the  Northwest,  largely  upon  the  basis 
of  New  England  blood  and  New  England  ideas,  will  make  full  compensation. 

Every  nation  of  the  world  confronts  its  own  racial  or  climatic  or  industrial 
problems,  and  nowhere  is  there  to  be  found  an  ideal  state  of  happiness  or  virtue 
or  prosperity;  but,  all  things  considered,  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  there 
exists  any  other  extensive  portion,  either  of  America  or  of  the  world,  in  which 
there  is  so  little  of  pauperism,  of  crime,  of  social  inequality,  of  ignorance,  and 
of  chafing  discontent,  as  in  the  agricultural  Northwest  that  lies  between  Chicago 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Schools  and  churches  are  almost  everywhere  flour 
ishing  in  this  region,  and  the  necessities  of  life  are  not  beyond  the  reach  of  any 
element  or  class.  There  is  a  pleasantness,  a  hospitality,  and  a  friendliness  in 
the  social  life  of  the  Western  communities  that  is  certainly  not  surpassed. 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 


OK    McPCINLKY,    18O7-1OO1, 


William  McKinley  —  Organization  of  "Greater  New  York  "—Removal  of  General  Grant's  Remains  to, 
Morningside  Park  —  The  Klondike  Gold  Excitement  —  Spain's  Misrule  in  Cuba  —  Preliminary  Events 
of  the  Spanish-American  War. 

THE  TWENTY-FIFTH    PRESIDENT. 

WILLIAM  McKiNLEY  was  born  at  Niles,  Trurabull  County,  Ohio,  January 
29,  1843,  of  Scotch  ancestry,  his  father,  David,  being  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the 
iron  business  in  Eastern  Ohio. 

The  parents  were  in  moderate 
circumstances,  and  the  son,  having 
prepared  for  college,  was  matricu 
lated  at  Alleghany  College,  Mead- 
ville,  Pennsylvania,  but  his  poor 
health  soon  obliged  him  to  return 
to  his  home.  He  became  a  school 
teacher  at  the  salary  of  $25  per 
month,  and,  as  was  the  custom  in 
many  of  the  country  districts,  he 
"boarded  round;"  that  is,  he  made 
his  home  by  turns  with  the  different 
patrons  of  his  school.  He  used 
rigid  economy,  his  ambition  being 
to  save  enough  money  to  pay  his 
way  through  college. 

Destiny,  however,  had  another 
career  awaiting  him.  The  great 
Civil  War  was  impending,  and  when 
the  news  of  the  firing  on  Fort  Su  in 
ter  was  flashed  through  the  land, 
his  patriotic  impulses  were  roused,  and,  like  thousands  of  others,  he  hurried 
to  the  defense  of  his  country.  He  enlisted  in  Company  E,  as  a  private.  It 
was  attached  to  the  Twenty-third  Ohio  regiment,  of  which  W.  S.  Rosecraus, 

(527) 


WILLIA.M   McKiNLEY. 

(1S43-       .)    One  term,  1M7-1901. 


528  ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 

was  colonel  and  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  major.     Of  no  other  regiment  can  it  be 
said  that  it  furnished  two  Presidents  to  the  United  States. 

For  more  than  a  year  Private  McKinley  carried  a  musket,  and  on  the  loth 
of  April,  1862,  was  promoted  to  a  sergeancy.  Looking  back  to  those  stirring 
days  of  his  young  manhood,  President  McKinley  has  said : 

"I  always  recall  them  with  pleasure.  Those  fourteen  months  that  I  served 
in  the  ranks  taught  me  a  great  deal.  I  was  but  a  schoolboy  when  I  went  into 
the  army,  and  that  first  year  was  a  formative  period  of  my  life,  during  which  I 
learned  much  of  men  and  affairs.  I  have  always  been  glad  that  I  entered  the 
service  as  a  private  and  served  those  months  in  that  capacity." 

McKinley  made  a  good  soldier  and  saw  plenty  of  fighting.  Six  weeks 
after  leaving  Columbus,  his  regiment  was  in  the  battle  of  Carnifex  Ferry, 
Western  Virginia,  where  the  only  victories  of  the  early  days  of  the  war  were 
won.  It  was  the  hardest  kind  of  work,  hurrying  back  and  forth  through  the 
mountains,  drenched  by  rains,  and  on  short  rations  most  of  the  time.  The  boy 
did  his  work  well  and  was  soon  ordered  to  Washington,  where  he  became  one 
of  the  units  in  the  splendid  Army  of  the  Potomac  under  General  McClellan. 

At  Antietam,  the  bloodiest  battle  of  the  war,  McKinley 's  gallantry  was  so' 
conspicuous  that  he  was   promoted   to  a   lieutenancy.     He  was  sent  to   West 
Virginia  again,  where  he  was  fighting  continually.     As  an  evidence  of  the  kind 
of  work  he  did,  it  may  be  said  that  one  morning  his  regiment  breakfasted  in 
Pennsylvania,  ate  dinner  in  Maryland,  and  took  supper  in  Virginia. 

Winning  promotion  by  his  fine  conduct,  he  became  captain,  July  25,  1864, 
and  was  brevetted  major,  on  the  recommendation  of  General  Sheridan,  for  con 
spicuous  bravery  at  Cedar  Creek  and  Fisher's  Hill.  The  title,  "Major  McKin 
ley,"  therefore,  is  the  military  one  by  which  the  President  is  remembered. 

With  the  coining  of  peace,  the  young  man  found  himself  a  veteran  of  the 
war  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  and  compelled  to  decide  upon  the  means  of  earning 
his  living.  He  took  up  the  study  of  law,  and  was  graduated  from  the  Albany. 
N.  Y.,  law  school,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1867.  He  began  practice  in 
Canton,  Ohio,  and,  by  his  ability  and  conscientious  devotion,  soon  achieved 
success.  He  early  showed  an  interest  in  politics,  and  was  often  called  upon  to 
make  public  addresses.  He  identified  himself  with  the  Republican  party,  and 
was  elected  district  attorney  in  Stark  County,  which  almost  invariably  went 
Democratic.  In  1876,  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  against  a  normal  Democratic 
majority,  for  five  successive  terms,  being  defeated  when  he  ran  the  sixth  time 
through  the  gerrymandering  of  his  district  by  his  political  opponents. 

During  his  seven  terms  in  Congress,  Mr.  McKinley  was  noted  for  his  clear 
grasp  of  national  questions  and  his  interest  in  tariff  legislation.  It  was  in  1890 
that  he  brought  about  the  passage  of  the  tariff  measure  which  is  always  asso- 


"GREATER   NEW   YORK:9 


529 


ciated  with  his  name.  In  the  same  year  he  was  defeated,  but,  being  nominated 
for  governor,  he  was  elected  by  80,000  majority.  As  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Cleve 
land,  this  triumph  attracted  national  attention,  and  his  administration  was  so 
satisfactory  that  he  could  have  received  the  nomination  for  the  presidency  twice 
before  he  accepted  it. 

The  presidential  administration  of  Me 
the  most  eventful  in  our  history,  for,  as  set 
ters,  it  marked  our  entrance  among  the  lead 
in  the  field  of  territorial  expansion  beyond 
tinent  and  hemisphere.  Before  entering 
phase  of  our  national  existence,  attention 
happenings  of  a  different  nature.  One  of 
these  was  the  organization  of  what  is  popu 
larly  known  as  "Greater  New  York." 


Kinley  has  proven  one  of 
forth  in  the  following  chap- 
ing  nations  of  the  world, 
the  limits  of  our  own  con- 
upon  the  history  of  this 
must  be  given  to  important 


THE  OBELISK  IN  CENTRAL  PARK,  NEW  YORK. 

"GREATER  NEW  YORK." 

For  a  number  of  years,  a  prominent  question  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
metropolis  and.  outlying  cities  was  that  of  their  union  under  one  government. 
The  New  York  Legislature  in  1890  appointed  a  committee  to  inquire  into  and 
report  upon  the  subject.  After  several  years  of  discussion,  the  Legislature 
provided  for  a  referendum,  the  result  of  which  showed  a  large  majority  in  favor 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 

of  uniting  the  cities  referred  to.  A  bill  was  carefully  framed,  passed  both 
branches  of  the  law-making  body  by  a  strong  vote  in  February,  1897,  and  was 
signed  by  the  mayors  of  Brooklyn  and  of  Long  Island  City.  Mayor  Strong, 
of  New  York,  however,  vetoed  the  bill,  but  the  Legislature  immediately  repassed 
it,  and  it  was  signed  by  Governor  Black. 

The  expanded  metropolis  began  its  official  existence  January  1,  1898,  the 
government  being  vested  in  a  mayor  and  a  municipal  assembly,  which  consists 
of  two  branches  elected  by  the  people.  The  population  at  the  time  named  was 
about  3,400,000,  the  daily  increase  being  400.  Should  this  rate  continue,  the 
total  population  at  the  middle  of  the  twentieth  century  will  be  10,000,000, 
which  will  make  it  the  most  populous  in  the  world,  unless  London  wakes  up 
and  grows  faster  than  at  present. 

The  area  of  Greater  New  York  is  317.77  square  miles.  Its  greatest  width 
from  the  Hudson  River  to  the  boundary  line  across  Long  Island  beyond  Creed- 
moor  is  sixteen  miles,  and  the  extreme  length,  from  the  southern  end  of  Staten 
Island  to  the  northern  limits  of  Yonkers,  is  thirty-two  miles.  Within  these 
bounds  are  the  cities  of  New  York,  Brooklyn,  Long  Island  City,  Jamaica,  all 
of  Staten  Island,  the  western  end  of  Long  Island,  Coney  Island,  Kockaway, 
Valley  Stream,  Flushing,  Whitestone,  College  Point,  Willets'  Point,  Fort 
Schuyler,  Throggs'  Neck,  Westchester,  Baychester,  Pelham  Manor,  Van 
Cortlandt,  Riverdale,  and  Spuyten  Devil. 

REMOVAL  OF  GENERAL  GRANT'S  REMAINS  TO  MORNINGSIDE  PARK. 

The  removal  of  the  remains  of  General  Grant  to  their  final  resting-place 
in  the  magnificent  tomb  on  Morningside  Heights,  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson, 
took  place  during  the  first  year  of  McKinley's  administration,  and  was  marked 
by  ceremonies  among  the  most  impressive  ever  witnessed  in  the  metropolis  of 
the  country.  The  final  tributes  to  the  foremost  defender  of  the  country  were 
made  by  eloquent  tongues,  and  pens,  and  by  the  reverent  affection  of  the  nation 
itself. 

There  have  been  many  attempts  made  to  analyze  the  character  of  this  remark 
able  man.  Some  of  his  most  intimate  friends  failed  to  understand  him.  Among 
the  best  of  these  analyses  is  that  of  Lieutenant-General  John  M.  Schofield.  In 
this  our  last  reference  to  General  Grant,  the  words  of  his  trusted  confidant 
deserve  record: 

"General  Sherman  wrote  that  he  could  not  understand  Grant,  and  doubted 

Grant  understood  himself.     A  very  distinguished  statesman,  whose  name  I 

1  not  mention,  said  to  me  that,  in  his  opinion,  there  was  nothing  special  in 

Grant  to  understand.     Others  have  varied  widely  in  their  estimates  of  that 


REMOVAL    OF  GENERAL    GRANT'S  REMAINS. 


531 


terest, 
being 


extraordinary  character.  Yet  I  believe  its  most  extraordinary  quality  was  its 
extreme  simplicity,  so  extreme  that  many  have  entirely  overlooked  it  in  their 
search  for  some  deeply  hidden  secret  to  account  for  so  great  a  character, 
unmindful  of  the  general  fact  that  simplicity  is  one  of  the  most  prominent 
attributes  of  greatness. 

"The  greatest  of  all  the  traits  of  Grant's  character  was  that  which  lay 
always  on  the  surface,  visible  to  all  who  had  eyes  to  see  it.  That  was  his  moral 
and  intellectual  honesty,  integrity,  sincerity,  veracity,  and  justice.  He  was 
incapable  of  any  attempt  to  deceive  anybody,  except  for  a  legitimate  purpose, 
as  in  military  strategy;  and,  above  p* 
all,  he  was  incapable  of  deceiving 
himself.  He  possessed  that  rarest 
of  all  human  faculties,  the  power 
of  a  perfectly  accurate  estimate  of 
himself,  uninfluenced  by  vanity, 
pride,  ambition,  flattery,  or  self-in- 
Grant  was  very  far  from 
a  modest  man,  as  the  word 
is  generally  understood.  His  just 
self-esteem  wras  as  far  above  it  as  it 
was  above  flattery.  The  highest 
enconiums  were  accepted  for  what  he 
believed  them  to  be  worth.  They 
did  not  disturb  his  equilibrium  in 
the  slightest  degree.  Confiding,  just, 
and  generous  to  everybody  else,  he 
treated  with  silent  contempt  any 
suggestion  that  he  had  been  unfaith 
ful  to  any  obligation.  He  was  too 

proud  to  explain  where    his    honor  JOHN  SHERMAN. 

had  been  questioned.  Secretar>' of  state  under  Pr"itk>m  M(>Kin'ey :  resig"e 

"While  Grant  knew  his  own  merits  as  well  as  anybody  did,  he  also  knew 
his  own  imperfections  and  estimated  them  at  their  real  value.  For  example, 
his  inability  to  speak  in  public,  which  produced  the  impression  of  extreme 
modesty  or  diffidence,  he  accepted  simply  as  a  fact  in  his  nature  which  was  of 
little  or  no  consequence,  and  which  he  did  not  even  care  to  conceal.  He  would 
not,  for  many  years,  even  take  the  trouble  to  jot  down  a  few  words  in  advance, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  say  something  when  called  upon.  Indeed,  I  believe  he  would 
have  regarded  it  as  an  unworthy  attempt  to  appear  in  a  false  light  if  he  had 
made  preparations  in  advance  for  an  'extemporaneous'  speech.  Even  when  he 


532  ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 

did  in  later  years  write  some  notes  on  the  back  of  a  dinner-card,  he  would  take 
care  to  let  everybody  see  that  he  had  done  so  by  holding  the  card  in  plain  view 
while  he  read  his  little  speech.  After  telling  a  story,  in  which  the  facts  had 
been  modified  somewhat  to  give  the  greater  effect,  which  no  one  could  enjoy 
more  than  he  did,  Grant  would  take  care  to  explain  exactly  in  what  respects  he 
had  altered  the  facts  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  interest  in  his  story,  so 
that  he  might  not  leave  any  wrong  impression. 

"When  Grant's  attention  was  called  to  any  mistake  he  had  committed,  he 
would  see  and  admit  it  as  quickly  and  unreservedly  as  if  it  had  been  made  by 
anybody  else,  and  with  a  smile  which  expressed  the  exact  opposite  of  that 
feeling  which  most  men  are  apt  to  show  under  like  circumstances.  His  love  of 
truth  and  justice  was  so  far  above  all  personal  considerations  that  he  showed 
unmistakable  evidence  of  gratification  when  any  error  into  which  he  might 
have  fallen  was  corrected.  The  fact  that  he  had  made  a  mistake  and  that  it  was 
plainly  pointed  out  to  him  did  not  produce  the  slightest  unpleasant  impression  ; 
while  the  further  fact,  that  no  harm  had  resulted  from  his  mistake,  gave  him 
real  pleasure.  In  Grant's  judgment,  no  case  in  which  any  wrong  had  been 
done  could  possibly  be  regarded  as  finally  settled  until  that  wrong  was  righted, 
and  if  he  himself  had  been,  in  any  sense,  a  party  to  that  wrong,  he  was  the 
more  earnest  in  his  desire  to  see  justice  done.  While  he  thus  showed  a  total 
absence  of  any  false  pride  of  opinion  or  of  knowledge,  no  man  could  be  firmer 
than  he  in  adherence  to  his  mature  judgment,  nor  more  earnest  in  his  deter 
mination,  on  proper  occasions,  to  make  it  understood  that  his  opinion  was  his 
own  and  not  borrowed  from  anybody  else.  His  pride  in  his  own  mature 
opinion  was  very  great;  in  that  he  was  as  far  as  possible  from  being  a  modest 
man.  This  absolute  confidence  in  his  own  judgment  upon  any  subject  which 
he  had  mastered,  and  the  moral  courage  to  take  upon  himself  alone  the  highest 
responsibility,  and  to  demand  full  authority  and  freedom  to  act  according  to  his 
own  judgment,  without  interference  from  anybody,  added  to  his  accurate  esti 
mate  of  his  own  ability  and  clear  perception  of  the  necessity  for  undivided 
authority  and  responsibility  in  the  conduct  of  military  operations,  and  in  all 
that  concerns  the  efficiency  of  armies  in  time  of  war,  constituted  the  foundation 
of  that  very  great  character. 

"When  summoned  to  Washington  to  take  command  of  all  the  armies,  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  he  determined,  before  he  reached  the  capital, 
that  he  would  not  accept  the  command  under  any  conditions  than  those  above 
stated.  His  sense  of  honor  and  of  loyalty  to  the  country  would  not  permit 
him  to  consent  to  be  placed  in  a  false  position,  one  in  which  he  could  not 
perform  the  service  which  the  country  had  been  led  to  expect  from  him,  and  he 
had  the  courage  to  say  so  in  unqualified  terms. 


REMOVAL    OF  GENERAL    GRANT'S   REMAINS. 


533 


"  These  traits  of  Grant's  character  must  now  be  perfectly  familiar  to  all 
who  have  studied  his  history,  as  well  as  to  those  who  enjoyed  familiar  inter 
course  with  him  during  his  life.  They  are  the  traits  of  character  which  made 
him,  as  it  seems  to  me,  a  very  great  man,  the  only  man  of  our  time,  so  far  as  we 
know,  who  possessed  both  the  character  and  the  military  ability  which  were, 
under  the  circumstances,  indispensable  in  the  commander  of  the  armies  which 
were  to  suppress  the  great  rebellion. 

"It  has  been  said  that  Grant,  like  Lincoln,  was  a  typical  American,  and 
for  that  reason  was  most  beloved  and  respected  by  the  people.     That  is  true  of 
the   statesman    and    the    soldier,    as 
well  as  of  the  people,  if  it  is  meant 
that  they  were  the  highest  type,  that 
ideal    which   commands  the   respect 
and  admiration  of  the  highest  and 
best  in  a  man's  nature,  however  far 
he  may  know  it  to  be  above  himself. 
The  soldiers  and  the  people  saw  in 

Grant   or   in    Lincoln,    not   one    of 

themselves,  not  a  plain  man  of  the 

people,  nor  yet  some  superior  being 

whom    they    could    not  understand, 

but  the  personification  of  their  high 

est   ideal    of   a    citizen,    soldier,    or 

statesman,    a   man    whose  greatness 

they    could   see  and   understand  as 

plainly  as  they  could  anything  else 

under'  the  sun.     And  there  was  no 

more  mystery  about  it  all,  in  fact, 

than  there  was  in  the  popular  mind."     [_ 

SPEAKER  THOMAS   B.   REED. 
~  Resigned  as  Speaker  in  1899. 

To  the  widow  of  General  Grant  . 

was  <nven  the  right  to  select  the  spot  tor  the  last  resting-place  of  his  re! 
The  to  repose  aft°er  death  beside  her  husband.     She  decided  upon   Reside 
It  then  be'came  the  privilege  of  his  friends  to  provide  a  suitab  e  tomb  fo,   the 
illustrious  soldier.     The  funds  needed,  amounting  to  nearly  half  a  mil  >1- 

aTwer    raised  by  subscription,  ground  was  broken  on   the   anniversary  of 
Grant's  birthday,  April  27,  1891,  and  a  year  later  the  corner-stone  was  laid  by 


Grant,  standing  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  is  an 
impoing  strture,  s.uare  in  shape,  ninety  feet  on  each  side,  and  of  the  Grec.an- 


534 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 


Doric  order.  The  entrance  on  the  south  side  is  guarded  by  a  portico  in  double 
lines  of  columns,  approached  by  steps  seventy  feet  in  width.  The  tomb  is 
surmounted  at  a  height  of  seventy-two  feet  with  a  cornice  and  parapet,  above 
which  is  a  circular  cupola,  seventy  feet  in  diameter,  terminating  in  a  top  the 
shape  of  a  pyramid,  which  is  280  feet  above  the  river. 

The  interior  of  the  structure  is  of  cruciform  form,  seventy-six  feet  at  its 
greatest  length,  the  piers  of  masonry  at  the  corners  being  connected  by  arches 
which  form  recesses.  The  arches  are  fifty  feet  in  height,  and  are  surmounted 
by  an  open  circular  gallery,  capped  with  a  panneled  dome,  105  feet  above  the 
tioor.  Scenes  in  General  Grant's  career  are  depicted  with  sculpture  on  the  plane 


TOMB  OF  U  S.  GRANT,  NEW  YORK. 

and  relieved  surfaces  in  alto  rilievo.  The  granite  of  the  structure  is  light  in 
color,  and  the  sarcophagus  of  brilliant  reddish  porphyry.  The  crypt  rests 
directly  under  the  centre  of  the  dome,  stairways  connecting  with  the  passage 
surrounding  the  sarcophagus,  where  the  remains  of  the  widow  of  General  Grant 
are  eventually  to  repose. 

The  ceremonies  attending  the  removal  of  the  remains  on  April  27,  1897, 
included  three  impressive  displays,  the  ceremony  at  the  tomb,  the  parade  of  the 
army— the  National  Guard  and  civic  bodies— and  the  review  of  the  navy  and 
merchant  marine  on  the  Hudson.  Those  who  gathered  to  take  part  in  the  final 
tribute  to  the  great  soldier  included  the  President,  Vice-President  of  the  United 


REMOVAL  OF  GENERAL  GRANT'S  REMAINS. 


535 


States,  the  Cabinet,  many  State  governors,  prominent  American  citizens,  and 
representatives  of  foreign  nations.  From  129th  Street  to  the  Battery,  and  from 
Whitehall  up  East  River  to  the  Bridge,  thousands  of  American  and  foreign 
flags  were  displayed,  while  the  parade  of  men  on  foot  included  60,000  persons. 
Bishop  Newman  opened  the  exercises  with  prayer,  and  President  McKinley 
made  one  of  the  finest  speeches  of  his  life,  the  opening  words  of  which  were: 

"A  oreat  life,  dedicated  to  the  welfare  of  the  nation,  here  finds  its  earthly 
coronation.     Even  if  this  day  lacked  the  impressiveness  of  ceremony  and  was 

-  _  ••••mrwr  •     •  •    • 


devoid  of  pagean 
be  memorable,  be 
anniversary  of  the 
famous  and  best  be 
icau  soldiers." 

The  President 
the  words : 

"With  Wash 
coin,  Grant  had  an 


try,  it  would  still 
cause  it  is  the 
birth  of  the  most 
loved  of  Amer- 

concluded    with 


KEVIEW   OF   THE   NAVY   AND   MERCHANT 
ON  THE  HUDSON,  APBIL  27,  1897. 


ington  and  Lin- 
exalted  place  in 

an       e  affections  of  the  people.     To-day  »—*££££ 
esteem  by  those  whom  he  led  to  victory,  and  by  those  who  accepted  his  ge     ^ous 
STof  peace      The  veteran  leaders  of  the  Blue  and  Gray  here  meet  not  onlj 
oh  nor  Te  name  of  Grant,  but  to  testify  to  the  living  reality  of  a  fraternal 


536 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 


national  spirit  which  has  triumphed  over  the  differences  of  the  past  and  trans 
cends  the  limitations  of  sectional  lines.  Its  completion — which  we  pray  God  to 
speed — will  be  the  nation's  greatest  glory. 

"It  is  right  that  General  Grant  should  have  a  memorial  commensurate  with 
his  greatness,  and  that  his  last  resting-place  should  be  in  the  city  of  his  choice, 
to  which  he  was  so  attached,  and  of  whose  ties  he  was  not  forgetful  even  in 
death.  Fitting,  too,  is  it  that  the  great  soldier  should  sleep  beside  the  noble 
river  on  whose  banks  he  first  learned  the  art  of  war,  and  of  which  he  became 
master  and  leader  without  a  rival. 

"  But  let  us  not  forget  the  glorious  distinction  with  which  the  metropolis 
among  the  fair  sisterhood  of  American  cities  has  honored  his  life  and  memory. 

With  all  that  riches  and  sculpture  can  do 
to  render  the  edifice  worthy  of  the  man, 
upon  a  site  unsurpassed  for  magnificence, 
has  this  monument,  been  reared  by  New 
York  as  a  perpetual  record  of  his  illus 
trious  deeds,  in  the  certainty  that,  as  time 
passes,  around  it  will  assemble,  with  grati 
tude  and  reverence  and  veneration,  men  of 
all  climes,  races,  and  nationalities. 

"  New  York  holds  in  its  keeping  the 
precious  dust  of  the  silent  soldier,  but  his 
achievements — what  he  and  his  brave  com 
rades  wrought  for  mankind — are  in  the 
keeping  of  seventy  millions  of  American 
citizens,  who  will  guard  the  sacred  heritage 
forever  and  forevermore." 


VlKIII  \MIHK\\  !K\\s!M/kM\llU\ 
L  IRMUM,  IHMIYO  "> 

\l  ASKA 


General  Horace  Porter,  president  of  the  Grant  Memorial  Association,  made 
an  address,  giving  the  history  of  the  crowning  work  of  the  association,  rendering 
acknowledgment  to  those  who  had  given  valuable  help,  and  closing  with  a 
masterly  and  eloquent  tribute  to  the  great  citizen  whom  all  had  gathered  to 
honor. 

THE   KLONDIKE    GOLD    EXCITEMENT. 

There  was  much  excitement  throughout  the  country  in  1897  over  the 
reported  discoveries  of  rich  deposits  of  gold  in  the  Klondike,  as  the  region 
along  the  Yukon  River  in  Alaska  is  called.  These  reports  were  discredited  at 
first,  but  they  were  repeated,  and  proof  soon  appeared  that  they  were  based 
upon  truth.  In  the  autumn  of  1896,  about  fifty  miners  visited  the  section,  led 
thither  by  the  rumors  that  had  come  to  them.  None  of  the  men  carried  more 


SPAIN'S  MISRULE  IN  CUBA. 


537 


than  his  outfit  and  a  few  hundred  dollars,  but  when  they  returned  they  brought 
gold  to  the  value  of  from  $5,000  to  $100,000  apiece,  besides  leaving  claims  behind 
them  that  were  worth  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars.  In  July,  1897,  a 
party  of  miners  arrived  at  Seattle  from  the  Klondike,  bringing  with  them 
nuggets  and  gold-dust  weighing  more  than  a  ton  and  worth  a  million  and  a 
half  of  dollars.  Besides  this,  other  men  continually  came  back  with  such 
quantities  of  the  precious  metal  that  it  was  apparent  that  not  only  were  the 
reports  justified,  but,  what 
is  the  exception  in  such 
cases,  the  whole  truth  had 
not  been  told. 

The  natural  .  conse 
quence  was  that  a  rush 
set  in  for  the  Klondike, 
which  is  the  name  of  a 
tributary  of  the  Yukon, 
and  flows  through  the 
richest  gold  fields,  where 
the  mining  days  of  early 
California  were  repeated. 
Dawson  City  was  founded 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Klon 
dike,  and  in  a  short  time 
had  a  population  of  5,000. 
Before  the  year  closed, 
500  claims  were  located, 
with  more  taken  up  daily. 
As  was  inevitable,  there 
was  much  suffering,  for 
the  Yukon  is  closed  by 
ice  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  and  the 
winter  climate  is  of  Arctic 
severity.  The  most  productive  fields  were  found  to  be  not  in  Alaska,  but  in 
the  British  provinces  known  as  the  Northwest  Territories.  While  many 
gathered  fortunes  in  the  Klondike,  the  majority,  after  great  hardships  and 
suffering,  returned  to  their  homes  poorer  than  when  they  left  them. 


READY    FOR  THE   TRAIL. 


SPAIN'S   MISRULE    IX   CUBA. 

The  administration  of  McKinley  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  American 


538  ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 

history  because  of  our  brief  and  decisive  war  with  Spain.  A  full  account  is 
given  in  the  pages  that  follow,  but  it  is  proper  in  this  chapter  to  set  forth  some 
historical  facts,  that  will  serve  to  clear  the  way  to  a  proper  understanding  of  the 
btory  of  the  war  itself. 

Spain  may  best  illustrate  the  certain  decline  of  the  Latin  race  and  the  rise 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon.  When  America  was  discovered,  she  was  the  leading 
maritime  power  of  the  world,  but  she  was  corrupt,  rapacious,  ferocious,  and 
totally  devoid  of  what  is  best  expressed  by  the  term  "common  sense."  So 
lacking  indeed  was  she  in  this  prime  requisite  that  she  alienated,  when  it  was 
just  as  easy  to  attract,  the  weaker  nations  and  colonies  with  which  she  came  in 
contact.  It  has  been  shown  in  the  earlier  chapters  of  this  work  that  when  her 
exploring  expeditions  into  the  interior  of  America  were  obliged  to  depend  for 
their  own  existence  upon  the  good-will  of  the  natives,  and  when  they  could 
readily  gain  and  retain  that  good-will,  they  roused  the  hatred  of  the  simple- 
minded  natives  by  their  frightful  cruelties.  The  chief  amusement  of  the  early 
Spaniards  was  killing  Indians.  They  did  it  from  the  innate  brutality  of  their 
nature,  when  they  could  have  gained  tenfold  more  by  justice  and  kindness. 

The  treatment  of  those  poor  people  was  precisely  what  on  a  larger  scale  has 
been  shown  to  her  colonies.  England  wins  and  holds  her  dependencies  through 
her  liberality  and  justice;  Spain  repels  hers  through  her  treachery,  falsehoods, 
and  injustice.  As  a  consequence,  England  has  become  one  of  the  mightiest 
nations  in  the  world,  while  Spain  has  steadily  declined  to  a  fourth-rate  power. 
With  the  example  of  the  results  of  her  idiocy,  to  say  nothing  of  its  dishonor, 
ever  before  her,  she  has  persisted  in  that  idiocy,  never  learning  from  experience, 
but  always  selfish,  short-sighted,  cruel,  treacherous,  and  unjust. 

The  steadiness  with  which  Cuba  clung  to  the  mother  country  won  for  her 
the  title  of  the  "Ever  Faithful  Isle."  Had  she  received  any  consideration  at 
all,  she  still  would  have  held  fast.  She  poured  princely  revenues  into  the  lap 
of  Spain;  when  other  colonies  revolted,  she  refused  to  be  moved.  It  required 
long  years  of  outrage,  robbery,  and  injustice  to  turn  her  affection  into  hate,  but 
Spain  persisted  until  the  time  came  when  human  nature  could  stand  no  more. 
The  crushed  worm  turned  at  last. 

When  Napoleon  Bonaparte  deposed  the  Bourbon  King,  Ferdinand  VII., 
in  1808,  and  placed  his  brother  Joseph  on  the  throne  of  Spain,  Cuba  declared 
her  loyalty  to  the  old  dynasty,  and  the  king  made  many  promises  of  what  he 
would  do  to  prove  his  gratitude  when  he  should  come  to  his  own.  This  took 
place  five  years  later,  whereupon  the  king  violated  every  pledge  he  had  made. 

The  truth  gradually  worked  its  way  into  the  Cuban  mind  that  the  only 
thing  a  Spaniard  could  be  depended  upon  to  do  is  to  violate  his  most  solemn 
promises.  Secret  societies  began  assuming  form  in  the  island,  whose  plotting 


SPAIN'S  MISRULE  IN  CUBA. 


539 


and  aim  were  to  wrest  their  country  from  Spain,  on  the  ground  of  the  non-ful 
fillment  of  the  pledges  made  by  Ferdinand  VII.  of  what  he  would  do  when  he 
came  to  the  throne. 

Preparations  were  made  for  a  revolt,  whose  avowed  object  was  the  estab 
lishment  of  a  Cuban  republic.  A  certain  night  in  1823  was  fixed  upon  for  a 
general  uprising,  but  there  were  traitors  in  the  councils,  who  notified  the  author 
ities,  and,  before  the  date  named,  the  leaders  were  arrested  and  the  revolt 
quenched  ere  a  blow  could  be  struck. 

These  severe  measures  could  not  quell  the  spirit  of  liberty  that  was  abroad. 
It  was  not  long  before  the  Black  Eagle  Society  was  formed.  It  included  many 
hundred  members,  had  its  headquarters  in 
Mexico,  and  boldly  secured  recruits  in 
the  United  States.  But  again  the  cause 
was  betrayed  by  its  members,  the  leaders 
were  arrested  and  imprisoned,  and  Spain 
was  secure  for  a  time  in  the  control  of 
the  island. 

As  an  illustration  of  that  country's 
course  against  suspected  citizens,  it  may 
be  said  that  in  1844  a  rumor  spread  that 
large  numbers  of  the  slaves  on  the  plan 
tations  near  Matanzas  were  making  secret 
preparations  to  rise  and  slay  their  masters. 
Investigation  failed  to  establish  the  truth 
of  these  charges,  but  many  were  put  to 
the  torture  to  compel  them  to  confess,  and 
nearly  a  hundred  were  condemned  and 
shot  in  cold  blood. 

Naturally  the  affairs  of  Cuba  from 

its  proximity  were  always  of  great  interest  to  the  United  States,  and  a  number 
of  filibustering  expeditions  landed  on  the  island  and  aided  the  Cubans  in  their 
futile  revolts  against  Spain.  These  attempts  at  their  best  could  only  keep  the 
island  in  a  turmoil,  and  give  Spain  the  pretext  for  using  the  most  brutal  meas 
ures  of  repression. 

In  1868  a  revolution  occurred  in  Spain  itself,  and  Queen  Isabella,  one  of 
the  worst  rulers  that  sorely  accursed  country  ever  had,  was  driven  into  exile. 
Cuba  had  not  forgotten  the  lesson  of  the  opening  of  the  century,  and,  instead 
of  proclaiming  her  loyalty  to  the  deposed  dynasty,  she  seized  what  promised  to 
be  a  favorable  opportunity  for  gaining  her  own  independence. 

One  of  the  fairest  and  most  impartial  publications  anywhere  is  the  Edin- 


GENERAL   CALIXTO   GARCIA. 

Hero  of  three  wars  for  Cuba's  freedom.    Died  of  pneumonia 

in  Washington,  D.  C.,  December,  1598. 


640  ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 

burgh  Review,  which  used  the  following  language  in  giving  the  reasons  for  the 
Cuban  revolt  of  1868: 

"  Spain  governs  the  island  of  Cuba  with  an  iron  and  blood-stained  hand. 
The  former  holds  the  latter  deprived  of  political,  civil,  and  religious  liberties. 
Hence  the  unfortunate  Cubans  being  illegally  prosecuted  and  sent  into  exile,  or 
executed  by  military  commissions,  in  times  of  peace;  hence  their  being  kept 
from  public  meetings,  and  forbidden  to  speak  or  write  on  affairs  of  State;  hence 
their  remonstrances  against  the  evils  that  afflicted  them  being  looked  upon  as 
the  proceedings  of  rebels,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  obliged  to  keep  silence 
and  obey;  hence  the  never-ending  plague  of  hungry  officials  from  Spain  to 
devour  the  product  of  their  industry  and  labor;  hence  their  exclusion  from  the 
art  of  government;  hence  the  restrictions  to  which  public  instruction  with  them 
is  subjected  in  order  to  keep  them  so  ignorant  as  not  to  be  able  to  know  and 
enforce  their  rights  in  any  shape  or  form  whatever;  hence  the  navy  and  the 
standing  army,  which  are  kept  in  their  country  at  an  enormous  expenditure 
from  their  own  wealth  to  make  them  bend  their  knees  and  submit  their  necks 
to  the  iron  yoke  that  disgraces  them  ;  hence  the  grinding  taxation  under  which 
they  labor,  and  which  would  make  all  perish  in  misery  but  for  the  marvelous 
fertility  of  their  soil." 

The  opportunity  was  a  golden  one  for  Spain  to  win  back  the  affection  of 
Cuba  by  generosity  and  justice.  What  steps  did  she  take  to  do  so? 

Although  the  Cubans  were  ground  to  the  very  dust  by  taxation,  levied  in 
all  cases  by  Spaniards,  and  not  by  their  own  officials,  Spain  proposed,  in  1868, 
to  add  to  the  burden.  In  October  of  that  year  Carlos  M.  de  Cespedes,  a  lawyer 
of  Bayamo,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a 
handful  of  patriots,  which  were  soon  joined  by  thousands,  and  in  April,  1869, 
a  republican  constitution  was  adopted,  slavery  declared  abolished,  Cespedes  was 
elected  president,  Francisco  Aguilero  vice-president,  and  a  legislature  was  called 
together. 

There  never  was  hope  of  this  insurrection  securing  the  independence  ot 
Cuba.  The  patriots  were  too  few  in  number,  too  badly  armed  and  equipped, 
and  not  handled  so  as  to  be  effective.  But  they  caused  great  suffering  and  ruin 
throughout  the  island.  They  instituted  a  guerrilla  system  of  warfare,  and  cost 
Spain  many  valuable  lives.  The  wet  and  rainy  seasons  came  and  went,  and  still 
the  savage  fighting  continued,  until  at  last  the  rebels  as  well  as  the  Spaniards 
were  ready  to  welcome  peace. 

Martinez  Campos  was  the  Spanish  commander,  and  he  promised  General 
Maximo  Gomez,  leader  of  the  insurgents,  that  the  reforms  for  which  he  and  his 


SPAIN'S  MISRULE  IN  CUBA. 


541 


comrades  were  contending  should  be  granted  on  condition  that  they  laid  down 
their  arms.  The  pledge  was  a  sacred  one,  and  no  doubt  Campos  meant 
honestly  to  keep  it.  Unfortunately,  however,  there  were  higher  powers  than 
he  behind  him.  Gomez  accepted  the  promises  of  a  brother  soldier,  and  on 
February  10,  1878,  the  treaty  of  El  Zanjon  was  signed. 

This  treaty  guaranteed  representation  to  the  Cubans  in  the  Spanish  Cortes, 
and  all  who  took  part  in  the  insurrection  were  pardoned. 

Now  the  lesson  of  all  this  was  so  plain  that  the  wayfaring  man,  though  a 
fool,  had  no  excuse  for  erring.  Spain  had  bitterly  learned  the  temper  of  the 
Cubans.  She  could  not  fail  to  see  that  but  one  possible  way  existed  for  her  to 
retain  control  of  them,  and,  of  course,  that 
was  the  very  way  she  avoided.  The 
Madrid  authorities  thought  they  did  a 
wise  thing  when  they  secured  control  of 
the  polls,  and  made  sure  that  the  dele 
gates  elected  were  their  own.  Schools, 
sewerage,  roads,  everything  that  could 
help  the  island  were  neglected  and  taxa 
tion  increased.  The  reforms  promised  to 
the  insurgents  upon  condition  of  laying 
down  their  arms  proved  a  delusion  and  a 
snare.  Thus  the  "captain-general"  had 
his  name  changed  to  "  governor-gene 
ral,"  but  his  tyrannical  powers  remained 
the  same  as  before.  The  right  of  banish 
ment  was  formally  repealed,  but  the  out 
rages  continued  under  another  law  that 
was  equally  effective,  and  so  on  to  the  end 
of  the  chapter.  Once  again  the  Cubans 
had  been  fooled  by  trusting  to  Spanish  honor.  They  resolved  that  as  soon  as 
arrangements  could  be  effected,  they  would  set  another  insurrection  on  foot,  which 
would  be  fought  out  to  the  death  or  until  independence  was  secured. 

Several  important  ends  were  accomplished  by  the  Ten  Years'  War. 
Slavery  was  abolished  in  1886,  and  the  island  was  divided  into  the  present  six 
provinces.  As  in  previous  instances  the  United  States  was  counted  upon  for 
the  greatest  material  assistance  in  prosecuting  the  revolution.  The  spirit  of 
adventure  is  always  strong  among  Americans,  and  the  filibustering  enterprises 
appealed  strongly  to  them.  The  spice  of  danger  by  which  they  were  attended 
was  their  chief  attraction.  Our  government  was  bound  by  treaty  to  prevent 
them,  so  far  as  she  could,  and  it  went  to  great  expense  in  doing  so.  A  number 


GENERAL   MAXIMO  GOMEZ- 

The  Washington  of  Cuba  is  the  title  applied  to  this  hero, 
who,  as  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  patriot  army,  made 
Cuban  liberty  possible. 


543  ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 

of  expeditions  were  unable  to  get  away  from  New  York,  but  others  escaped  the 
vigilance  of  officials,  and  landed  guns,  ammunition,  and  men  at  different  points 
on  the  island.  One  of  the  greatest  helps  in  this  unlawful  business  was  the  dis 
honesty  of  the  officials  employed  by  Spain  to  prevent  the  landing  of  supplies 
and  men.  There  was  never  any  difficulty  in  bribing  these  officers,  who  stumbled 
over  one  another  in  their  eagerness  to  be  bribed. 

THE  LAST  CUBAN  REVOLUTION  LAUNCHED. 

Meanwhile,  the  leader^  in  the  former  late  revolt  were  consulting  upon  the 
best  steps  to  launch  the  new  revolution.  Maximo  Gomez  was  living  in  San 
Domingo,  and,  when  he  was  offered  the  command  of  the  revolutionary  forces,  he 
promptly  accepted  the  responsibility.  The  offer  came  to  him  through  Jose 
Marti,  the  head  of  the  organization. 

The  grim  veterans  were  resolute  in  their  purpose.  After  studying  the 
situation,  they  agreed  that  a  general  uprising  should  be  set  on  foot  in  all  the 
provinces  on  February  24,  1895.  It  was  impossible  to  do  this,  but  the  standard 
of  revolt  was  raised  on  the  date  named  in  three  of  the  provinces^ 

One  Spanish  official  read  truly  the  meaning  of  the  signs.  He  was  Calleja, 
the  captain-general.  Though  the  revolt  in  the  province  of  Santiago  de  Cuba 
looked  trifling,  he  knew  it  was  like  a  tiny  blaze  kindled  in  the  dry  prairie 
grass.  He  wished  to  act  liberally  toward  the  insurgents,  but  the  blind  govern 
ment  at  Madrid  blocked  his  every  step.  Since  it  had  played  the  fool  from  the 
beginning,  it  kept  up  the  farce  to  the  end.  They  ordered  Calleja  to  stamp  out 
the  rebellion,  and  he  did  his  utmost  to  obey  orders. 

Could  the  royal  and  insurgent  forces  be  brought  to  meet  in  fair  combat, 
the  latter  would  have  been  crushed  out  of  existence  at  the  first  meeting.  But 
the  insurgent  leaders  were  too  shrewd  to  risk  anything  of  that  nature.  They 
resumed  their  guerrilla  tactics,  striking  hard  blows,  here,  there,  anywhere  that 
the  chance  offered,  and  then  fled  into  the  woods  and  mountains  before  the 
regulars  could  be  brought  against  them. 

Such  a  style  of  warfare  is  always  cruel  and  accompanied  by  outrages  of  a 
shocking  character.  The  Cubans  were  as  savage  in  their  methods  as  the 
Spaniards.  They  blew  up  bridges  and  railroad  trains  with  dynamite,  regard 
less  of  the  fact  that,  in  so  doing,  it  was  the  innocent  instead  of  the  guilty  who 
suffered.  They  burned  the  sugar  cane,  destroyed  the  tobacco  and  coffee 
plantations,  and  impoverished  the  planters  in  order  to  shut  off  the  revenues  of 
Spain  and  deprive  her  forces  of  their  needed  supplies;  they  spread  desolation 
and  ruin  everywhere,  in  the  vain  hope  that  the  mother  country  could  thus  be 
brought  to  a  realizing  sense  of  the  true  situation. 

But  Spain  was  deaf  and  blind.     She  sent  thousands  of  soldiers  across  the 


THE  LAST  CUBAN  REVOLUTION  LAUNCHED. 


;j  13 


Atlantic,  including  the  members  of  the  best  families  in  the  kingdom,  to  die  in 
the  pestilential  lowlands  of  Cuba,  while  trying  to  stamp  out  the  tires  of  revolu 
tion  that  continually  grew  and  spread. 

The  island  was  cursed  by  three  political  parties,  each  of  which  was 
strenuous  in  the  maintenance  of  its  views.  The  dominant  party  of  course  was 
the  loyalists,  who  held  all  the  offices  and  opposed  any  compromise  with  the 
insurgents.  They  were  quite  willing  to  make  promises,  with  no  intention  of 
fulfilling  them,  but  knew  the  Cubans  could  no  longer  be  deceived. 

The  second  party  was  the  insurgents,  who,  as  has  been  shown,  had 
"enlisted  for  the  war,"  and  were  determined  not  to  lay  down  their  arms  until 
independence  was  achieved.  The  autono 
mists  stood  between  these  extremes,  favor 
ing  home  rule  instead  of  independence, 
while  admitting  the  misgovernment  of 
Cuba, 

The  Spaniards  were  determined  to 
prevent  the  coming  of  Antonio  Maceo,  a 
veteran  of  the  Ten  Years'  War,  possessed  | 
of  great  courage  and  resources,  who  was 
living  in  Costa  Rica.  They  knew  he  had 
been  communicated  with  and  his  presence 
would  prove  a  tower  of  strength  to  the  in 
surgents.  Bodies  of  Spanish  cavalry  gal 
loped  along  the  coasts,  on  the  alert  to  catch 
or  shoot  the  rebel  leader,  while  the  officials 
closely  watched  all  arrivals  at  the  seaports 
for  the  feared  rebel. 

Despite  these  precautions,  Maceo  and 
twenty-two  comrades  of  the  previous  war 

effected  a  landing  on  the  eastern  end  of  the  island.  They  were  almost  im 
mediately  discovered  by  the  Spanish  cavalry,  and  a  fierce  fight  followed,  in  which 
several  Cubans  were  killed.  Maceo  fought  furiously,  seemingly  inspired  by  the 
knowledge  that  he  was  again  striking  for  the  freedom  of  his  country,  and  he 
came  within  a  hair  of  being  killed.  He  eluded  his  enemies,  however,  and, 
plunging  into  the  thickets,  started  for  the  interior  to  meet  the  other  insurgent 
leaders.  The  abundance  of  tropical  fruits  saved  him  from  starving,  and  it  was 
not  long  before  he  met  with  straggling  bodies  of  his  countrymen,  who  hailed 
his  coming  with  enthusiasm.  Recruits  rapidly  gathered  around  him,  and  he 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  ardent  patriots. 

It  was  just  ten  days  after  the  landing  of  Maceo  that  Gomez  and  Jase 


JOSE  MARTI. 

President  of  the  Cuban  Revolutionary  Party.    Led  into 
ambush  and  killed  by  the  Spaniaids,  Slay  19,  1896. 


544 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 


Marti,  coming  from  Santo  Domingo,  landed  on  the  southern  coast  of  Cuba. 
They  had  a  lively  time  in  avoiding  the  Spanish  patrol,  but  succeeded  in  reach 
ing  a  strong  force  of  insurgents,  and  Gomez  assumed  his  duties  as  commander- 
in-chief.  Recruits  were  gathered  to  the  number  of  several  thousand,  and 
Gomez  and  Marti  started  for  the  central  provinces  with  the  purpose  of  formally 
establishing  the  government.  Marti  was  led  astray  on  the  road  by  a  treacherous 
guide  and  killed. 

Fully  alive  to  the  serious  work  before  him,  Captain-General  Calleja  called 
upon  Spain  for  help  in  quelling  the  rebellion.  She  sent  25,000  troops  to  Cuba 
and  Calleja  was  relieved  by  Field-Marshal  Campos.  This  wras  a  popular  move, 

for  it  was  Campos  who  brought  the  Ten 
Years'  War  to  a  close,  and  it  was  gener 
ally  believed  he  would  repeat  his  success. 
The  first  important  act  of  Campos 
was  to  divide  Cuba  into  zones,  by  means 
of  a  number  of  strongly  guarded  military 
lines,  extending  north  and  south  across 
the  narrower  part  of  the  island.  They 
were  called  "trochas,"  and  were  expected 
to  offer  an  impassable  check  to  the  in 
surgents,  who,  thus  confined  within  defi 
nite  limits,  could  be  crushed  or  driven 
into  the  sea  with  little  difficulty. 

The  scheme,  however,  was  a  failure. 
The  rebels  crossed  the  trochas  at  will, 
kept  up  their  guerrilla  tactics,  picked  off 
ANTONIO  MACEO.  the   regulars,    destroyed    railroad  trains, 

Lieutenant-General  in  the  Cuban  Array.  1  /»  i  ,-, 

and  went  so  far  as  to  shoot  the  messen 
gers  who  dared  to  enter  their  camp  with  proposals  for  making  peace  on  other 
terms  than  independence. 

The  Cubans  were  full  of  hope.  They  had  their  old  leaders  with  them, 
men  who  had  led  them  in  former  campaigns  and  proven  their  courage  and 
skill.  Recruits  flocked  to  their  standards,  until  it  has  been  estimated  that  by 
the  close  of  the  year  fully  20,000  insurgents  were  in  the  field.  With  such 
strong  commands,  the  leaders  were  able  to  attain  several  important  successes. 
Considerable  bodies  of  the  regulars  were  defeated  with  serious  losses,  and,  in 
one  instance,  Campos  succeeded  in  saving  himself  and  command  only  by  the 
artillery  he  happened  to  have  with  him. 

Campos  had  prosecuted  the  war  through  civilized  methods,  and,  therefore, 
fell  into  disfavor  at  home.  He  was  not  a  representative  Spanish  commander, 


THE  LAST  CUBAN  DEVOLUTION  LAUNCHED. 


545 


and  was  now  superseded  by  General  Valeriano  Weyler,  who  arrived  in  Havana 
in  February,  1896.  This  man  had  as  much  human  feeling  in  his  heart  as  a 
wounded  tiger.  His  policy  was  extermination.  He  established  two  powerful 
trochas  across  the  island,  but  they  proved  as  ineffective  as  those  of  Campos. 
Then  he  ordered  the  planters  and  their  families,  who  were  able  to  pick  up 
a  wretched  living  on  their  places,  to  move  into  the  nearest  towns,  where  they 
would  be  able  to  raise  no  more  food  for  the  insurgents.  It  mattered  not  to 
Weyler  that  neither  could  these  reconcentrados  raise  any  food  for  themselves, 


and  therefore  must  starve:  that  was  no  concern  of  his.  As  he  viewed  it,  starva 
tion  was  the  right  method  of  ridding  Cuba  of  those  who  yearned  for  its  freedom. 
No  pen  can  picture  the  horrors  that  followed.  The  woeful  scenes  sent  a 
shudder  throughout  the  United  States,  and  many  good  people  demanded  that 
the  unspeakable  crime  should  be  checked  by  armed  intervention.  To  do  this 
meant  war  with  Spain,  but  we  were  ready  for  that.  A  Congressional  party 
visited  Cuba  in  March,  1898,  and  witnessed  the  hideous  suffering  of  the  Cubans, 
of  whom  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  had  been  starved  to  death,  with  score. 

35 


546  ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 

still  perishing  daily.  In  referring  to  what  they  saw,  Senator  Proctor,  of  Ver 
mont,  said:  "I  shall  refer  to  these  horrible  things  no  further.  They  are  there, 
God  pity  me,  I  have  seen  them ;  they  will  remain  in  my  mind  forever,  and 
this  is  almost  the  twentieth  century.  Christ  died  nineteen  hundred  years  ago, 
and  Spain  is  a  Christian  nation.  She  has  set  up  more  crosses  in  more  lands, 
beneath  more  skies,  and  under  ihem  has  butchered  more  people  than  all  the 
other  nations  of  the  earth  combined.  God  grant  that  before  another  Christmas 
morning  the  last  vestige  of  Spanish  tyranny  and  oppression  will  have  van 
ished  from  the  western  hemisphere." 

The  ferocious  measures  of  Weyler  brought,  so  indignant  a  protest  from  our 
country  that  he  was  recalled,  and  his  place  taken  by  General  Ramon  Blanco, 
who  reached  Havana  in  the  autumn  of  1897.  Under  him  the  indecisive 
fighting  went  on  much  as  before,  with  no  important  advantage  gained  by  either 
side.  Friends  of  Cuba  made  appeals  in  Congress  for  the  granting  of  bellig 
erent  rights  to  the  insurgents,  but  strict  international  law  demanded  that  their 
government  should  gain  a  more  tangible  form  and  existence  before  such  rights 
could  be  conceded. 

Matters  were  in  this  state  of  extreme  tension  when  the  blowing-up  of  the 
Maine  occurred.  While  riding  quietly  at  anchor  in  the  harbor  of  Havana,  on 
the  night  of  February  15,  1898,  she  was  utterly  destroyed  by  a  terrific 
explosion,  which  killed  266  officers  and  men.  The  news  thrilled  the  land  with 
horror  and  rage,  for  it  was  taken  at  once  for  granted  that  the  appalling  crime 
had  been  committed  by  Spaniards,  but  the  absolute  proof  remained  to  be 
brought  forward,  and  the  Americans,  with  their  proverbial  love  of  justice  and 
fair-play,  waited  for  such  proof. 

Competent  men  were  selected  for  the  investigation,  and  they  spent  three 
weeks  in  making  it.  They  reported  that  it  had  been  established  beyond  question 
that  the  Maine  was  destroyed  by  an  outside  explosion,  or  submarine  mine, 
though  they  were  unable  to  determine  who  was  directly  responsible  for  the  act. 

The  insistence  of  Spain,  of  course,  was  that  the  explosion  was  accidental 
and  resulted  from  carelessness  on  the  part  of  Captain  Sigsbee  and  his  crew ;  but 
it  may  be  doubted  whether  any  of  the  Spanish  officials  in  Havana  ever  really 
held  such  a  belief.  While  Spain  herself  was  not  directly  responsible  for  the 
destruction  of  the  war-ship  and  those  who  went  down  in  her,  it  was  some  of  her 
officials  who  destroyed  her.  The  displacement  of  the  ferocious  Weyler  had 
incensed  a  good  many  of  his  friends,  some  of  whom  most  likely  expressed  their 
views  in  this  manner,  which,  happily  for  the  credit  of  humanity,  is  exceedingly 
rare  in  the  history  of  nations. 

The  momemous  events  that  followed  are  given  in  the  succeeding  chapters 


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CHAPTER  XXV. 

ADMINISTRATION     OK    McKINLEY     (CONTINUED), 

1897-1001. 

THE    SPANISH-AMERICAN    \VAR. 

Opening  Incidents — Bombardment  of  Matanzas — Dewey's  Wonderful  Victory  at  Manila — Disaster  to 
the  Window  at  Cardenas  Bay — The  First  American  Loss  of  Life — Bombardment  of  San  Juan, 
Porto  Rico — The  Elusive  Spanish.  Fleet — Bottled-up  in  Santiago  Harbor — Lieutenant  Hobson's 
Daring  Exploit— Second  Bombardment  of  Santiago  and  Arrival  of  the  Army — Gallant  Work  of  the 
Rough  Riders  and  the  Regulars — Battles  of  San  Juan  and  El  Caney — Destruction  of  Cervera's 
Fleet — General  Shafter  Reinforced  in  Front  of  Santiago — Surrender  of  the  City — General  Miles  in 
Porto  Rico — An  Easy  Conquest — Conquest  of  the  Philippines — Peace  Negotiations  and  Signing  of 
the  Protocol — Its  Terms — Members  of  the  National  Peace  Coinmission — Return  of  the  Troops  from 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico — The  Peace  Commission  in  Paris — Conclusion  of  its  Work — Terms  of  the 
Treaty— Ratified  by  the  Senate. 

"STRIPPING  FOR  THE  FIGHT." 

ENOUGH  has  already  been  stated  to  show  the  real  cause  of  the  war  oetween 
the  United  States  and  Spain.  It  was,  in  brief,  a  war  for  humanity,  for  America 
could  no  longer  close  her  ears  to  the  wails  of  the  dead  and  dying  that  lay 
perishing,  as  may  be  said,  on  her  very  doorsteps.  It  was  not  a  war  for  con 
quest  or  gain,  nor  was  it  in  revenge  for  the  awful  crime  of  the  destruction  of 
the  Maine,  though  few  nations  would  have  restrained  their  wrath  with  such 
sublime  patience  as  did  our  countrymen  while  the  investigation  was  in  progress. 
Yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that  this  unparalleled  outrage  intensified  the  war  fever 
in  the  United  States,  and  thousands  were  eager  for  the  opportunity  to  punish 
Spanish  cruelty  and  treachery.  Congress  reflected  this  spirit  when  by  a  unani 
mous  vote  it  appropriated  $50,000,000  "for  the  national  defense."  The  War 
and  Navy  Departments  hummed  with  the  activity  of  recruiting,  the  prepara 
tions  of  vessels  and  coast  defenses,  the  purchase  of  war  material  and  vessels  a\ 
home,  while  agents  were  sept  to  Europe  to  procure  all  the  war-ships  in  the  market 

(547) 


548  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 

Unlimited  capital  was  at  their  command,  and  the  question  of  price  was  never  an 
obstacle.  When  hostilities  impended  the  United  States  was  unprepared  for  war, 
but  by  amazing  activity,  energy,  and  skill  the  preparations  were  pushed  and 
completed  with  a  rapidity  that  approached  the  marvelous. 

War  being  inevitable,  President  McKinley  sought  to  gain  time  for  our 
consular  representatives  to  leave  Cuba,  where  the  situation  daily  and  hourly 
grew  more  dangerous.  Consul  Hyatt  left  Santiago  on  April  3d,  but  Consul- 
General  Lee,  always  fearless,  remained  at  Havana  until  April  10th,  with  the 
resolution  that  no  American  refugees  should  be  left  behind,  where  very  soon 
their  lives  would  not  be  worth  an  hour's  purchase.  Lee  landed  in  Key  West 
April  llth,  and  on  the  same  day  President  McKinley  sent  his  message  upon  the 
situation  to  Congress.  On  April  18th  the  two  houses  adopted  the  following: 

WHEREAS,  The  abhorrent  conditions  which  have  existed  for  more  than  three  years  in  the  island 
of  Cuba,  so  near  our  own  borders,  have  shocked  the  moral  sense  of  the  people  of  the  United  States, 
have  been  a  disgrace  to  Christian  civilization,  culminating,  as  they  have,  in  the  destruction  of  a  United 
States  battle-ship  with  200  of  its  officers  and  crew,  while  on  a  friendly  visit  in  the  harbor  of  Havana, 
and  cannot  longer  be  endured,  as  has  been  set  forth  by  the  President  of  the  United  States  in  his 
message  to  Congress  of  April  11,  1898,  upon  which  the  action  of  Congress  was  invited;  therefore, 

Resolved,  By  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in 
Congress  assembled — 

First — That  the  people  of  the  island  of  Cuba  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  freea^d  independent. 

Second — That  it  is  the  duty  of  the  United  States  to  demand,  and  the  government  of  the  United 
States  does  hereby  demand,  that  the  government  of  Spain  at  once  relinquish  its  authority  and  govern 
ment  in  the  island  of  Cuba,  and  withdraw  its  land  and  naval  forces  from  Cuba  and  Cuban  waters. 

Third — That  the  President  of  the  United  States  be,  and  he  hereby  is,  directed  and  empowered  to 
use  the  entire  land  and  naval  forces  of  the  United  States,  and  to  call  into  the  actual  service  of  the 
United  States  the  militia  of  the  several  States,  to  such  extent  as  may  be  necessary  to  carry  these  reso 
lutions  into  effect. 

Fourth — That  the  United  States  hereby  disclaims  any  disposition  or  intention  to  exercise 
sovereignty,  jurisdiction,  or  control  over  said  island,  except  for  the  pacification  thereof,  and  asserts  its 
determination  when  that  is  completed  to  leave  the  government  and  control  of  the  island  to  its  people. 

This  resolution  was  signed  by  the  President  April  20th,  and  a  copy  served 
on  the  Spanish  minister,  who  demanded  his  passports,  and  immediately  left 
Washington.  The  contents  were  telegraphed  to  United  States  Minister  Wood- 
ford  at  Madrid,  with  instructions  to  officially  communicate  them  to  the  Spanish 
government,  giving  it  until  April  23d  to  answer.  The  Spanish  authorities, 
however,  anticipated  this  action  by  sending  the  American  minister  his  passports 
on  the  morning  of  April  21st.  This  act  was  of  itself  equivalent  to  a  declara 
tion  of  war. 

The  making  of  history  now  went  forward  with  impressive  swiftness. 

On  April  22d  the  United  States  fleet  was  ordered  to  blockade  Havana. 
On  the  24th  Spain  declared  war,  and  the  United  States  Congress  followed  with  a 


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THE  BATTLE  OF  MANILA. 


551 


similar  declaration  on  the  25th.   The  call  for  75,000  volunteer  troops  was  increased 
to  125,000  and  subsequently  to  200,000.     The  massing  of  men  and  stores  was 
rapidly  begun  throughout  the  country.     Within  a  month  expeditions  were  organ 
ized  for  various  points  of  attack,  war-vessels  were  bought,  and  ocean  passenger 
steamers  were  converted  into  auxiliary  cruisers  and  transports.     By  the  first 
of  July  about  40,000  soldiers  had  been  sent  to  Cuba  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 
The  rapidity  with  which  preparations  were  made  and  the  victories  gained  and 
the  progress  shown  by   the  Americans  at  once  astonished  and  challenged  the 
admiration  of  foreign  nations,  who  had  regarded  America  as  a  country  unpre 
pared  for  war  by  land  or  sea.     On 
April  27th,  following  the  declaration 
of  war  on  the  25th,  Admiral  Samp 
son,  having  previously  blockaded  the 
harbor  of  Havana,  was  reconnoiter- 
ing  with  three  vessels  in  the  vicinity 
of  Matanzas,    Cuba,   when  he   dis 
covered  the  Spanish  forces  building 
earthworks,  and   ventured  so  close 
in  his  efforts  to  investigate  the  same 
that  a  challenge  shot  was  fired  from 
the  fortification,  Eubal  Cava.     Ad 
miral  Sampson  quickly  formed  the 
New  York,  Cincinnati,  and  Puritan 
into  a  triangle  and  opened  fire  with 
their  eight-inch  guns.     The    action 
was  very  spirited  on  both  sides  for 
the  space  of  eighteen  minutes,  at  the 
expiration  of  which  time  the  Spanish 
batteries  were  silenced  and  the  earth 
works  destroyed,  without  casualty  on 
the  American  side,  though  two  shells 

burst  dangerously  near  the  New  York.  The  last  shot  fired  by  the  Americana 
was  from  one  of  the  Puritan's  thirteen-inch  guns,  which  landed  with  deadly 
accuracy  in  the  very  centre  of  Eubal  Cava,  and,  exploding,  completely 
destroyed  the  earthworks.  This  was  the  first  action  of  the  war,  4 
could  hardly  be  dignified  by  the  name  of  a  battle. 


ADMIRAL   GEORGE   DEWEY. 


though 


THE   BATTLE   OF    MANILA. 

It  was  expected  that  the  next  engagement  would  be  the  bombardment  of 
Morro  Castle,  at  Havana.     But  it  is  the  unexpected  that  often  happens  in  war. 


552  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 


In  the  Philippine  Islands,  on  the  other  side  of  the  world,  the  first  real  battle — 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  history — was  next  to  occur. 

On  April  2oth  the  following  dispatch  of  eight  potent  words  was  cabled  to 
Commodore  Dewey  on  the  coast  of  China:  "Capture  or  destroy  th?  Spanish 
squadron  at  Manila."  "Never,"  says  James  Gordon  Bennett,  "were  instructions 
more  effectively  carried  out.  Within  seven  hours  after  arriving  on  the  scene  of 
action  nothing  remained  to  be  done."  It  was  on  the  27th  that  Dewey  sailed 
from  Mirs  Bay,  China,  and  on  the  night  of  the  30th  he  lay  before  the  entrance 
of  the  harbor  of  Manila,  seven  hundred  miles  away.  Under  the  cover  of  dark 
ness  with  all  lights  extinguished  on  his  ships,  he  daringly  steamed  into  this 
unknown  harbor,  which  he  believed  to  be  strewn  with  mines,  and  at  daybreak 
engagod  the  Spanish  ileet.  Commodore  Dewey  knew  it  meant  everything  for 
him  and  his  fleet  to  win  or  lose  this  battle.  lie  was  in  the  enemy's  country, 
7,000  miles  from  home.  The  issue  of  this  battle  must  mean  victory,  Spanish 
dungeons,  or  the  bottom  of  the  ocean.  "Keep  cool  and  obey  orders"  was  the 
signal  he  gave  to  his  fleet,  and  then  came  the  order  to  fire.  The  Americans 
had  seven  ships,  the  Olympia,  Baltimore,  Raleigh,  Petrel,  Concord,  Boston,  and 
the  dispatch-boat  McCuJlomjh.  The  Spaniards  had  eleven,  the  Relna  Christina, 
Antonio  de  Ulloa,  Ma  de  Luzon,  Ma  de  Cuba,  General  Lezo. 
Marquis  de  Duero,  Cano,  VeJasco,  Ma  de  Mindanao,  and  a  transport 

From  the  beginning  Commodore  Dewey  fought  on  the  offensive,  and,  after 
the  manner  of  Nelson   and   Fa.-ragut,  concentrated  his  fire  upon  the  strongest 
ships  one  after  another  with  terrible  execution.     The  Spanish  ships  were  inferior 
there  were  more  of  them,  and  they  were  under  the  protection  of  the 
The  fire  of  the  Americans  was  especially  noted  for  its  terrific 
rapidity  and  the  wonderful  accuracy  of  its  aim.     The  battle  lasted  for  about 
lours,  and  resulted  in   the  destruction  of  all  the  Spanish  ships  and  the 
fencing  of  the  land  batteries.     The  Spanish  loss  in   killed  and  wounded  was 
timated  to  be  fully  one  thousand  men,  while  on  the  American  side  not  a  ship 
ren  seriously  damaged  and  not  a  single  man  was  killed  outright,  and  only 
More  than  a  month  after  the  battle,  Captain  Charles  B. 
ommander  of  the  Olympia,  died,  though  his  death  was  the  result 
an  accident  received  in  the  discharge  of  his  duty  during  the  battle,  and  not 
iron,    a   wounc       On   May   2d   Commodore    Dewey   cut   the  cable  connecting 
[ong  Kong,  and  destroyed  the  fortifications  at  the  entrance  of 
I  took  possession  of  the  naval  station  at  Cavite.     This  was  to 
pro  .mmunication  between  the  Philippine  Islands  and  the  government  at 

ibitetl  the  sending  of  Commodore  Dewey's  official  account  of 
battle  by  the  dispatch-boat  McCullouah  to  Hong  Kong    whence  it  was 
cabled  to  ,he  Lnited  States,     After  its  receipt,  May  9th,  both  H   ^ses  adopted 


554  TUP:  SPANISH-AMERICAS    WAR. 

resolutions  of  congratulation  to  Commodore  Dewey  and  his  officers  and  men  for 
their  gallantry  at  Manila,  voted  an  appropriation  for  medals  for  the  crew  and  a 
fine  sword  for  the  gallant  Commander,  and  also  passed  a  bill  authorizing  the 
President  to  appoint  another  rear-admiral,  which  honor  was  promptly  conferred 
upon  Commodore  Dewey,  accompanied  by  the  thanks  of  the  President  and  of 
the  nation  for  the  admirable  and  heroic  services  rendered  his  country. 

The  Battle  01  Manila  must  ever  remain  a  monument  to  the  daring  and 
courage  of  Admiral  Dewey.  However  unevenly  matched  the  two  fleets 
may  have  been,  the  world  agrees  with  the  eminent  foreign  naval  critic  wrho 
declared:  "This  complete  victory  was  the  product  of  forethought,  cool,  well- 
balanced  judgment,  discipline,  and  bravery.  It  was  a  magnificent  achievement, 
and  Dewey  will  go  down  in  history  ranking  with  John  Paul  Jones  and  Lord 
Nelson  as  a  naval  hero." 

Admiral  Dewey  might  have  taken  possession  of  the  city  of  Manila  imme 
diately.  He  cabled  the  United  States  that  he  could  do  so,  but  the  fact  remained 
that  he  had  not  sufficient  men  to  care  for  his  ships  and  at  the  same  time  effect  a 
successful  landing  in  the  town  of  Manila.  Therefore  he  chose  to  remain  on  his 
fillips,  and  though  the  city  was  at  his  mercy,  he  refrained  from  a  bombardment 
because  he  believed  it  would  lead  to  a  massacre  of  the  Spaniards  on  the  part  of 
the  insurgents  surrounding  the  city,  which  it  would  be  beyond  his  power  to  stop. 
This  im inane  manifestation  toward  the  conquered  foe  adds  to  the  lustre  of  the 
hero's  crown,  and  at  the  same  time  places  the  seal  of  greatness  upon  the  brow 
of  the  victor.  He  not  only  refrained  from  bombarding  the  city,  but  received 
and  cared  for  the  wounded  Spaniards  upon  his  own  vessels.  Thus,  while  he  did 
all  that  was  required  of  him  without  costing  his  country  the  life  of  a  single 
citizen,  he  manifested  a  spirit  of  humanity  and  generosity  toward  the  vanquished 
foe  fully  in  keeping  with  the  sympathetic  spirit  which  involved  this  nation  in 
the  war  for  humanity's  sake. 

The  Battle  of  Manila  further  demonstrated  that  a  fleet  with  heavier  guns  is 
virtually  invulnerable  in  a  campaign  with  a  squadron  bearing  lighter  metal, 
however  gallantly  the  crew  of  the  latter  may  fio-ht. 

Before  the  Battle  of  Manila  it  was  recognized  that  the  government  had 

serious  trouble  on  its  hands.     On  May  4th  President  McKinley  nominated  ten 

-Generals,  including   Thomas   H.  Wilson,  Fitzhugh    Lee,  Wm.  J. 

(who  was  not  com  missioned),  and  Joseph  Wheeler,  from  private  life, 

Brigadier-Generals    Breckinridge,   Otis,    Coppinger,    Shatter, 

am    Wade,   and   Merriam,   from    the   regular   army.      The   organization 
ition  of  troops  was  promptly  begun  and  rapidly  pushed.     Meantime 
our  naval  vessels  were  actively  cruising  around  the  Island  of  Cuba,  expecting 
the  appearance  of  the  Spanish  fleet. 


THE  BOMBARDMENT  OF  SAN  JUAN.  555 

On  May  llth  the  gunboat  Wilmington,  revenue-cutter  Hudson,  and  the 
torpedo-boat  Winslow  entered  Cardenas  Bay,  Cuba,  to  attack  the  defenses  and 
three  small  Spanish  gunboats  that  had  taken  refuge  in  the  harbor.  The  Winslow 
being  of  light  draft  took  the  lead,  and  when  within  eight  hundred  yards  of  the 
fort  was  fired  upon  with  disastrous  effect,  being  struck  eighteen  times  and  ren 
dered  helpless.  For  more  than  an  hour  the  frail  little  craft  was  at  the  mercy 
of  the  enemy's  batteries.  The  revenue-cutter  Hudson  quickly  answered  her 
signal  of  distress  by  coming  to  the  rescue,  and  as  she  was  in  the  act  of  drawing 
the  disabled  boat  away  a  shell  from  the  enemy  burst  on  the  Winslow's  deck, 
killing  three  of  her  crew  outright  and  wounding  many  more.  Ensign  Worth 


CAMP  SCENE  AT  CHICKAMAUQA. 

Bagley,  of  the  Winslow,  who  had  recently  entered  active  service,  was  one  of  the 
killed.  He  was  the  first  officer  who  lost  his  life  in  the  war.  The  same  shell 
badly  wounded  Lieutenant  Bernadou,  Commander  of  the  boat.  The  Hudson, 
amidst  a  rain  of  fire  from  the  Spanish  gunboats  and  fortifications,  succeeded  in 
towing  the  Winslow  to  Key  West,  where  the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  prepared 
for  burial  and  the  vessel  was  placed  in  repair.  On  May  12th  the  First  Infantry 
landed  near  Port  Cabanas,  Cuba,  with  supplies  for  the  insurgents,  which  they 
succeeded  in  delivering  after  a  skirmish  with  the  Spanish  troops.  This  was  the 
first  land  engagement  of  the  war. 

On  the  same  date  Admiral  Sampson's  squadron  arrived  at  San  Juan,  Porto 
Rico,  whither  it  had  gone  in  the  expectation  of  meeting  with  Admiral  Cervera's 


556  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 

fleet,  which  had  sailed  westward  from  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  on  April  29th, 
after  Portugal's  declaration  of  neutrality.  The  Spanish  fleet,  however,  did  not 
materialize,  and  Admiral  Sampson,  while  on  the  ground,  concluded  it  would  be 
well  to  draw  the  fire  of  the  forts  that  he  might  at  least  judge  of  their  strength 
and  efficiency,  if  indeed  he  should  not  render  them  incapable  of  assisting  the 
Spanish  fleet'in  the  event  of  its  resorting  to  this  port  at  a  later  period.  Accord 
ingly,  Sampson  bombarded  the  batteries  defending  San  Juan,  inflicting  much 
damage  and  sustaining  a  loss  of  two  men  killed  and  six  wounded.  The  loss  of 
the  enemy  is  not  known.  The  American  war-ships  sustained  only  trivial  in 
juries,  but  after  the  engagement  it  cuiild  be  plainly  seen  that  one  end  of  Morro 
Castle  was  in  ruins.  The  Cabras  Island  fort  was  silenced  and  the  San  Carlos 
battery  was  damaged.  No  shots  were  aimed  at  the  city  by  the  American  fleet. 
Deeming  it  unnecessary  to  wait  for  the  Spanish  war-ships  in  the  vicinity  of 
San  Juan,  Sampson  withdrew  his  squadron  and  sailed  westward  in  the  hope  of 
finding  Cervera's  fleet,  which  was  dodging  about  the  Caribbean  Sea.  First  it 
was  heard  of  at  the  French  island,  Martinique,  whence  after  a  short  stay  it 
sailed  westward.  Two  days  later  it  halted  at  the  Dutch  island,  Curagoa,  for 
coal  and  supplies.  After  leaving  this  point  it  was  again  lost  sight  of.  Then 
began  the  chase  of  Commodore  Schley  and  Admiral  Sampson  to  catch  the 
fugitive.  Schley,  with  his  flying  squadron,  sailed  from  Key  West  around  the 
western  end  of  Cuba,  and  Sampson  kept  guard  over  the  Windward  and  other 
passages  to  the  east  of  the  island.  It  was  expected  that  one  or  the  other  of  these 
fleets  would  encounter  the  Spaniard  on  the  open  sea,  but  in  this  they  were  mis 
taken.  Cervera  was  not  making  his  wray  to  the  Mexican  shore  on  the  west,  as 
some  said,  nor  was  he  seeking  to  slip  through  one  of  the  passages  into  the 
Atlantic  and  sail  home  to  Spain,  nor  attack  Commodore  Watson's  blockading 
vessels  before  Havana,  according  to  other  expert  opinions  expressed  and  widely 
published.  For  many  days  the  hunt  of  the  war-ships  went  on  like  a  fox-chase. 
On  May  21st  Commodore  Schley  blockaded  Cienfuegos,  supposing  that  Cervera 
was  inside  the  harbor,  but  on  the  24th  he  discovered  his  mistake  and  sailed  to 
Santiago,  where  he  lay  before  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  for  three  days,  not  know 
ing  whether  or  riot  the  Spaniard  was  inside.  On  May  30th  it  was  positively  dis 
covered  that  he  had  Cervera  bottled  up  in  the  narrow  harbor  of  Santiago.  He 
had  been  there  since  the  19th,  and  had  landed  800  men,  20,000  Mauser  rifles,  a 
great  supply  of  ammunition,  and  four  great  guns  for  the  defense  of  the  city. 

OPERATIONS    AGAINST   SANTIAGO. 

On  May  31st  Commodore  Schley  opened  fire  on  the  fortifications  at  the 
mouth  of  the  harbor,  which  lasted  for  about  half  an  hour.  This  was  for  the 
purpose  of  discovering  the  location  and  strength  of  the  batteries,  some  of  which 


OPERATIONS  AGAINST  SANTIAGO. 


557 


were  concealed,  and  in  this  he  was  completely  successful.  Two  of  the  batteries 
were  silenced,  and  the  flagship  of  the  Spaniards,  which  took  part  in  the  engage 
ment,  was  damaged.  The  Americans  received  no  injury  to  vessels  and  no  loss 
of  men.  On  June  1st  Admiral  Sampson  arrived  before  Santiago,  and  relieved 
Commodore  Schley  of  the  chief  command  of  the  forces,  then  consisting  of  six 
teen  war-ships. 

Admiral  Sampson,  naturally  a  cautious  commander,  suffered  great  appre 
hension  lest  Cervera  might  slip  out  of  the  harbor  and  escape  during  the  dark 
ness  of  the  night  or  the  progress  of  a  storm,  which  would  compel  the  blockading 
fleet  to  stand  far  off  shore.     There  was  a  point  in  the  channel  wide  enough  for 
only  one  war-ship  to  pass  at  a  time, 
and   if  this    could    be   rendered    im 
passable    Cervera's    doom    would    be 
sealed.     How  to  reach  and  close  this 
passage  was  the  difficult  problem  to 
be   solved.     On    either   shore  of  the 
narrow  channel  stood  frowning  forts 
with    cannon,  and    there    were  other 
fortifications    to    be    passed    before  it 
could  be  reached.     Young  Lieutenant 
Kichmond  Pearson  Hobson,  a  naval 
engineer,  had  attached  himself  to  Ad 
miral  Sampson's  flagship,  New  York, 
just  before  it  sailed  from  Key  West, 
and  it   was  this  young   man  of  less 
than  thirty  years  who  solved  the  pro 
blem  by  a  plan  originated  by  Admiral 
Sampson,    which    he    executed    with 
a  heroic  daring  that  finds  perhaps  no 
parallel  in  all  naval  history.    At  three 
o'clock  A.  M.,  June  3d,  in    company 

with  seven  volunteers  from  the  A^  York  and  other  ships,  lie  took  theUmted 
collier  Merrimac,  a  large  vessel  with  600  tons  of  coal  on  board,  and  star  ted  widi 
the  purpose  of  sinking  it  in  the  channel.     The  chances  were  ten  to  one  that 
batteries  from  the  forts  would  sink  the  vessel  before  it  could  reach  the  narrow 
neck,  and  the  chances  were  hardly  one  in  one  hundred  that  any  of  *e  men  on 
board  the  collier  would  come  out  of  this  daring  attemp   alive.     The  s    p 
hardly  started  when  the  forts  opened  fire,  and  amid  the  thunder  o aiUll £    an 
i  rain  of  steel  and  bursting  shells  the  boat  with  its  eight  brave  heroes  hel 
L  was^S    as  if  th^r  knew  not  their  danger.     The  channel  was  reached, 


RICHMOND    PEARSON   HOBSON. 


558  THE  SPA  XISH- AMERICAN   WAR. 


and  the  boat  turned  across  the  channel.  The  sea-doors  were  opened  and  tor 
pedoes  exploded  by  the  intrepid  crew,  sinking  the  vessel  almost  instantly,  but 
not  in  the  position  desired.  As  the  ship  went  down  the  men,  with  side-arms 
buckled  on,  took  to  a  small  boat,  and,  escape  being  impossible,  they  surrendered 
to  the  enemy.  It  seems  scarcely  less  than  a  miracle  that  any  of  the  eight  men 
escaped,  yet  the  fact  remained  that  not  one  of  them  was  seriously  injured.  The 
Spaniards  were  so  impressed  with  this  act  of  bravery  and  heroism  that  they 
treated  the  prisoners  with  the  utmost  courtesy,  confined  them  in  Morro  Castle, 
and  Admiral  Cervera  promptly  sent  a  special  officer,  under  a  flag  of  truce,  to 
inform  Admiral  Sampson  of  their  safety.  The  prisoners  were  kept  confined  in 
Morro  Castle  for  some  days,  when  they  were  removed  to  a  place  of  greater  safety, 
where  they  were  held  until  exchanged  on  July  7th. 

THE  SECOND   BOMBARDMENT  OF  SANTIAGO  AND  THE  COMING  OF  THE   AE5IY. 

On  the  6th  of  June  the  American  fleet  under  Admiral  Sampson  bombarded 

the  forts  of  Santiago  for  about  three  hours.     The  gunners  were  all  instructed, 

however,  to  spare  Morro  Castle  lest  they  should  inflict  injury  upon  Hobson  and 

i  heroic  companions,  who  were  then  confined  within  its  walls.     Nearly  all  of 

the  fortifications  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor  were  silenced.     An  examination 

fleet  had  withdrawn  revealed  the  fact  that  no  lives  were  lost  on  the 

ide,  and  none  of  the  vessels  were  seriously  injured.     The  Spanish 

lap  Rema,  Mercedes  was  sunk  in  the  harbor,  she  being  the  only  ship  from  the 

s  fleet  which  ventured  within  the  range  of  the  American's  guns. 

danger  of  entering  the  narrow  harbor  in  the  face  of  Cervera's  fleet 

t  necessary  to  take  the  city  by  land,  and  the  government  began  pre- 

>ons  to  send  General  Shatter  with  a  large  force  from  Tampa  to  aid  the  fleet 

ducing  the  city.     Some  15,000  men,  including   the  now  famous  Rough 

New  York,  were  hurried  upon  tiansports,  and  under  the  greatest  con- 

gunboats,  cruisers,  and  battle-ships  which  ever  escorted  an  army  started 

for  the  western  end  of  the  island  of  Cuha. 

But  the  honor  of  making  the  first  landing  on  Cuban  soil  belongs  to  the 

was  on  June  the   10th,  a  few  days  before  the  army  of  General 

led  from  Tampa,  that  a  landing  was  effected  by  Colonel  Huntington's 

^  marines  at  Caimanera,  Guantanamo  Bay,  some  distance  east  of 

>.     The  object  of  this  landing  was  twofold  :  first,  to  secure  a  place  where 

rar-ships  could  safely  take  on  coal  from  colliers,  and,  second,  to  unite  if  pos- 

the  insurgents  in  harassing  the  Spaniards  until  General  Shafter's  armv 

Furthermore,  Guantanamo  Bay  furnished  the  American  ships  "a 

nai  oor  in  case  of  storm. 

In  the  whole   history  of  the  war  few  more  thrilling  passages  are  to  be 


SECOND  BONBARDMEN1    OF  SANTIAGO. 

found  than  the  record  of  this  brave  band's  achievements.  The  place  of  landing 
was  a  low,  round,  bush-covered  hill  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  bay.  On  the 
crest  of  the  hill  was  a  small  clearing  occupied  by  an  advance  post  of  the 
Spanish  army.  When  the  marines  landed  and  began  to  climb  the  hill,  the 
enemy,  with  little  resistance,  retreated  to  the  woods,  and  the  marines  were  soon 
occupying  the  cleared  space  abandoned  by  them.  They  had  scarcely  begun  to 
compliment  themselves  on  their  easy  victory  when  they  discovered  that  the 
retreat  had  only  been  a  snare  to  lure  them  into  the  open  space,  while  unfor 
tunately  all  around  the  clearing  the  woods  grew  thick,  and  their  unprotected 
position  was  also  overlooked  by  a  range  of  higher  hills  covered  with  a  dense 
undergrowth.  Thus  the  Spanish  were 
able  under  cover  of  the  bushes  to 
creep  close  up  to  our  forces,  and  they 
soon  began  to  fire  upon  them  from  the 
higher  ground  of  the  wooded  range. 
The  marines  replied  vigorously  to  the 
fire  of  their  hidden  foe,  and  thus  con 
tinued  their  hit-and-miss  engagement 
for  a  period  of  four  days  and  nights, 
with  only  occasional  intermissions. 
Perhaps  the  poor  marksmanship  of  the 
Spaniards  is  to  be  thanked  for  the 
fact  that  they  were  not  utterly  anni- 
.  hilated.  On  the  fourth  day  the  Span 
ish  gave  up  the  contest  and  aban 
doned  the  field. 

Major  Henry  C.  Cochrane,  second 
in  command,  states  that  he  slept  only 
an  hour  and  a  half  in  the  four  days, 
and  that  many  of  his  men  became  so 

exhausted  that  they  fell  asleep  stand-          M AJOR.OMEBAL  PITZHUOH  LEE. 
ing  on  their  feet  with  their  rifles  in 

their  hands.  It  is  remarkable  that  during  the  four  days  the  Americans  lost  only 
six  killed  and  about  twenty  wounded.  The  Spaniards  suffered  a  loss  several  times 
as  great,  fifteen  of  them  having  been  found  by  the  Americans  dead  on  the  field. 
It  is  not  known  how  many  they  carried  away  or  how  many  were  wounded. 

THE    LANDING   OF   SHAFTER*S   ARMY. 

On  June  13th  troops  began  to  leave  Tampa  and  Key  West  for  operations 
against  Santiago,  and  on  June  20th  the  transports  bearing  them  arrived  off 


560 


THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 


city.  Two  days  later  General  Shatter  landed  his  army  of  16,000  soldiers  at 
Daiquiri,  a  short  distance  east  of  the  entrance  to  the  harbor,  with  the  loss  of 
only  two  men,  and  they  hy  accident.  Before  the  coming  of  the  troops  the 
Spanish  had  evacuated  the  village  of  Daiquiri,  which  is  a  little  inland  from  the 
anchorage  bearing  the  same  name,  and  set  fire  to  the  town,  blowing  up  two 
magazines  and  destroying  the  railroad  round-house  containing  several  locomotives. 
As  the  transports  neared  the  landing-place  Sampson's  ships  opened  fire  upon 
Juragua,  engaging  all  the  forts  for  about  six  miles  to  the  west.  This  was  done 
to  distract  the  attention  of  the  Spanish  from  the  landing  soldiers,  and  was 
entirely  successful.  After  the  forts  were  silenced  the  New  Orleans  and  several 

ininboats  shelled  the  woods   in  ad- 

O 

vance  of  the  landing  troops.  The 
soldiers  went  ashore  in  full  fighting 
trim,  each  man  carrying  thirty-six 
rations,  two  hundred  rounds  of  am 
munition  for  his  rifle,  and  a  shelter- 
tent. 

While  the  troops  were  landing 
at  Daiquiri,  the  battle-ship  Texas, 
hitherto  considered  as  an  unfortu 
nate  ship  by  the  attaches  of  the  navy, 
completely  changed  her  reputation 
and  distinguished  herself  by  assail 
ing  and  silencing,  unaided,  the. 
Spanish  battery  La  Socapa  at  Santi 
ago,  which  had  hitherto  withstood 
the  attacks  against  it,  though  all  the 
ships  of  Commodore  Schley's  com 
mand  had  twice  fiercely  bombarded 
it  without  result,  Captain  Philip 
and  his  men  were  complimented  in 
w:mn  terms  of  praise  by  Admiral  Sampson.  The  Texas  was  struck  but  once, 
and  that  by  the  last  shot  from  the  Spanish  fort,  killing  one  man  and  wounding 
eight  others,  seriously  damaging  the  ship. 

THE   VICTORY    OF   THE    ROUGH    RIDERS. 

On  June  24th  the  force  under  General  Shafter  reached  Juragua,  and  the 
battle  by  land  was  now  really  to  begin.  It  was  about  ten  miles  out  from  San 
tiago,  at  a  point  known  as  La  Guasima.  The  country  was  covered  with  high 
grass  and  chaparral,  and  in  this  and  on  the  wooded  hills  a  strong  force  of 


REAR-ADMIRAL   WILLIAM   T.  bAMPSON. 


AMERICANS  STORMING  SAN  JUAN   HILL 

The  most  dramatic  scene  and  most  destructive  battle  of  the  Spanish  War 


THE    VICTORY  OF  THE  ROUGH  RIDERS. 


561 


Spaniards  was  hidden.  Lieutenant-Colonel  Roosevelt's  Rough  Riders,  tech 
nically  known  as  the  First  Volunteer  Cavalry,  under  command  of  Colonel 
Wood,  were  in  the  fight,  and  it  is  to  their  bravery  and  dash  that  the  glory  of 
the  day  chiefly  belongs.  Troops  under  command  of  General  Young  had  been 
sent  out  in  advance,  with  the  Rough  Riders  on  his  flank.  There  were  about 
1,200  of  the  cavalry  in  all,  including  the  Rough  Riders  and  the  First  and 
Tenth  Regulars.  They  encountered  a  body  of  two  thousand  Spaniards  in  a 
thicket,  whom  they  fought  dismounted.  The  volunteers  were  especially  eager 
for  the  fight,  and,  perhaps  due  somewhat  to  their  own  imprudence,  were  led  into 
an  ambuscade,  as  perfect  as  was  ever 
planned  by  an  Indian.  The  main 
body  of  the  Spaniards  was  posted  on 
a  hill  approached  by  two  heavily 
wooded  slopes  and  fortified  by  two 
blockhouses,  flanked  by  intrench- 
ments  of  stones  and  fallen  trees.  At 
the  bottom  of  these  hills  run  two 
roads,  along  one  of  which  the  Rough 
Riders  marched,  and  along  the  other 
eight  troops  of  the  Eighth  and  Tenth 
Cavalry,  under  General  Young. 
These  roads  are  little  more  than  gul 
lies,  very  narrow,  and  at  places  al 
most  impassable.  Nearly  half  a 
mile  separated  Roosevelt's  men  from 
the  Regulars,  and  it  was  in  these 
trails  that  the  battle  began. 

For   an    hour   they   held  their 
position   in  the  midst  of  an  unseen 
force,  which  poured  a  perfect  hail  of 
bullets  upon  them  from  in  front  and  on  both  sides.     At  length,  seeing  that  their 
only  way  of  escape  was  by  dashing  boldly  at  the  hidden  foe,  Colonel  Wood  took 
command  on  the  right  of  his  column  of  Rough  Riders,  placing  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Roosevelt  at  the  feft,  and  thus,  with  a  rousing  yell,  they  led  their  soldi, 
in  a  rushing  charge  before  which  the  Spaniards  fled  from  the  hills  and 
torious  assailants  took  the  blockhouses.     The  Americans  had  sixteen  1 
fifty-two  wounded,  forty-two  of  the  casualties  occurring  to  the  Rough  Riders  an. 
twenty-six  amon*  the  Regulars.     It  is  estimated  that  the  Spanish  killed  were 

»  „.,    .  r* 11 i.1.  ^     A  v-w»/-k»«i  rtn  r>cj   HoorJ 

nearly  or  quite  one  hundred. 


THEODORE  ROOSEVELT. 


t  J-  L      JO      V.  O  L  A  J  J 

Thirty-seven  were  found  by  the  Americans  dead 


36 


562  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 

on  the  ground.     They  had  carried  off  their  wounded,  and  doubtless  thought 
they  had  taken  most  of  the  killed  away  also. 

PREPARING    FOR   THE   ASSAULT    UPON   SANTIAGO. 

The  victory  of  the  Rough  Riders  and  the  Regulars  at  La  Guasima,  though 
so  dearly  bought,  stimulated  the  soldiers  of  the  whole  army  with  the  spirit  of 
war  and  the  desire  for  an  opportunity  to  join  in  the  conquest.  They  had  not 
loner  to  wait.  The  advance  upon  Santiago  was  vigorously  prosecuted  on  the 
land  side,  while  the  ships  stood  guard  over  the  entrapped  Spanish  Admiral 
Cervera  in  the  harbor,  and,  anon,  shelled  every  fort  that  manifested  signs  of 
activity.  On  June  25th,  Sevilla,  within  sight  of  Santiago,  was  taken  by  General 
Chaffee,  and  an  advance  upon  the  city  was  planned  to  be  made  in  three  columns 
by  way  of  Altares,  Firmeza,  and  Juragua.  General  Garcia  with  5,000  Cuban 
insurgents  had  placed  himself  some  time  before  at  the  command  of  the  American 
leader.  On  the  28th  of  June  another  large  expedition  of  troops  was  landed,  so 
that  the  entire  force  under  General  Shafter,  including  the  Cuban  allies,  num 
bered  over  22,000  fighting  men. 

The  enemy  fell  back  at  all  points  until  the  right  of  the  American  column 
Tas  within  three  miles  of  Santiago,  and  by  the  end  of  June  the  two  armies  had 
well-defined  positions.  The  Spanish  intrenchments  extended  around  the  city, 
being  kept  at  a  distance  of  about  three  and  one-half  miles  from  the  corporation 
limits.  The  trenches  were  occupied  by  about  12,000  Spanish  soldiers,  and  there 
were  some  good  fortifications  along  the  line. 

It  was  the  policy  of  General  Shafter  to  distribute  his  forces  so  as  to  face 
this  entire  line  as  nearly  as  possible.  A  week  was  consumed,  after  the  landing 
was  completed,  in  making  these  arrangements  and  in  sending  forward  the 
artillery,  during  which  time  the  battle  of  La  Guasima,  referred  to,  with  some 
minor  affairs,  had  occurred.  Meantime  the  ships  of  Admiral  Sampson  had 
dragged  up  the  cables  and  connected  them  by  tap-wires  with  Shafter's  head 
quarters,  thus  establishing  communication  directly  with  Washington  from  the 
scene  of  battle. 

THE   BATTLES   OF   SAX    JUAN    AND    EL   CANEY. 

The  attack  began  July  1st,  involving  the  whole  Hue,  but  the  main  struggle 
occurred  opposite  the  left  centre  of  the  column  on  the  heights  of  San  Juan,  and 
the  next  greatest  engagement  was  on  the  right  of  the  American  line  at  the  little 
town  of  El  Caney.  These  two  points  are  several  miles  apart,  the  city  of  San 
tiago  occupying  very  nearly  the  apex  of  a  triangle  of  which  a  line  connecting 
these  two  positions  would  form  the  base.  John  R.  Church  thus  described  the 
battles  of  July  1st  and  2d : 


THE  BATTLES    OF  SAN  JUAN  AND   EL    CANEY.  563 

"  El  Caney  was  taken  by  General  Lawton's  men  after  a  sharp  contest  and 
severe  loss  on  both  sides.  Here  as  everywhere  there  were  blockhouses  and 
trenches  to  be  carried  in  the  face  of  a  hot  fire  from  Mauser  rifles,  and  the  rifles 
were  well  served.  The  jungle  must  disturb  the  aim  seriously,  for  our  men  did 
not  suffer  severely  while  under  its  cover,  but  in  crossing  clearings  the  rapid  fire 
of  the  repeating  rifles  told  with  deadly  effect.  The  object  of  the  attack  on  El 
Caney  was  to  crush  the  Spanish  lines  at  a  point  near  the  city  and  allow  us  to 
gain  a  high  hill  from  which  the  place  could  be  bombarded  if  necessary.  In  all 
of  this  we  were  entirely  successful.  The  engagement  began  at  6.40  A.  M.,  and 
by  4  o'clock  the  Spaniards  were  forced  to  abandon  the  place  and  retreat  toward 
their  lines  nearer  the  city.  The  fight  was  opened  by  Capron's  battery,  at  a 
range  of  2,400  yards,  and  the  troops  engaged  were  Chaffee's  brigade,  the 
Seventh,  Twelfth,  and  Seventeenth  Infantry,  who  moved  on  Caney  from  the 
east;  Colonel  Miles'  brigade  of  the  First,  Fourth,  and  Twenty-fifth  Infantry, 
operating  from  the  south;  while  Ludlow's  brigade,  containing  the  Eighth  and 
Twenty-second  Infantry  and  Second  Massachusetts,  made  a  detour  to  attack 
from  the  southwest.  The  Spanish  force  is  thought  to  have  been  1,500  to  2,000 
strong.  It  certainly  fought  our  men  for  nine  hours,  but  of  course  had  the 
advantage  of  a  fort  and  strong  intrench ments. 

"The  operations  of  our  centre  were  calculated  to  cut  the  communications 
of  Santiago  with  El  Morro  and  permit  our  forces  to  advance  to  the  bay,  and  the 
principal  effort  of  General  Linares,  the  Spanish  commander  in  the  field,  seems 
to  have  been  to  defeat  this  movement.  He  had  fortified  San  Juan  strongly, 
throwing  up  on  it  intrenchments  that  in  the  hands  of  a  more  determined  force 
would  have  been  impregnable. 

"  The  battle  of  San  Juan  was  opened  by  Grimes'  battery,  to  which  the 
enemy  replied  with  shrapnell.  The  cavalry,  dismounted,  supported  by  Haw- 
kins'  brigade,  advanced  up  the  valley  from  the  hill  of  El  Pozo,  forded  several 
streams,  where  they  lost  heavily,  and  deployed  at  the  foot  of  the  series  of  hills 
known  as  San  Juan  under  a  sharp  fire  from  all  sides,  which  was  exceedingly 
annoying  because  the  enemy  could  not  be  discerned,  owing  to  the  long  range 
and  smokeless  powder.  They  were  under  fire  for  two  hours  before  the  charge 
could  be  made  and  a  position  reached  under  the  brow  of  the  hill.  It  was  not 
until  nearly  4  o'clock  that  the  neighboring  hills  were  occupied  by  our  troops 
and  the  final  successful  effort  to  crown  the  ridge  could  be  made.  The  obstacles 
interposed  by  the  Spaniards  made  these  charges  anything  but  the  'rushes' 
which  war  histories  mention  so  often.  They  were  slow  and  painful  advances 
through  difficult  obstacles  and  a  withering  fire.  The  last  'charge'  continued 
an  hour,  but  at  4.45  the  firing  ceased,  with  San  Juan  in  our  possession. 

"  The  Spaniards  made  liberal  use  of  barbed-wire  fencing,  which  proved  to 

\ 


564  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 

be  so  effective  as  a  stop  to  our  advance  that  it  is  likely  to  take  its  place  among 
approved  defensive  materials  in  future  wars.  It  was  used  in  two  ways:  Wires 
were  stretched  near  the  ground  to  trip  up  our  men  when  on  the  run.  Beyond 
them  were  fences  in  parallel  lines,  some  being  too  high  to  be  vaulted  over. 

"The  object  of  our  attack  was  a  blockhouse  on  the  top  of  the  hill  of  San 
Juan,  guarded  by  trenches  and  the  defenses  spoken  of,  a  mile  and  a  half  long. 
Our  troops  advanced  steadily  against  a  hot  fire  maintained  by  the  enemy,  who 
used  their  rifles  with  accuracy,  but  did  not  cling  to  their  works  stubbornly  when 
we  reached  them.  San  Juan  was  carried  in  the  afternoon.  The  attack  on 
Aguadorea  was  also  successful,  though  it  was  not  intended  to  be  more  than  a 
feint  to  draw  off  men  who  might  otherwise  have  increased  our  difficulties  at  San 
Juan.  By  nightfall  General  Shatter  was  able  to  telegraph  that  he  had  carried 
all  the  outworks  and  was  within  three-quarters  of  a  mile  of  the  city. 

"Though  the  enemy's  lines  were  broken  in  the  principal  places,  they 
yielded  no  more  than  was  forced  from  them,  and  the  battle  was  resumed  on  the 
2d.  The  last  day  saw  our  left  flank  resting  on  the  bay  and  our  lines  drawn 
around  the  city  within  easy  gun-fire.  Fears  were  entertained  that  the  enemy 
would  evacuate  the  place,  and  the  right  flank  was  pushed  around  to  the  north 
and  eventually  to  the  northwest  of  the  city." 

In  the  fight  at  San  Juan  General  Linares,  commanding  the  Spanish  forces 
in  Santiago,  was  severely  wounded,  and  transferred  the  command  to  General 
Jose  Toral,  second  in  authority. 

THE  DESTRUCTION    OF    CERVERA?S    FLEET. 

During  the  previous  two  days'  fight  by  land  the  fleet  of  Admiral  Cervera 
in  Santiago  harbor  had  taken  an  active  part  in  shelling  our  positions,  with  no 
inconsiderable  effect;  and  General  Shafter,  largely  on  this  account,  had  about 
despaired  of  taking  the  city,  with  the  force  at  his  command.  In  fact,  he  went 
so  far  on  the  morning  of  July  3d  as  to  telegraph  Washington  that  his  losses 
had  been  greatly  underestimated,  that  he  met  with  stronger  resistance  than 
he  had  anticipated,  and  was  seriously  considering  falling  back  to  a  position  five 
miles  to  the  rear  to  await  reinforcements.  He  was  also  anxious  for  an  interview 
with  Admiral  Sampson.  The  fleet  had  been  shelling  the  enemy  during  the  two 
days'  fight,  but  it  was  necessary  that  the  navy  and  army  should  have  an  under 
standing;  and  at  8.30  o'clock  on  Sunday  morning  Admiral  Sampson  with  his 
flagship  New  York  steamed  eastward  for  the  purpose  of  conferring  with  the 
general. 

General  Miles  telegraphed  General  Shafter,  in  response  to  his  request  to 
hold  his  position,  that  he  would  be  with  him  in  a  week  with  strong  reinforce 
ments;  and  he  promptly  started  two  expeditions,  aggregating  over  6,000  men, 


THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  CERVERA' S  FLEFT. 


565 


which  reached  Santiago  on  the  8th  and  10th  respectively,  in  time  to  witness  the 
closing  engagements  and  surrender  of  the  city.  But  fortune  again  favored  our 
cause  and  completely  changed  the  situation,  unexpectedly  to  the  American  com 
manders  of  the  land  and  naval  forces. 

It  was  on  Sunday  morning,  July  3d,  just  before  Sampson  landed  to  meet 
Shafter,  that  Admiral  Cervera,  in  obedience  to  commands  from  his  home 
government,  endeavored  to  run  his  fleet  past  the  blockading  squadron  of  the 
Americans,  with  the  result  that  all  of  his  ships  were  destroyed,  nearly  500  of 
his  men  killed  and  wounded,  and  himself  and  about  1,300  others  were  made 
prisoners.  This  naval  engagement 
was  one  of  the  most  dramatic  and 
terrible  in  all  the  history  of  conflict 
upon  the  seas,  and,  as  it  was  really 
the  beginning  of  the  end  of  what 
promised  to  be  a  long  and  terrible 
struggle,  it  was  undoubtedly  the  most 
important  battle  of  the  war. 

It  had  been  just  one  month,  to 
a  day,  since  Hobson  sunk  the  Merri- 
mac  at  the  harbor's  mouth  to  keep 
Cervera  in,  and  for  nearly  one  month 
and  a  half  the  fleets  of  Schley  and 
Sampson  had  lain,  like  watch-dogs 
before  the  gate,  without  for  one  mo 
ment  relaxing  their  vigilance.  The 
quiet  of  Sunday  morning  brooded  over 
the  scene.  Even  the  winds  seemed 
resting  from  their  labors  and  the  sea 
lay  smooth  as  glass.  For  two  days 
before,  July  1st  and  2d,  the  fleets 
had  bombarded  the  forts  of  Santiago 
for  the  fourth  time,  and  all  the  ships,  except  the  Oregon,  had  steam  down  so 
low  as  to  allow  them  a  speed  of  only  five  knots  an  hour.  At  half-past  nine 
o'clock  the  bugler  sounded  the  call  to  quarters,  and  the  Jackies  appeared  on 
deck  rigged  in  their  cleanest  clothes  for  their  regular  Sunday  inspection.  On 
board  the  Texas  the  devout  Captain  Philip  had  sounded  the  trumpet-call  to  re 
ligious  services.  In  an  instant  a  line  of  smoke  was  seen  coming  out  of  the 
harbor  by  the  watch  on  the  Iowa,  and  from  that  vessel's  yard  a  signal  was  run 
up — "The  enemy  is  escaping  to  the  westward."  Simultaneously,  from  her 
bridge  a  six-pounder  boomed  on  the  still  air  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  other 


REAR-ADMIRAL  WINFIELD  SCOTT  SCHLEY. 


566  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 

ships  to  her  fluttering  signal.  On  every  vessel  white  masses  were  seen  scram 
bling  forward.  Jackies  and  firemen  tumbled  over  one  another  rushing  to  their 
stations.  Officers  jumped  into  the  turrets  through  manholes,  dressed  in  their 
best  uniforms,  and  captains  rushed  to  their  conning  towers.  There  was  no  time 
to  waste — scarcely  enough  to  get  the  battle-hatches  screwed  on  tight.  Jingle, 
jingle,  went  the  signal-bells  in  the  engine-rooms,  and  "Steam!  Steam!"  the  cap 
tains  cried  through  the  tubes.  Far  below  decks,  in  125  to  150  degrees  of  heat, 
naked  men  shoveled  in  the  black  coal  and  forced  drafts  were  put  on. 

One  minute  after  the  Iowa  fired  her  signal-gun  she  was  moving  toward  the 
harbor.  From  under  the  Castle  of  Morro  came  Admiral  Cervera's  flagship,  the 
Infanta  Maria  Teresa,  followed  by  her  sister  armored  cruisers,  Almirante 
Oquendo  and  Vizcaya — so  much  alike  that  they  could  not  be  distinguished  at 
any  distance.  There  was  also  the  splendid  Cristobal  Colon,  and  after  them  all 
the  two  fine  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  Pinion  and  Furor.  The  Teresa  opened 
fire  as  she  sighted  the  American  vessels,  as  did  all  of  her  companions,  and  the 
forts  from  the  heights  belched  forth  at  the  same  time.  Countless  geysers  around 
our  slowly  approaching  battle-ships  showed  where  the  Spanish  shells  exploded  in 
the  water.  The  Americans  replied.  The  battle  was  on,  but  at  a  long  range  of 
two  or  three  miles,  so  that  the  secondary  batteries  could  not  be  called  into  use ; 
but  thirteen-inch  shells  from  the  Oregon  and  Indiana  and  the  twelve-inch  shells 
from  the  Texas  and  Iowa  were  churning  up  the  water  around  the  enemy.  At 
-this  juncture  it  seemed  impossible  for  the  Americans  to  head  off  the  Spanish 
cruisers  from  passing  the  western  point,  for  they  had  come  out  of  the  harbor  at 
a  speed  of  thirteen  and  one-half  knots  an  hour,  for  which  the  blockading  fleet 
was  not  prepared.  But  Admiral  Sampson's  instructions  were  simple  and  well 
understood — "Should  the  enemy  come  out,  close  in  and  head  him  off" — and 
every  ship  was  now  endeavoring  to  obey  that  standing  command  while  they 
piled  on  coal  and  steamed  up. 

Meanwhile  the  New  York  was  far  away  to  the  eastward,  and  the  direction 
of  affairs  was  left  to  Commodore  Schley.  The  exciting  news  was  sent  in  all 
haste  to  Admiral  Sampson,  and  the  flagship  sped  swiftly  back,  but  reached  the 
scene  too  late  to  take  part  in  the  stirring  event. 

It  was  not  until  the  leading  Spanish  cruiser  had  almost  reached  the  western 
point  of  the  bay,  and  when  it  was  evident  that  Cervera  was  leading  his  entire 
fleet  in  one  direction,  that  the  battle  commenced  in  its  fury.  The  Iowa  and 
the  Oregon  headed  straight  for  the  shore,  intending  to  ram  if  possible  one  or 
more  of  the  Spaniards.  The  Indiana  and  the  Texas  were  following,  and  the 
Brooklyn,  in  the  endeavor  to  cut  off  the  advance  ship,  was  headed  straight  for 
the  western  point.  The  little  unprotected  Gloucester  steamed  right  across  the 
harbor  mouth  and  engaged  the  Oquendo  at  closer  range  than  any  of  the  other 


DESTRUCTION  OF  CERVERA'S  FLEET. 


667 


ships,  at  the  same  time  firing  on  the  Furor  and    Pluton,  which  were  rapidly 
approaching. 

It  then  became  apparent  that  the  Oregon  and  Iowa  could  not  ram,  and  that 
the  Brooklyn  could  not  head  them  off,  as  she  had  hoped,  and,  turning  in  a 
parallel  course  with  them,  a  running  fight  ensued.  Broadside  after  broadside 
came  fast  with  terrific  slaughter.  The  rapid-fire  guns  of  the  Iowa  nearest  the 
Teresa  enveloped  the  former  vessel  in  a  mantle  of  smoke  and  flame.  She  was 
followed  by  the  Oregon,  Indiana,  Texas,  and  Brooklyn,  all  pouring  a  rain  of 
red-hot  steel  and  exploding  shell  into  the  fleeing  cruisers  as  they  passed  along  in 
their  desperate  effort  to  escape.  The 
Furor  and  Pluton  dashed  like  mad 
colts  for  the  Brooklyn,  and  Commo 
dore  Schley  signaled — "Repel  tor 
pedo-destroyers."  Some  of  the  heavy 
ships  turned  'their  guns  upon  the 
little  monsters.  It  was  short  work. 
Clouds  of  black  smoke  rising  from 
their  thin  sides  showed  how  seriously 
they  suffered  as  they  floundered  in 
the  sea. 

The  Brooklyn  and  Oregon 
dashed  on  after  the  cruisers,  fol 
lowed  by  the  other  big  ships,  leaving, 
the  Furor  and  Pluton  to  the  Glou 
cester,  hoping  the  New  York,  which 
was  coming  in  the  distance,  would 
arrive  in  time  to  help  her  out  if  she 
needed  it.  The  firing  from  the  main 
and  second  batteries  of  all  the  bat 
tle-ships —  Oregon,  Iowa,  Texas — and 
the  cruiser  Brooklyn  was  turned  upon 
the  Vizcaya,  Teresa,  and  Oquendo  with  such  terrific  broadsides  and  accuracy  of 
aim  that  the  Spaniards  were  driven  from  their  guns  repeatedly;  but  the  officers 
gave  the  men  liquor  and  drove  them  back,  beating  and  sometimes  shooting  down 
those  who  weakened,  without  mercy ;  but  under  the  terrific  fire  of  the  Americans 
the  poor  wretches  were  again  driven  away  or  fell  mangled  by  their  guns  or 
stunned  from  the  concussions  of  the  missiles  on  the  sides  of  their  ships. 

Presently  flames  and  smoke  burst  out  from  the  Teresa  arid  the  Oquendo. 
The  fire  leaped  from  the  port-holes ;  and  amid  the  din  of  battle  and  above  it  all 
rose  the  wild  cheers  of  the  Americans  as  both  these  splendid  ships  slowly  reeled 


REAR-ADMIRAL  JOHN   C.    WATSON. 

Commander  of  the  Blockading  Fleet  at  Havana. 


568  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 

like  drunken  men  and  headed  for  the  shore.  "They  are  on  fire!  We've  finished 
them,"  shouted  the  gunners.  Down  came  the  Spanish  flags.  The  news  went 
all  over  the  ships — it  being  commanded  by  Commodore  Schley  to  keep  every 
one  informed,  even  those  far  below  in  the  fire-rooms — and  from  engineers  and 
firemen  in  the  hot  bowels  of  the  great  leviathans  to  the  men  in  the  fighting-tops 
the  welkin  rang  until  the  ships  reverberated  with  exuberant  cheers. 

This  was  10.20  A.  M.  Previously,  the  two  torpedo  boats  had  gone  down, 
and  only  two  dozen  of  their  140  men  survived,  these  having  been  picked  up  by 
the  Gloucester,  which  plucky  little  unprotected  "dare-devil,"  not  content  with 
the  destruction  she  had  courted  and  escaped  only  as  one  of  the  unexplainable 
mysteries  of  Spanish  gunnery,  was  coming  up  to  join  the  chase  after  bigger 
game ;  and  it  was  to  Lieutenant  Wainwright,  her  commander,  that  Admiral 
Cervera  surrendered.  The  Maine  ivas  avenged.  (Lieutenant  Wainwright  was 
executive  officer  on  that  ill-fated  vessel  when  she  was  blowrn  up  February  15th.) 
Cervera  was  wounded,  hatless,  and  almost  naked  when  he  was  taken  on  board 
the  Gloucester.  Lieutenant  Wainwright  cordially  saluted  him  and  grasped  him 
by  the  hand,  saying,  "I  congratulate  you,  Admiral  Cervera,  upon  as  gallant  a 
fight  as  was  ever  made  upon  the  sea."  He  placed  his  cabin  at  the  service  of 
Cervera  and  his  officers,  while  his  surgeon  dressed  their  wounds  and  his  men 
did  all  they  could  for  their  comfort — Wainwright  supplying  the  admiral  with 
clothing.  Cervera  was  overcome  with  emotion,  and  the  face  of  the  old  gray- 
bearded  warrior  was  suffused  in  tears.  The  Iowa  and  Indiana  came  up  soon 
after  the  Gloucester  and  assisted  in  the  rescue  of  the  drowning  Spaniards  from 
the  Oquendo  and  Teresa,  after  which  they  all  hurried  on  after  the  vanishing 
Brooklyn  and  Oregon,  which  were  pursuing  the  Vizcaya  and  Colon,  the  only 
two  remaining  vessels  of  Cervera's  splendid  fleet.  From  pursuer  and  pursued 
the  smoke  rose  in  volumes  and  the  booming  guns  over  the  waters  sang  the  song 
of  destruction. 

In  twenty-four  minutes  after  the  sinking  of  the  Teresa  and  Oquendo,  the 
Vizcaya,  riddled  by  the  Oregon's  great  shells  and  burning  fiercely,  hauled  down 
her  flag  and  headed  for  the  shore,  where  she  hung  upon  the  rocks.  In  a  dying 
effort  she  had  tried  to  ram  the  Brooklyn,  but  the  fire  of  the  big  cruiser  was  too 
hot  for  her.  The  Texas  and  the  little  Vixen  were  seen  to  be  about  a  mile  to  the 
rear,  and  the  Vizcaya  was  left  to  them  and  the  loiva,  the  latter  staying  by  her 
finally,  while  the  Texas  and  Vixen  followed  on. 

It  looked  like  a  forlorn  hope  to  catch  the  Colon.  She  was  four  and  one- 
half  miles  away.  But  the  Brooklyn  and  the  Oregon  were  running  like  express 
trains,  and  the  Texas  sped  after  the  fugitives  with  all  her  might.  The  chase 
lasted  two  hours.  Firing  ceased,  and  every  power  of  the  ship  and  the  nerve  of 
commodore,  captains,  and  officers  were  devoted  to  increasing  the  speed.  Men 


DESTRUCTION  OF  CERVERXS  FLEET.  569 

from  the  guns,  naked  to  the  waist  and  perspiring  in  streams,  were  called  on  deck 
for  rest  and  an  airing.  It  was  a  grimy  and  dirty  but  jolly  set  of  Jackies,  and 
jokes  were  merrily  cracked  as  they  sped  on  and  waited.  Only  the  men  in  the 
fire-rooms  were  working  as  never  before.  It  was  their  battle  now,  a  battle  of 
speed.  At  12.30  it  was  seen  the  Americans  were  gaining.  Cheers  went  up  and 
all  was  made  ready.  "  We  may  wing  that  fellow  yet,"  said  Commodore  Schley, 
as  he  commanded  Captain  Clark  to  try  a  big  thirteen-inch  shell.  "Remember 
the  Maine"  was  flung  out  on  a  pennant  from  the  mast-head  of  the  Oregon,  and 
at  8,500  yards  she  began  to  send  her  1,000-pound  shots  shrieking  over  the 
Brooklyn  after  the  flying  Spaniard.  One  threw  tons  of  water  on  board  the 
fugitive,  and  the  Brooklyn  a  few  minutes  later  with  eight-inch  guns  began  to 
pelt  her  sides.  Everyone  expected  a  game  fight  from  the  proud  and  splendid 
Colon  with  her  smokeless  powder  and  rapid-fire  guns;  but  all  were  surprised 
when,  after  a  feeble  resistance,  at  1.15  o'clock  her  captain  struck  his  colors  and 
ran  his  ship  ashore  sixty  miles  from  Santiago,  opening  her  sea-valves  to  sink 
her  after  she  had  surrendered. 

Victory  was  at  last  complete.  As  the  Brooklyn  and  Oregon  moved  upon 
the  prey  word  of  the  surrender  was  sent  below,  and  naked  men  poured  out  of 
the  fire-rooms,  black  with  smoke  and  dirt  and  glistening  with  perspiration,  but 
wild  with  joy.  Commodore  Schley  gazed  down  at  the  grimy,  gruesome,  joyous 
firemen  with  glistening  eyes  suspicious  of  tears,  and  said,  in  a  husky  voice, 
eloquent  with  emotion,  "  Those  are  the  fellows  who  made  this  day"  Then  he 
signaled — "The  enemy  has  surrendered."  The  Texas,  five  miles  to  the  east, 
repeated  the  signal  to  Admiral  Sampson  some  miles  further  away,  coming  at  top 
speed  of  the  New  York.  Next  the  commodore  signaled  the  admiral — "  A 
glorious  victory  has  been  achieved.  Details  communicated  later."  And  then,  to 
all  the  ships,  "  This  is  a  great  day  for  our  country"  all  of  which  were  repeated 
by  the  Texas  to  the  ships  further  east,  The  cheering  was  wild.  Such  a  scene 
was  never,  perhaps,  witnessed  upon  the  ocean.  Admiral  Sampson  arrived  before 
the  Colon  sank,  and  placing  the  great  nose'of  the  New  York  against  that  vessel 
pushed  her  into  shallow  water,  where  she  sank,  but  was  not  entirely  submerged. 
Thus  perished  from  the  earth  the  bulk  of  the  sea  power  of  Spain. 

The  Spanish  losses  were  1,800  men  killed,  wounded,  and  made  prisoners, 
and  six  ships  destroyed  or  sunk,  the  property  loss  being  about  $12,000,000. 
The  American  loss  was  one  man  killed  and  three  wounded,  all  from  the  Brooklyn, 
a  result  little  short  of  a  miracle  from  the  fact  that  the  Brooklyn  was  hit  thirty- 
six  times,  and  nearly  all  the  ships  were  struck  more  than  once. 

The  prisoneis  were  treated  with  the  utmost  courtesy.  Many  of  them  were 
taken  or  rescued  entirely  naked,  and  scores  of  them  were  wounded.  Their  be 
havior  was  manly  and  their  fortitude  won  the  admiration  of  their  captors. 


570 


THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 


Whatever  may  be  said  of  Spanish  marksmanship,  there  is  no  discount  on  Spanish 
courage.  After  a  short  detention  Cervera  and  his  captured  sailors  were  sent 
north  to  New  Hampshire  and  thence  to  Annapolis,  where  they  were  held  until 
released  by  order  of  President  McKinley,  August  olst. 

THREATENED    BOMBARDMENT    OF   SANTIAGO    AND  FLIGHT    OF    THE  REFUGEES. 

On  July  3d,  while  the  great  naval  duel  was  in  progress  upon  the  sea, 
General  Shafter  demanded  the  surrender  of  Santiago  upon  pain  of  bombard 
ment.  The  demand  was  refused  by  General  Toral,  who  commanded  the  forces 

after  the  wounding  of  General  Lin 
ares.  General  Shafter  stated  that 
he  would  postpone  the  bombardment 
until  noon  of  July  5th  to  allow 
foreigners  and  non-combatants  to 
get  out  of  the  city,  and  he  urged 
General  Toral  in  the  name  of  hu 
manity  to  use  his  influence  and  aid 
to  facilitate  the  rapid  departure  of 
unarmed  citizens  and  foreigners. 
Accordingly  late  in  the  afternoon  of 
July  4th  General  Toral  posted  no 
tices  upon  the  walls  of  Santiago 
advising  all  women,  children,  and 
non-combatants  that  between  five 
and  nine  o'clock  on  the  morning  of 
the  5th  they  might  pass  out  by  any 
gate  of  the  city,  all  pilgrims  going  on 
foot,  no  carriages  being  allowed,  and 
stating  that  stretchers  would  be  pro 
vided  for  the  crippled. 

Promptly  at  five  o'clock  on  the 
following  morning  a  great  line  of  pilgrims  wound  out  of  Santiago.  It  was  no 
rabble,  but  well-behaved  crowds  of  men  and  women,  with  great  droves  of  chil 
dren.  About  four  hundred  persons  were  carried  out  on  litters.  Many  of  the 
poorer  women  wore  large  crucifixes  and  some  entered  El  Caney  telling  their 
beads.  But  there  were  many  not  so  fortunate  as  to  reach  the  city.  Along  the 
highroads  in  all  directions  thousands  of  families  squatted  entirely  without  food 
or  shelter,  and  many  deaths  occurred  among  them.  The  Red  Cross  Society  did 
much  to  relieve  the  suffering,  but  it  lacked  means  of  transporting  supplies  to 
the  front. 


MAJOR-GENERAL   WILLIAM  R.  SHAFTER. 


THE  LAST  BATTLE. 


571 


While  the  flag  of  truce  was  still  flying  on  the  morning  of  July  6th  a  com 
munication  was  received  from  General  Toral,  requesting  that  the  time  of  truce 
be  further  extended,  as  he  wanted  to  communicate  again  with  the  Spanish 
government  at  Madrid  concerning  the  surrender  of  the  city;  and,  further,  that 
the  cable  operators,  who  were  Englishmen  and  had  fled  to  El  Caney  with  the 
refugees,  be  returned  to  the  city  that  he  might  do  so.  General  Shafter  extended 
the  truce  until  four  o'clock  on  Sunday,  July  10th,  and  the  operators  returned 
from  El  Caney  to  work  the  wires  for  General  Toral.  During  all  this  time  the 
refugees  continued  to  throng  the  roads  to  Siboney  and  El  Caney,  until  20,000 
fugitives  were  congregated  at  the 
two  points.  It  is  a  disgraceful  fact, 
however,  that  while  this  truce  was 
granted  at  the  request  of  the  Spanish 
general,  it  was  taken  advantage  of 
by  the  troops  under  him  to  loot  the 
city.  Both  Cuban  and  Spanish 
families  suffered  from  their  rapacity. 

THE   LAST    BATTLE    AND    THE    SUR 
RENDER    OF    THE    CITY. 

On  July  8th  and  10th  the  two 
expeditions  of  General  Miles  arrived, 
reinforcing  General  Shafter's  army 
with  over  6,000  men.  General 
Toral  was  acquainted  with  the  fact 
of  their  presence,  and  General  Miles 
urgently  impressed  upon  him  that 
further  resistance  could  but  result  in 
a  useless  loss  of  life.  The  Spanish 
commander  replied  that  he  had  not 
received  permission  to  surrender, 
and  if  the  Americans  would  not  wait  longer  he  could  only  obey  orders  of 
his  government,  and  that  he  and  his  men  would  die  fighting.  Accordingly  a 
joint  bombardment  by  the  army  and  navy  was  begun.  The  artillery  reply 
of  the  Spaniards  was  feeble  and  spiritless,  though  our  attack  on  the  city  was 
chiefly  with  artillery.  They  seemed  to  depend  most  upon  their  small  arms, 
and  returned  the  volleys  fired  from  the  trenches  vigorously.  Our  lines  were 
elaborately  protected  with  over  22,000  sand-bags,  while  the  Spaniards  were 
protected  *  with  bamboo  poles  filled  with  earth.  In  this  engagement  the 
dynamite  gun  of  the  Eough  Riders  did  excellent  service,  striking  the  enemy's 


MAJOR-GENERAL  NELSON  A.  MILES. 


572  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 

trenches  and  blowing  field-pieces  into  the  air.  The  bombardment  continued 
until  the  afternoon  of  the  second  day,  when  a  flag  of  truce  was  displayed  over 
the  city.  It  was  thought  that  General  Toral  was  about  to  surrender,  but 
instead  he  only  asked  more  time. 

On  the  advice  of  General  Miles,  General  Shafter  consented  to  another 
truce,  and,  at  last,  on  July  14th,  after  an  interview  with  Generals  Miles  and 
Shafter,  in  which  he  agreed  to  give  up  the  city  on  condition  that  the  army 
would  be  returned  to  Spain  at  the  expense  of  America,  General  Toral  surren 
dered.  On  July  16th  the  agreement,  with  the  formal  approval  of  the  Madrid 
and  Washington  governments,  was  signed  in  duplicate  by  the  commissioners, 
each  side  retaining  a  copy.  This  event  was  accepted  throughout  the  world  as- 
marking  the  end  of  the  Spanish-American  War. 

The  conditions  of  the  surrender  involved  the  following  points: 

"  (1)  The  20,000  refugees  at  El  Caney  and  Siboney  to  be  sent  back  to  the 
city.  (2)  An  American  infantry  patrol  to  be  posted  on  the  roads  surrounding 
the  city  and  in  the  country  between  it  and  the  American  cavalry.  (3)  Our 
hospital  corps  to  give  attention,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  sick  and  wounded 
Spanish  soldiers  in  Santiago.  (4)  All  the  Spanish  troops  in  the  province, 
except  ten  thousand  men  at  Holguin,  under  command  of  General  Luque,  to- 
come  into  the  city  and  surrender.  (5)  The  guns  and  defenses  of  the  city  to  be 
turned  over  to  the  Americans  in  good  condition.  (6)  The  Americans  to  have 
full  use  of  the  Juragua  Railroad,  which  belongs  to  the  Spanish  government, 
(7)  The  Spaniards  to  surrender  their  arms.  (8)  All  the  Spaniards  to  be  con 
veyed  to  Spain  on  board  of  American  transports  with  the  least  possible  delay, 
and  be  permitted  to  take  portable  church  property  with  them." 

TAKING    POSSESSION    OF    SANTIAGO    AND    RAISING    THE   AMERICAN   FLAG. 

The  formality  of  taking  possession  of  the  city  yet  remained  to  be  done. 
To  that  end,  immediately  after  the  signing  of  the  agreement  by  the  commis 
sioners,  General  Shafter  notified  General  Toral  that  he  would  formally  receive 
his  surrender  of  the  city  the  next  day,  Sunday,  July  17th,  at  nine  o'clock  in  the 
morning.  Accordingly  at  about  8.30  A.  M.,  Sunday,  General  Shafter,  accom 
panied  by  the  commander  of  the  American  army,  General  Nelson  A.  Miles, 
Generals  Wheeler  and  Lawton,  and  several  officers,  walked  slowly  down  the 
hill  to  the  road  leading  to  Santiago.  Under  the  great  mango  tree  which  had 
witnessed  all  the  negotiations,  General  Toral,  in  full  uniform,  accompanied  by 
200  Spanish  officers,  met  the  Americans.  After  a  little  ceremony  in  military 
manoeuvring,  the  two  commanding  generals  faced  each  other,  and  General  Toral,. 
speaking  in  Spanish,  said  : 


GENERAL  SH AFTER' S  ANNOUNCEMENT  OF  THE    VICTORY.     573 


"Through  fate  I  am  forced  to  surrender  to  General  Shatter,  of  the  American 
army,  the  city  and  the  strongholds  of  the  city  of  Santiago." 

General  ToraPs  voice  trembled  with  emotion  as  lie  spoke  the  words  giving 
up  the  town  to  his  victorious  enemy.  As. he  finished  speaking  the  Spanish 
officers  presented  arms. 

General  Shatter,  in  reply,  said : 

"I  receive  the  city  in  the  name  of  the  government  of  the  United  States." 

The  officers  of  the  Spanish  general  then  wheeled  about,  presenting  arms, 
and  General  Shatter,  with  the  American  officers,  cavalry  and  infantry,  chosen 
for  the  occasion,  passed  into  the  city 
and  on  to  the  governor's  palace, 
where  a  crowd,  numbering  3,000 
persons,  had  gathered.  As  the  great 
bell  in  the  tower  of  the  cathedral 
nearby  gave  the  first  stroke  of  twelve 
o'clock  the  American  flag  was  run  up 
from  the  flag-pole  on  the  palace,  and 
as  it  floated  to  the  breeze  all  hats 
were  removed  by  the  spectators, 
while  the  soldiers  presented  arms. 
As  the  cathedral  bell  tolled  the  last 
stroke  of  the  hour  the  military  band 
began  to  play  "The  Star-Spangled 
Banner,"  which  was  followed  by 
"Three  Cheers  for  the  Red,  White, 
and  Blue."  The  cheering  of  the 
soldiers  were  joined  by  more  than 
half  of  the  people,  who  seemed 
greatly  pleased  and  yelled  "Viva 
los  Americanos."  The  soldiers  along 
almost  the  whole  of  the  American  line  could  see  and  had  watched  with  alter 
nating  silence  and  cheers  the  entire  proceeding. 

GENERAL    SHAFTER?S    ANNOUNCEMENT    OF    THE    VICTORY. 

Having  assigned  soldiers  to  patrol  and  preserve  order  within  the  city, 
General  Shatter  and  his  staff  returned  to  their  quarters  at  camp,  and  the  victor 
ious  commander,  who  two  weeks  before  was  almost  disheartened,  sent  a  dispatch 
announcing  the  formal  surrender  of  Santiago.  It  was  the  first  dispatch  of  the 
kind  received  at  Washington  from  a  foreign  country  for  more  than  fifty  years. 
The  following  extract  from  General  Shatter's  telegram  sums  up  the  situation : 


GENERAL  JOSEPH  WHEELER. 


574  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 

"I  have  the  honor  to  announce  that  the  American  flag  has  been  this 
instant,  12  noon,  hoisted  over  the  house  of  the  civil  government  in  the  city  of 
Santiago.  An  immense  concourse  of  people  was  present,  a  squadron  of  cavalry 
and  a  regiment  of  infantry  presenting  arms,  and  a  band  playing  national  airs. 
A  light  battery  fired  a  salute  of  twenty-one  guns. 

"Perfect  order  is  being  maintained  by  the  municipal  government.  The 
distress  is  very  great,  but  there  is  little  sickness  in  town,  and  scarcely  any 
yellow  fever. 

"A  small  gunboat  and  about  200  seamen  left  by  Cervera  have  surrendered 
to  me.  Obstructions  are  being  removed  from  the  mouth  of  the  harbor. 

"Upon  coming  into  the  city  I  discovered  a  perfect  entanglement  of 
defenses.  Fighting  as  the  Spaniards  did  the  first  day,  it  would  have  cost  five 
thousand  lives  to  have  taken  it. 

"Battalions  of  Spanish  troops  have  been  depositing  arms  since  daylight  in 
the  armory,  over  which  I  have  a  guard.  General  Toral  formally  surrendered 
the  plaza  and  all  stores  at  9  A.  M.  About  7,000  rifles,  600,000  cartridges,  and 
many  fine  modern  guns  were  given  up. 

"This  important  victory,  with  its  substantial  fruits  of  conquest,  was  won 
by  a  loss  of  1,593  men  killed,  wounded,  and  missing.  Lawton,  who  had  the 
severe  fighting  around  El  Caney,  lost  410  men.  Kent  lost  859  men  in  the  still 
more  severe  assault  on  San  Juan  and  the  other  conflicts  of  the  centre.  The 
cavalry  lost  285  men,  many  of  whom  fell  at  El  Caney,  and  the  feint  at  Agua- 
dores  cost  thirty-seven  men.  One  man  of  the  Signal  Corps  was  killed  and  one 
wounded.  Trying  as  it  is  to  bear  the  casualties  of  the  first  fight,  there  can  be 
\o  doubt  that  in  a  military  sense  our  success  was  not  dearly  won." 

Thus  within  less  than  thirty  days  from  the  time  Shafter's  army  landed 
upon  Cuban  soil  he  had  received  the  surrender  not  only  of  the  city  of  Santiago, 
but  nearly  the  whole  of  the  province  of  that  name— or  about  one-tenth  of  the 
entire  island. 

THE    WAR    IN    PORTO    RICO. 

It  was  General  Miles'  original  plan  after  establishing  a  blockade  of  Cuban 
ports  to  open  the  war  in  Porto  Rico,  and  make  no  general  invasion  of  Cuba 
during  the  sickly  season,  but  the  enclosure  of  Cervera's  fleet  in  the  harbor  of 
Santiago  changed  the  conditions  and  made  it  necessary  to  move  a  military  force 
to  that  point  before  going  elsewhere. 

Now  that  Santiago  had  surrendered,  according  to  the  original  plan  of 
General  Miles,  the  attention  of  the  army  and  navy  was  again  turned  to  Porto 
Rico,  and  the  work  of  fitting  out  expeditions  to  that  island  was  begun  at  once. 
There  were  three  expeditions  sent.  The  first  under  General  Miles  sailed  from 


THE    WAR  IN  PORTO  RICO.  575 

Guantanamo  Bay,  Cuba,  July  21st;  the  second  under  General  Ernst  on  the  same 
day  sailed  from  Charleston,  S.  C. ;  the  third  under  General  Brooke  embarked  at 
Newport  News  on  July  26th.  All  of  these  expeditions,  aggregating  about 
11,000  men,  were  convoyed  by  war-ships,  and  successfully  landed.  The  first, 
under  General  Miles,  reached  Guanica  at  daylight  on  July  25th,  where  a 
Spanish  force  attempted  to  resist  their  landing,  but  a  few  well-directed  shells 
from  the  Massachusetts,  Gloucester,  and  Columbia  soon  put  the  enemy  to  flight. 
A  party  then  went  ashore  and  pulled  down  the  Spanish  flag  from  the  block 
house — the  first  trophy  of  war  from  Porto  Rican  soil.  As  the  troops  began  to 
land  the  Spaniards  opened  fire  upon  them.  The  Americans  replied  with  their 
rifles  and  machine  guns,  and  the  ships  also  shelled  the  enemy  from  the  harbor. 
Five  dead  Spaniards  were  found  after  the  firing  had  ceased.  Not  an  American 
was  touched. 

Before  nightfall  all  the  troops  were  landed.  The  next  clay  General  Miles 
marched  toward  Ponce.  Four  men  were  wounded  in  a  skirmish  at  Yauco  on 
the  way,  but  at  Ponce,  .where  General  Ernst's  expedition  from  Charleston  met 
them  and  disembarked  on  July  28th,  the  Spaniards  fled  on  the  approach  of  the 
Americans,  whom  the  mayor  of  the  city  and  the  people  welcomed  with  joy, 
making  many  demonstrations  in  their  honor  and  offering  their  services  to  hunt 
and  fight  the  Spaniards.  General  Miles  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  people 
declaring  clearly  the  United  States'  purpose  of  annexing  them.  The  mayor  of 
Ponce  published  this  proclamation,  with  an  appeal  from  himself  to  the  people 
to  salute  and  hail  the  American  flag  as  their  own,  and  to  welcome  and  aid  the 
American  soldiers  as  their  deliverers  and  brothers. 

On  August  4th  General  Brooke  arrived,  and  the  fleet  commander,  Captain 
Higginson,  with  little  resistance  opened  the  port  of  Arroyo,  where  they  were 
successfully  landed  the  next  day,  and  General  Haines'  brigade  captured  the 
place  with  a  few  prisoners. 

The  Americans  were  then  in  possession  of  all  the  principal  ports  on  the 
south  coast,  covering  between  fifty  and  sixty  miles  of  that  shore.  A  forward 
movement  was  inaugurated  in  three  divisions — all  of  which  we  will  consider 
together — the  object  of  General  Miles  being  to  occupy  the  island  and  drive  the 
Spanish  forces  before  him  into  San  Juan,  and  by  the  aid  of  the  fleet  capture 
them  there  in  a  body,  though  the  Spanish  forces  numbered  8,000  regulars  and 
9,000  volunteers,  against  which  were  the  11,000  land  forces  of  the  Americans 
and  also  their  fleet. 

The  town  of  Coamo  was  captured  August  9th  after  half  an  hour  of  fighting 
by  Generals  Ernst  and  Wilson,  the  Americans  driving  the  Spaniards  from 
their  trenches,  and  sustaining  a  loss  of  six  wounded.  On  the  10th  General 
Schwan  encountered  1,000  Spaniards  at  Eosario  River.  This  was  the  most 


576  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR. 

severe  engagement  in  Porto  Rico.  The  Spaniards  were  routed,  with  what  loss 
is  unknown.  The  Americans  had  two  killed  and  sixteen  wounded. 

On  the  llth  General  Wilson  moved  on  to  Abonito  and  found  the  enemy 
strongly  intrenched  in  the  mountain  fastnesses  along  the  road.  He  ventured 
an  attack  with  artillery,  sustaining  a  loss  of  one  man  killed  and  four  wounded. 
On  pain  of  another  attack  he  sent  a  messenger  demanding  the  surrender  of  the 
town  of  Abonito ;  but  the  soldierly  answer  was  sent  back  :  "  Tell  General 
Wilson  to  stay  where  he  is  if  he  wishes  to  avoid  the  shedding  of  much  blood." 
General  Wilson  concluded  to  delay  until  General  Brooke  could  come  up  before 
making  the  assault,  and,  while  thus  waiting,  the  news  of  peace  arrived. 

Meantime  General  Brooke  had  been  operating  around  Guayama,  where  he 
had  five  men  wounded.  At  three  o'clock,  August  12th,  the  battle  was  just 
opening  in  good  order,  and  a  great  fight  was  anticipated.  The  gunners  were 
sighting  their  first  pieces  when  one  of  the  signal  corps  galloped  up  with  the 
telegram  announcing  peace.  "  You  came  just  fifteen  minutes  too  soon.  The 
troops  will  be  disappointed,"  said  General  Brooke,  and  they  were. 

So  ended  the  well-planned  campaign  of  Porto  Rico,  in  which  General  Miles 
had  arranged,  by  a  masterly  operation  with  11,000  men,  the  occupation  of  an 
island  108  miles  long  by  thirty-seven  broad.  As  it  was,  he  had  already  occu 
pied  about  one-third  of  the  island  with  a  loss  of  only  three  killed  and  twenty- 
eight  wounded,  against  a  preponderating  force  of  17,000  Spaniards. 

After  the  signing  of  the  protocol  of  peace  General  Brooke  was  left  in 
charge  of  about  half  the  forces  in  Porto  Rico,  pending  a  final  peace,  while 
General  Miles  with  the  other  half  returned  to  the  United  States,  where  he 
arrived  early  in  September  and  was  received  with  fitting  ovations  in  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Washington,  at  which  latter  city  he  again  took  up  his  quarters 
as  the  Commander  of  the  American  Army. 

THE  CONQUEST   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES. 

After  Dewey's  victory  at  Manila,  already  referred  to,  it  became  evident  that 
he  must  have  the  co-operation  of  an  army  in  capturing  and  controlling  the  city. 
The  insurgents  under  General  Aguinaldo  appeared  anxious  to  assist  Admiral 
Dewey,  but  it  was  feared  that  he  could  not  control  them.  Accordingly,  the  big 
monitor  Monterey  was  started  for  Manila  and  orders  were  given  for  the  imme 
diate  outfitting  of  expeditions  from  San  Francisco  under  command  of  Major- 
General  Wesley  Merritt.  The  first  expedition  consisted  of  between  2,500  and 
3,000  troops,  commanded  by  Brigadier-General  Anderson,  carried  on  three  ships, 
the  Charleston,  the  City  of  Pekin,  and  the  City  of  Sydney.  This  was  the  longest 
expedition  (about  6,000  miles)  on  which  American  troops  were  ever  sent,  and 
*he  men  carried  supplies  to  last  a  year.  The  Charleston  got  away  on  the  22d, 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES. 


577 


and  the  other  two  vessels  followed  three  days  later.  The  expedition  went 
through  safely,  arriving  at  Manila  July  1st.  The  C /tar lesion  had  stopped  on 
June  21st  at  the  Ladrone  Islands  and  captured  the  island  of  Guam  without 
resistance.  The  soldiers  of  the  garrison  were  taken  on  as  prisoners  to  Manila 
and  a  garrison  of  American  soldiers  left  in  charge,  with  the  stars  and  stripes 
waving  over  the  fortifications. 

The  second  expedition  of  3,500  men  sailed  June  15th  under  General  Greene, 
who  used  the  steamer  China  as  his  flagship.  This  expedition  landed  July  16th 
at  Cavite  in  the  midst  of  considerable  excitement  on  account  of  the  aggressive 
movements  of  the  insurgents  and  the 
daily  encounters  and  skirmishes  be 
tween  them  and  the  Spanish  forces. 

On  June  23d  the  monitor  Mo- 
nadnoc  sailed  to  further  reinforce 
Admiral  Dewey,  and  four  days  later 
the  third  expedition  of  4,000  troops 
under  General  McArthur  passed  out 
of  the  Golden  Gate  amid  the  cheers 
of  the  multitude,  as  the  others  had 
done ;  and  on  the  29th  General  Mer- 
ritt  followed  on  the  Newport.  Nearly 
one  month  later,  July  23d,  General 
H.  G.  Otis,  with  900  men,  sailed  on 
the  City  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  from  San 
Francisco,  thus  making  a  total  of 
nearly  12,000  men,  all  told,  sent  to 
the  Philippine  Islands. 

General  Merritt  arrived  at  Ca 
vite  July  25th,  and  on  July  29th  the 
American  forces  advanced  from  Ca- 

..  j     TVT       -1  r\        n          o-i    i  MAJOR-GENERAL  WESLEY   MERRITT. 

vite  toward  Manila.     On    the   31st, 

while  enroute,  they  were  attacked  at  Malate  by  3,000  Spaniards,  whom  they 
repulsed,  but  sustained  a  loss  of  nine  men  killed  and  forty-seven  wounded,  nine 
of  them  seriously.  This  was  the  first  loss  of  life  on  the  part  of  the  Americans 
in  action  in  the  Philippines.  The  Spanish  casualties  were  much  heavier.  On 
the  same  day  General  McArthur's  reinforcements  arrived  at  Cavite,  and  several 
days  were  devoted  to  preparations  for  a  combined  land  and  naval  attack. 

On  August  7th  Admiral  Dewey  and  General  Merritt  demanded  the  sur 
render  of  the  city  within  forty-eight  hours,  and  foreign  war-ships  took  their 
respective  subjects  on  board  for  protection.  On  August  9th  the  Spaniards 

37  G.  R. 


578  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN    WAR. 

asked  more  time  to  hear  from  Madrid,  but  this  was  refused,  and  on  the  13th  a 
final  demand  was  made  for  immediate  surrender,  which  Governor-General 
Augusti  refused  and  embarked  with  his  family  on  board  a  German  man-of-war, 
which  sailed  with  him  for  Hong  Kong.  At  9.30  o'clock  the  bombardment  be 
gan  with  fury,  all  of  the  vessels  sending  hot  shot  at  the  doomed  city. 

In  the  midst  of  the  bombardment  by  the  fleet  American  soldiers  under 
Generals  McArthur  and  Greene  were  ordered  to  storm  the  Spanish  trenches 
which  extended  ten  miles  around  the  city.  The  soldiers  rose  cheering  and 
dashed  for  the  Spanish  earthworks.  A  deadly  fire  met  them,  but  the  men 
rushed  on  and  swept  the  enemy  from  their  outer  defenses,  forcing  them  to  their 
inner  trenches.  A  second  charge  was  made  upon  these,  and  the  Spaniards 
retreated  into  the  walled  city,  where  they  promptly  sent  up  a  white  flag.  The 
ships  at  once  ceased  firing,  and  the  victorious  Americans  entered  the  city  after 
six  hours'  fighting.  General  Merritt  took  command  as  military  governor.  The 
Spanish  forces  numbered  7,000  and  the  Americans  10,000  men.  The  loss  to 
the  Americans  was  about  fifty  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  which  was  very 
small  under  the  circumstances. 

In  the  meantime  the  insurgents  had  formed  a  government  with  Aguinaldo 
as  president.  They  declared  themselves  most  friendly  to  American  occupation 
of  the  islands,  with  a  view  to  aiding  them  to  establish  an  independent  govern 
ment,  which  they  hoped  would  be  granted  to  them.  On  September  15th  they 
opened  their  republican  congress  at  Malolos,  and  President  Aguinaldo  made  the 
opening  address,  expressing  warm  appreciation  of  Americans  and  indulging  the 
hope  that  they  meant  to  establish  the  independence  of  the  islands.  On  Sep 
tember  16th,  however,  in  obedience  to  the  command  of  General  Otis,  they  with 
drew  their  forces  from  the  vicinity  of  Manila, 

PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS  AND  THE  PROTOCOL. 

Precisely  how  to  open  the  negotiations  for  peace  was  a  delicate  and  difficult 
question.  Its  solution,  however,  proved  easy  enough  when  the  attempt  was 
^  During  the  latter  part  of  July  the  Spanish  government,  through  M. 
Jules  Cambon,  the  French  ambassador  at  Washington,  submitted  a  note,  asking 
the  United  States  government  for  a  statement  of  the  ground  on  which  it  would 
be  willing  to  cease  hostilities  and  arrange  for  a  peaceable  settlement.  Accord 
ingly,  on  July  30th,  a  statement,  embodying  President  McKinley's  views,  was 
transmitted  to  Spain,  and  on  August  2d  Spain  virtually  accepted  the  terms  by 
On  August  9th  Spain's  formal  reply  was  presented  by  M.  Cambon,  and 
on  the  next  day  he  and  Secretary  Day  agreed  upon  terms  of  a  protocol,  to  be 
sent  to  Spain  for  her  approval.  Two  clays  later,  the  12th  inst,  the  French 
ambassador  was  authorized  to  sign  the  protocol  for  Spain,  and  the  signatures 


PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS  AND   THE  PROTOCOL.  579 

were  affixed  the  same  afternoon  at  the  White  House  (M.  Cambon  signing  for 
Spain  and  Secretary  Day  for  the  United  States),  in  the  presence  of  President 
McKinley  and  the  chief  assistants  of  the  Department  of  State.  The  six  main 
points  covered  by  the  protocol  were  as  follows : 

"  1.  That  Spain  will  relinquish  all  claim  of  sovereignty  over  and  title  to 
Cuba, 

"  2.  That  Porto  Rico  and  other  Spanish  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
an  island  in  the  Ladroiies,  to  be  selected  by  the  United  States,  shall  be  ceded  to 
the  latter. 

"  3.  That  the  United  States  will  occupy  and  hold  the  city,  bay,  and  harbor 
of  Manila,  pending  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of  peace  which  shall  determine  the 
control,  disposition,  and  government  of  the  Philippines. 

"  4.  That  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  other  Spanish  islands  in  the  West  Indies 
shall  be  immediately  evacuated,  and  that  commissioners,  to  be  appointed  within 
ten  days,  shall,  within  thirty  days  from  the  signing  of  the  protocol,  meet  at 
Havana  and  San  Juan,  respectively,  to  arrange  and  execute  the  details  of  the 
evacuation. 

"  5.  That  the  United  States  and  Spain  will  each  appoint  not  more  than  five 
commissioners  to  negotiate  and  conclude  a  treaty  of  peace.  The  commissioners 
are  to  meet  at  Paris  not  later  than  October  1st. 

"  6.  On  the  signing  of  the  protocol,  hostilities  will  be  suspended  and  notice 
to  that  effect  be  given  as  soon  as  possible  by  each  government  to  the  com 
manders  of  its  military  and  naval  forces." 

On  the  very  same  afternoon  President  McKinley  issued  a  proclamation 
announcing  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  a  suspension  of  hostilities,  and  over 
the  wires  the  word  went  ringing  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land 
and  under  the  ocean  that  peace  was  restored.  The  cable  from  Hong  Kong  to 
Manila,  however,  had  not  been  repaired  for  use  since  Dewey  had  cut  it  in  May ; 
consequently  it  was  several  days  before  tidings  could  reach  General  Merritt  and 
Admiral  Dewey ;  and  meantime  the  battle  of  Manila,  which  occurred  on  the 
13th,  was  fought. 

On  August  17th  President  McKinley  named  commissioners  to  adjust  the 
Spanish  evacuation  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of 
the  protocol.  Rear-Admiral  Wm.  T.  Sampson,  Senator  Matthew  C.  Butler,  and 
Major-General  James  F.  Wade  were  appointed  for  Cuba,  and  Rear-Admiral 
W.  S.  Schley,  Brigadier-General  Wm.  W.  Gordon,  and  Major-General  John  R. 
Brooke  for  Porto  Rico.  In  due  time  Spain  announced  her  commissioners,  and, 
as  agreed,  they  met  in  September  and  the  arrangements  for  evacuation  were 
speedily  completed  and  carried  out. 

President  McKinley  appointed  as  the  National  Peace  Commission,  Secre- 


580  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN    WAR. 

tary  of  State  Wm.  R.  Day,  Senator  Cushmaii  K.  Davis  of  Minnesota,  Senator 
Wm.  P.  Frye  of  Maine,  Senator  George  Gray  of  Delaware,  and  Mr.  Whitelaw 
Reid  of  New  York.  Secretary  Day  resigned  his  State  portfolio  September  16th, 
in  which  he  was  succeeded  by  Colonel  John  Hay,  former  Ambassador  to  Eng 
land.  With  ex-Secretary  Day  at  their  head  the  Americans  sailed  from  New 
York,  September  17th,  met  the  Spanish  Commissioners  at  Paris,  France,  as 
agreed,  and  arranged  the  details  of  the  final  peace  between  the  two  nations. 
Thus  ended  the  Spanish-American  War. 

HOME-COMING    OF    OUR    SOLDIERS. 

After  Spain's  virtual  acceptance  of  the  terms  of  peace  contained  in  Presi 
dent  McKinley's  note  of  July  30th,  it  was  deemed  unnecessary  to  keep  all  the 
forces  unoccupied  in  the  fever  districts  of  Cuba  and  the  unsanitary  camps  of 
our  own  country;  consequently  the  next  day  after  receipts  of  Spain's  message 
of  August  2d,  on  August  3d,  the  home-coming  was  inaugurated  by  ordering  all 
cavalry  under  General  Shafter  at  Santiago  to  be  transported  to  Montauk  Point, 
Long  Island,  and  on  the  6th  instant  transports  sailed  bearing  those  who  were  to 
come  north.  These  were  followed  rapidly  by  others  from  Santiago,  and  later 
by  about  half  the  forces  from  Porto  Rico  under  General  Miles,  and  others  from 
the  various  camps,  so  that  by  the  end  of  September,  1898,  nearly  half  of  the 
great  army  of  268,000  men  had  been  mustered  out  of  service  or  sent  home 
on  furlough. 

It  is  a  matter  of  universal  regret  that  so  many  of  our  brave  volunteers 
died  of  neglect  in  camps  and  on  transports,  and  that  fever,  malaria,  and 
exposure  carried  several  times  the  number  to  their  graves  as  were  sent  there  by 
Spanish  bullets.  Severe  criticisms  have  been  lodged  against  the  War  Depart 
ment  for  both  lack  of  efficiency  and  neglect  in  caring  for  the  comfort,  health, 
and  life  of  those  who  went  forward  at  their  country's  call. 

However,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  War  Department  undertook  and 
accomplished  a  herculean  task,  and  it  could  not  be  expected,  starting  with  a 
regular  force  of  less  than  30,000  men,  that  an  army  of  a  quarter  of  a  million 
could  be  built  up  out  of  volunteers  who  had  to  be  collected,  trained,  clothed, 
equipped,  and  provisioned,  and  a  war  waged  and  won  on  two  sides  of  the  globe, 
in  a  little  over  three  months,  without  much  suffering  and  many  mistakes. 

THE   TREATY    OF    PEACE. 

December  10,  1898,  was  one  of  the  most  eventful  days  in  the  past  decade 
—one  fraught  with  great  interest  to  the  world,  and  involving  the  destiny  of  more 
than  10,000,000  of  people.  At  nine  o'clock  on  the  evening  of  that  day  the 
commissioners  of  the  United  States  and  those  of  Spain  met  for  the  last  time, 


THE  UNITED  STATES  PEACE  COMMISSIONERS  OF  THE  SPANISH   WAR 

Appointed  September  0. 1898.     Met  Spanish  Commissioners  at  Paris,  October  1st.    Treaty  of  Peace,  signed  by  the  Commis 
sioners  at  Paris,  December  10th.    Ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate  at  Washington,  February  6, 1899. 


THE   TREATY  OF  PEACE. 


581 


after  about  eleven  weeks  of  deliberation,  in  the  magnificent  apartments  of  the 
foreign  ministry  at  the  French  capital,  and  signed  the  Treaty  of  Peace,  which 
finally  marked  the  end  of  the  Spanish-American  War. 

This  treaty  transformed  the  political  geography  of  the  world  by  establish 
ing  the  United  States'  authority  in  both  hemispheres,  and  also  in  the  tropics, 
where  it  had  never  before  extended.  It,  furthermore,  brought  under  our 
dominion  and  obligated  us  for  the  government  of  strange  and  widely  isolated 
peoples,  who  have  little  or  no  knowledge  of  liberty  and  government  as  measured 
by  the  American  standards.  In  this  new  assumption  of  responsibility  America 
essayed  a  difficult  problem,  the  solving  of  which  involved  results  that  could  not 
fail  to  influence  the  destiny  of  our  nation  and  the  future  history  of  the  whole 
world. 

On  January  3,  1899,  the  Hon.  John  Hay,  Secretary  of  State,  delivered  the 
Treaty  of  Peace  to  President  McKinley,  who,  on  January  4th,  forwarded  the 
same  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  with  a  view  to  its  ratification.  Below 
will  be  found  the  complete  text  of  the  treaty  as  submitted  by  the  President. 


ARTICLE  I. — Spain  relinquishes  all  claim  of  sovereignty 
over  and  title  to  Cuba. 

And  as  the  island  is,  u-pon  its  evacuation  by  Spain,  to 
be  occupied  by  the  United  States,  the  United  States  will, 
BO  long  as  such  occupation  shall  last,  assume  and  discharge 
the  obligations  that  may  under  international  law  result 
from  the  fact  of  its  occupation,  for  the  protection  of  life 
and  property. 

ARTICLE  II.— Spain  cedes  to  the  United  States  the 
island  of  Porto  Rico  and  other  islands  now  under  Spanish 
sovereignty  in  the  West  Ladies,  and  the  island  of  Guam 
in  the  Marianas  or  Ladrones. 

ARTICLE  III. — Spain  cedes  to  the  United  States  the 
archipelago  known  as  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  com 
prehending  the  islands  lying  within  the  following  line: 

"A  line  running  from  -west  to  east  along  or  near  the 
twentieth  parallel  of  north  latitude  and  through  the 
middle  of  the  navigable  .channel  of  Bachi,  from  the  one 
hundred  and  eighteenth  (USth)  to  the  one  hundred  and 
twenty-seventh  <  127th)  degree  meridian  of  longitude  east 
of  Greenwich,  thence  along  the  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
seventh  (127th)  degree  meridian  of  longitude  east  of 
Greenwich  to  the  parallel  of  four  degrees  and  forty-five 
minutes  (4-45)  north  latitude  to  its  intersection  with  the 
meridian  of  longitude  one  hundred  and  nineteen  degrees 
and  thirty-five  minutes  (119-35)  <east  of  Greenwich,  thence 
along  the  meridian  of  longitude  one  hundred  and  nineteen 
degrees  and  thirty-five  minutes  <1 19-35)  east  of  Green 
wich  to  the  parallel  of  latitude  seven  degrees  and  forty 
minutes  (7-40)  north,  thenee  along  the  parallel  of  latitude 
seven  degrees  and  forty  minutes  <7-40)  north  to  its  inter 
section  with  the  one  hundred  and  sixteenth  (1 16th)  degree 
meridian  of  longitude  east  of  Greenwich,  thence  by  a 
direct  line  to  the  intersection  of  the  tenth  (10th)  degree 


parallel  of  north  latitude  with  the  one  hundred  and 
eighteenth  (118th)  degree  meridian  of  longitude  east  of 
Greenwich,  and  thence  along  the  one  hundred  and 
eighteenth  (118th)  degree  meridian  of  longitude  east  of 
Greenwich  to  the  point  of  beginning." 

The  United  States  will  pay  to  Spain  the  sum  of  twenty 
million  dollars  ($20,000,000)  within  three  months  after 
the  exchange  of  ratifications  of  the  present  treaty. 

ARTICLE  IV. — The  United  States  will,  for  the  term  of 
ten  years  from  the  day  of  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications 
of  the  present  treaty,  admit  Spanish  ships  and  merchandise 
to  the  ports  of  the  Philippine  Islands  on  the  same  terms 
as  ships  and  merchandise  of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  V. — The  United  States  will,  upon  the  signature 
of  the  present  treaty,  send  back  to  Spain  at  its  own  cost 
the  Spanish  soldiers  taken  as  prisoners  of  war  on  the 
capture  of  Manila  by  the  American  forces.  The  arms  of 
the  soldiers  in  question  shall  be  restored  to  them. 

Spain  will,  upon  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications  of  the 
present  treaty,  proceed  to  evacuate  the  Philippines  as  well 
as  the  island  of  Guam,  on  terms  similar  to  those  agreed 
upon  by  the  commissioners  appointed  to  arrange  for  the 
evacuation  of  Porto  Rico  and  other  islands  in  the  West 
Indies,  under  the  protocol  of  August  12,  1898,  which  is 
to  continue  in  force  till  its  provisions  are  completely  ex 
ecuted. 

The  time  within  which  the  evacuation  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  and  Guam  shall  be  completed  shall  be  fixed  by 
the  two  Governments.  Stands  of  colors,  uncaptured  war- 
vessels,  small  arms,  guns  of  all  calibers,  with  their  car 
riages  and  accessories,  powder,  ammunition,  live  stock, 
and  materials  and  supplies  of  all  kinds  belonging  to  the 
land  and  naval  forces  of  Spain  in  the  Philippines  and 
Guam,  remain  the  property  of  Spain.  Pieces  of  heavy 


582 


THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN    WAR. 


ordnance,  exclusive  of  field  artillery,  in  the  fortifications 
and  coast  defenses  shall  remain  in  their  emplacements  for 
the  term  of  siz  months,  to  be  reckoned  from  the  exchange 
of  ratifications  of  the  treaty  ;  and  the  United  States  may, 
in  the  meantime,  purchase  such  material  from  Spain  if  a 
satisfactory  agreement  between  the  two  Governments  on 
the  subject  shall  be  reached. 

ARTICLE  VI. — Spain  will,  upon  the  signature  of  the 
present  treaty,  release  prisoners  of  war  and  all  persons 
detained  or  imprisoned  for  political  offenses  in  connection 
with  the  insurrections  in  Cuba  and  the  Philippines  and 
the  war  with  the  United  States. 

Reciprocally,  the  United  States  will  release  all  persons 
made  prisoners  of  war  by  the  American  forces  and  will 
undertake  to  obtain  the  release  of  all  Spanish  prisoners  in 
the  hands  of  the  insurgent*  in  Cuba  and  the  Philippines. 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  will  at  its  own 
cost  return  to  Spain  and  the  Government  of  Spain  will  at 
its  own  cost  return  to  the  United  States,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico, 
and  the  Philippines,  according  to  the  situation  of  their 
respective  homes,  prisoners  released  or  caused  to  be  released 
by  them,  respectively,  under  this  article. 

ARTICLE  VII.— The  United  States  and  Spain  mutually 
relinquish  all  claims  for  indemnity,  national  and  indi 
vidual,  of  every  kind,  of  either  Government  or  of  its  citi 
zens  or  subjects,  against  the  other  Government  that  may 
have  arisen  since  the  beginning  of  the  late  insurrection  in 
Cuba,  and  prior  to  the  exchange  of  ratifications  of  the 
present  treaty,  including  all  claims  for  indemnity  for  the 
cost  of  the  war. 

The  United  States  will  adjudicate  and  settle  the  claims 
of  its  citizens  against  Spain  relinquished  in  this  article. 

ARTICLE  VIII. — In  conformity  with  the  provisions  of 
Articles  I,  II,  and  III  of  this  treaty,  Spain  relinquishes  in 
Cuba  and  cedes  in  Porto  Rico  and  other  islands  in  the 
West  Indies,  in  the  island  of  Guam  and  in  the  Philippine 
archipelago,  all  the  buildings,  wharves,  barracks,  forts, 
structures,  public  highways,  and  other  immovable  prop 
erty,  which,  in  conformity  with  law,  belong  to  the  public 
domain,  and  as  such  belong  to  the  Crown  of  Spain. 

And  it  is  hereby  declared  that  the  relinquishment  or 
cession,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  which  the  preceding  para 
graph  refers,  cannot  in  any  respect  impair  the  property  or 
rights  which  by  law  belong  to  the  peaceful  possession  of 
property  of  all  kinds,  of  provinces,  municipalities,  public 
or  private  establishments,  ecclesiastical  or  civic  bodies,  or 
any  other  associations  having  legal  capacity  to  acquire 
and  possess  property  in  the  aforesaid  territories  renounced 
or  ceded,  or  of  private  individuals,  of  whatsoever  nation 
ality  such  individuals  may  be. 

The  aforesaid  relinquishment  or  cession,  as  the  case 
may  be,  includes  all  documents  exclusively  referring  to 
the  sovereignty  relinquished  or  ceded  that  may  exist  in 
the  archives  of  the  Peninsula,  Where  any  document  in 
such  archives  only  in  part  relates  to  said  sovereignty,  a 
copy  of  such  part  will  be  furnished  whenever  it  shall  be 
requested.  Like  rules  shall  be  reciprocally  observed  in 
favor  of  Spain  in  respect  of  documents  in  the  archives  of 
the  islands  above  referred  to. 

In  the  aforesaid  relinquishment  or  cession,  as  the  case 


may  be,  are  also  included  such  rights  as  the  Crown  of 
Spain  and  its  authorities  possess  in  respect  of  the  official 
archives  and  records,  executive  as  well  as  judicial,  in  the 
islands  above  referred  to,  which  relate  to  said  islands  or 
the  rights  and  property  of  their  inhabitants.  Such  archives 
and  records  shall  be  carefully  preserved,  and  private  per 
sons  shall,  without  distinction,  have  the  right  to  require 
in  accordance  with  law  authenticated  copies  of  the  con 
tracts,  wills,  and  other  instruments  forming  part  of  notarial 
protocols  or  files,  or  which  may  be  contained  in  the  execu 
tive  or  judicial  archives,  be  the  lail/er  in  Spain  or  in  the 
islands  aforesaid. 

ARTICLE  IX. — Spanish  subjects,  natives  of  the  peninsula, 
residing  in  the  territory  over  which  Spain  by  the  present 
treaty  relinquishes  or  cedes  her  sovereignty,  may  remain 
in  such  territory  or  may  remove  therefrom,  retaining  in 
either  event  all  their  rights  of  property,  including  the 
right  to  sell  or  dispose  of  such  property  or  of  its  proceeds, 
and  they  shall  also  have  the  right  to  carry  on  their  indus 
try,  commerce,  and  professions,  being  subject  in  respect 
thereof  to  such  laws  as  are  applicable  to  other  foreigners. 
In  case  they  remain  in  the  territory  they  mav  preserve 
their  allegiance  to  the  Crown  of  Spain  by  making  before 
a  court  of  record,  within  a  year  from  the  date  of  the 
exchange  of  ratifications  of  this  treaty,  a  declaration  of 
their  decision  to  preserve  such  allegiance,  in  default  of 
which  declaration  they  shall  be  held  to  have  renounced 
it  and  to  have  adopted  the  nationality  of  the  territory  in 
which  they  may  reside. 

The  civil  rights  and  political  status  of  the  native  inhab 
itants  of  the  territories  hereby  ceded  to  the  United  States 
shall  be  determined  by  the  Congress. 

ARTICLE  X. — The  inhabitants  of  the  territories  over 
which  Spain  relinquishes  or  cedes  her  sovereignty  shall 
be  secure  in  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion. 

ARTICLE  XL — The  Spaniards  residing  in  the  territories 
over  which  Spain  by  this  treaty  cedes  or  relinquishes  her 
sovereignty  shall  be  subject  in  matters  civil  as  well  as 
criminal  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  of  the  country 
wherein  they  reside,  pursuant  to  the  ordinary  laws  govern 
ing  the  same;  and  they  shall  have  the  right  to  appear 
before  such  courts  and  to  pursue  the  same  course  as  citizens 
of  the  country  to  which  the  courts  belong. 

ARTICLE  XII. — Judicial  proceedings  pending  at  the  time 
of  the  exchange  of  ratifications  of  this  treaty  in  the  terri 
tories  over  which  Spain  relinquishes  or  cedes  her  sover 
eignty  shall  be  determined  according  to  the  following 
rules : 

1.  Judgments   rendered  either   in  civil   suits   between 
private  individuals  or  in  criminal  matters  before  the  date 
mentioned  and  with  respect  to  which  there  is  no  recourse 
or  right  of  revenue  under  the  Spanish  law  shall  be  deemed 
to  be  final,  and  shall  be  executed  in  due  form  by  compe 
tent  authority  in  the  territory  within  which  such  judg 
ments  should  be  carried  out. 

2.  Civil  suits  between  private  individuals  which  may 
on  the  date  mentioned  be  undetermined  shall  be  prose 
cuted  to  judgment  before  the  court  in  which  they  may 
then  be  pending  or  in  the  court  that  may  be  substituted 
therefor. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE. 


583 


3.  Criminal  actions  pending  on  the  date  mentioned 
before  the  Supreme  Court  of  Spain  against  citizens  of  the 
territory  which  by  this  treaty  ceases  to  be  Spanish  shall 
;ontinue  under  its  jurisdiction  until  final  judgment;  but 
such  judgment  having  been  rendered,  the  execution 
thereof  shall  be  committed  to  the  competent  authority 
of  the  place  in  which  the  case  arose. 

ARTICLE  XIII.— The  rights  of  property  secured  by  copy 
rights  and  patents  acquired  by  Spaniards  in  the  Island 
de  Cuba,  and  in  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippines,  and  other 
ceded  territories,  at  the  time  of  the  exchange  of  the  ratifi 
cations  of  this  treaty,  shall  continue  to  be  respected. 
Spanish  scientific,  literary,  and  artistic  works  not  subver 
sive  of  public  order  in  the  territories  in  question  shall 
continue  to  be  admitted  free  of  duty  into  such  territories 
for  the  period  of  ten  years,  to  be  reckoned  from  the  days 
of  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications  of  this  treaty. 

ARTICLE  XIV. — Spain  will  have  the  power  to  establish 
consular  offices  in  the  ports  and  places  of  the  territories 
the  sovereignty  over  which  has  been  either  relinquished 
or  ceded  by  the  present  treaty. 

ARTICLE  XV. — The  Government  of  each  country  will, 
for  the  term  of  ten  years,  accord  to  the  merchant  vessels 
of  the  other  country  the  same  treatment  in  respect  of  all 
port  charges,  including  entrance  and  clearance  dues,  light 
dues  and  tonnage  duties,  as  it  accords  to  its  own  merchant 
vessels  not  engaged  in  the  coastwise  trade. 


This  article  may  at  any  time  be  terminated  on  she 
months'  notice  given  by  either  Government  to  the  other. 

ARTICLE  XVI. — It  is  understood  that  any  obligations 
assumed  in  this  treaty  by  the  United  States  with  respect 
to  Cuba  are  limited  to  the  time  of  its  occupancy  thereof; 
but  it  will,  upon  the  termination  of  such  occupancy, 
advise  any  government  established  in  the  island  to 
assume  the  same  obligations. 

ARTICLE  XVII.— The  present  treaty  shall  be  ratified  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate  thereof,  and  by  Her  Majesty, 
the  Queen  Regent  of  Spain,  and  the  ratifications  shall  be 
exchanged  at  Washington  within  six  months  from  the 
date  hereof,  or  earlier,  if  possible. 

In  faith  whereof,  we,  the  respective  Plenipotentiaries, 
have  signed  this  treaty  and  have  hereunto  affixed  our 
seals. 

Done  in  duplicate,  at  Paris,  the  tenth  day  of  December, 
in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eighteen  hundred 
and  ninety-eight. 


WILLIAM  R.  DAY, 

WILLIAM  P.  FRYE, 

WHITELAW  REID, 

B.  DE  ABARZUZA, 

W.  R.  DE  VILLA  URRUTIA, 


CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS, 
GEORGE  GRAY, 
EUGENIO  M.  RIOS, 
J.  DE  GARNICA, 
RAFAEL  CERERO. 


The  Queen  Regent  of  Spain  signed  the  ratification  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace 
on  March  17,  1899,  and  the  final  act  took  place  on  the  afternoon  of  April  llth, 
when  copies  of  the  final  protocol  were  exchanged  at  Washington  by  President 
McKinley  and  the  French  ambassador,  M.  Cambon,  representing  Spain.  The 
President  immediately  issued  a  proclamation  of  peace,  and  thus  the  Spanish- 
American  War  came  to  an  official  end.  A  few  weeks  later  the  ^sum  of 
$20,000,000  was  paid  to  Spain,  in  accordance  with  the  treaty,  as  partial  com 
pensation  for  the  surrender  of  her  rights  in  the  Philippines,  and  diplomatic 
relations  between  the  Latin  kingdom  and  the  United  States  were  resumed. 

The  treaty  with  Spain  was  finally  consummated  on  July  3, 1899,  on  which 
day  it  was  ratified  by  the  Spanish  Cortes.     It  gave  the  United  States,  for  the 
first  time  in  its  history,  an  insular  territory,  tropical  in  situation,  with  a  • 
bined  area  of  about  150,000  square  miles  and  a  population  of  probably  over 
8  000,000.     It  comprises  some  of  the  most  fertile  lands  of  the  tropics,  produc 
ing  in  abundance  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  tropical  fruits  and  timber,  and 
to  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
ADMINISTRATION    OK   NlcKlNLEY   (CONTINUED). 

THB     CLOSING     KVHNTS     OK    THK     NINKTEENTH 

CENTURY. 

Affairs  in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico— Dcwey's  Promotion  and  Return— The  Philippine  Situation— Aguinaldo's 
Insurrection — The  War  in  Luzon — The  Philippine  Commission — Amnesty  Proclaimed — Presi 
dential  Nominations  in  1900 — Party  Platforms— Affairs  in  China— The  Boxer  Outbreak,— The 
Foreigners  in  Peking — The  New  Census. 

THE    UNITED    STATES    BECOMES   A    WORLD    POWER. 

Ox  the  last  (lay  of  1898  the  Spanish  troops  were  withdrawn  from  Havana, 
and  on  the  first  day  of  1899  the  stars  and  stripes  proudly  floated  over  that 
queen  city  of  the  American  tropics.  But  this  was  only  for  a  time.  The  United 
States  was  pledged  to  give  freedom  to  Cuba,  and  no  man  in  authority  thought 
of  breaking  this  pledge,  for  the  honor  of  the  country  was  involved. 

In  the  summer  of  1900  the  Cuban  people  were  asked  to  hold  a  convention 
and  form  a  Constitution,  with  the  single  proviso  that  it  should  contain  no  clauses 
favoring  European  aggression  or  inimical  to  American  interests.  This  done, 
American  troops  and  officials  would  be  withdrawn  and  Cuba  be  given  over  to 
the  Cubans. 

The  occupation  of  Porto  Rico,  on  the  contrary,  was  permanent.  It  had 
been  fully  ceded  to  the  United  States,  and  steps  were  taken  to  make  it  a  constitu 
ent  part  of  that  country.  But  the  period  of  transition  from  Spanish  to 
American  rule  was  not  favorable  to  the  interests  of  the  people,  who  suffered 
severely,  their  business  being  wrecked  by  tariff  discrimination.  Action  by 
Congress  was  demanded,  and  a  bill  was  passed  greatly  reducing  the  tariff  in 
Porto  Rico,  but  not  giving  free  trade  with  the  United  States,  though  many  held 
that  this  was  the  Constitutional  right  of  the  islanders.  Under  this  new  tariff 
business  was  resumed,  and  the  lost  prosperity  of  the  island  was  gradually 
restored. 

The  occupation  of  our  new  possessions  in  the  Pacific  presented  serious  diffi 
culties.  This  was  not  the  case  with  Hawaii,  which  fell  peacefully  under  its 
new  rule,  and  in  1900  was  made  a  Territory  of  the  United  States.  With  the 
Philippine  Islands  the  case  was  different.  There  hostility  to  American  rule 

(584) 


THE    UNITED  STATES  BECOMES  A    WORLD   POWER. 


585 


soon  showed   itself,  and    eventually   an    insurrection   began,  leading  to  a  war, 
which  proved  far  more  protracted  and  sanguinary  than  that  with  Spain. 

DEWEY    RETURNS     HOME. 

Shortly  after  these  troubles  began  Admiral  Dewey  received  a  well-merited 
reward.  On  the  3d  of  March,  1899,  he  was  promoted  by  President  McKinley 
and  the  Senate  from  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  to  that  of  full  admiral,  a  grade 
of  high  honor  which  only  two  Americans,  Farragut  and  Porter,  had  borne 
before  him.  Worn  out  with  his  labors,  this  distinguished  officer  soon  after  set 
out  for  home.  His  journey  was  a 
leisurely  one,  and  he  was  the  recip 
ient  of  the  highest  honors  at  every 
stopping-place  on  his  route.  On 
reaching  his  own  country  he  found 
himself  a  great  popular  hero,  and  was 
everywhere  greeted  with  enthusiastic 
applause.  His  reception  at  New  York 
was  one  of  the  striking  events  of  the 
century,  and  as  a  lasting  testimonial 
of  appreciation  and  esteem  his  grate 
ful  countrymen  purchased  him  a  beau 
tiful  residence  in  Washington.  Here, 
taking  to  himself  a  wife,  the  Admiral 
settled  down  to  peace  and  domestic 
comfort  after  his  stormy  career. 

THE    PHILIPPINE   INSURRECTION. 

Dewey  left  the  Philippines  in  a 
state  of  convulsion.  On  the  30th  of 
December,  1898,  President  McKinley 
had  issued  a  proclamation  offering 
the  natives,  under  American  suprem 
acy,  a  considerable  measure  of  home  rule,  including  a  voice  in  local  government, 
the  right  to  hold  office,  a  fair  judiciary,  and  freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press. 
These  concessions  were  not  satisfactory  to  Emilio  Aguinaldo,  the  leader  in  the 
late  insurrection  against  Spain,  who  demanded  independence  for  the  islands. 
He  claimed  that  Dewey  had  promised  it  to  him  in  return  for  his  aid  in  the 
capture  of  Manila — a  claim  which  Dewey  positively  denied. 

General  Elwell  S.  Otis,  who  had  succeeded  General  Merritt  as  military 


MAJOR-GENERAL  ELWELL  S.  OTIS. 


586  ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 

governor  of  the  islands,  found  himself  plunged  into  the  midst  of  an  active  war. 
Admiral  Dewey's  aid  \vas  not  needed  in  this  conflict,  and  soon  after  it  began  he 
returned  to  the  United  States.  On  the  3d  of  March,  1899,  he  had  been  pro 
moted  to  the  exalted  naval  rank  of  full  admiral,  which  only  Farragut  and 
Porter  had  previously  held,  and  which  was  looked  upon  as  the  sole  fitting 
reward  for  his  services.  During  his  journey  home  he  received  the  highest 
honors  at  every  halting-place  on  the  route,  and  in  the  United  States  he  was 
greeted  as  the  chief  hero  of  the  Spanish  war.  His  reception  in  New  York  was 
one  of  the  events  of  the  century,  and  his  admiring  countrymen  showed  their 
appreciation  by  purchasing  him  a  beautiful  home  in  the  city  of  Washington. 

Before  his  return  he  had  served  on  a  commission,  organized  with  the  hope 
of  reaching  a  peaceful  end  of  the  difficulties.  The  other  members  of  the 
commission  were  General  Otis,  Jacob  G.  Shurman,  President  of  Cornell  Univer 
sity,  Professor  Dean  Worcester,  and  Charles  Denby,  late  Minister  to  China. 
The  commission  began  its  work  on  April  4,  1899,  by  issuing  a  proclamation  to 
the  Philippine  people,  offering  them,  under  the  supremacy  of  the  United  States, 
an  abundant  measure  of  civil  rights,  honest  administration,  reform  of  abuses, 
and  development  of  the  resources  of  the  country.  This  proclamation  fell  still 
born,  so  far  as  the  insurgent  forces  were  concerned,  Aguinaldo  issuing  counter 
proclamations  and  calling  on  the  people  to  fight  for  complete  independence.  It 
was  evident  that  the  settlement  of  the  affair  would  depend  on  the  rifle  and  the 
sword  rather  than  on  paper  proclamations  and  promises. 

THE    INSURRECTION    IN    LUZON. 

On  the  30th  of  December,  1898,  President  McKinley  "had  issued  a  proc 
lamation  to  the  Philippine  people,  in  which  he  offered  them  a  large  measure  of 
local  self-government,  the  right  to  hold  office,  a  fair  judiciary  and  freedom  of 
speech  and  of  the  press.  These  concessions  were  not  satisfactory  to  their  leaders, 
and  in  January,  1899,  a  conference  was  held  with  General  Otis  in  which  the 
Philippine  spokesman  demanded  a  greater  degree  of  self-government  than  lie 
had  authority  to  grant.  As  the  debate  in  the  Senate  upon  the  treaty  of 
peace  with  Spain  approached  its  termination,  and  promised  to  end  in  the  ratifi 
cation  of  the  treaty  and  the  cession  of  the  islands  to  the  United  States,  the  rest 
lessness  and  hostility  of  the  natives  increased,  and  on  the  night  of  February 
4th  the  threatened  outbreak  came,  in  a  fierce  attack  on  the  American  outposts 
at  Manila.  A  severe  battle  ensued,  continuing  for  two  days,  and  ending  in 
the  defeat  of  the  natives,  who  had  suffered  severely  and  were  driven  back  for 
miles  beyond  the  city  limits. 

Meanwhile  a   republic  had   been  proclaimed  by  the  Philippine  leaders, 


THE   UNITED  STATED  BECOMES  A    WORLD  POWER.  587 

Aguinaldo  being  chosen  president  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  native  armies. 
He  immediately  issued  a  declaration  of  war,  and  both  sides  prepared  for  active 
hostilities.  The  first  step  taken  by  the  Filipinos  was  a  desperate  one — an 
attempt  at  wholesale  arson.  On  the  night  of  February  22d  the  city  of  Manila 
was  set  on  fire  at  several  points,  and  the  soldiers  and  firemen  who  sought  to 
extinguish  the  flames  were  fired  upon  from  many  of  the  houses.  The  result  was 
not  serious  except  to  the  natives  themselves,  since  the  conflagration  was  in  great 
part  confined  to  their  quarter  of  the  city.  General  Otis  took  vigilant  precau 
tions  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  such  an  attempt,  and  from  that  time  forward 
Manila,  though  full  of  secret  hostiles,  was  safe  from  the  peril  of  incendiarism. 

THE    CAMPAIGN   OF     1899. 

The  American  forces,  being  strengthened  with  reinforcements,  began  their 
advance  on  March  25th.  They  met  with  sharp  resistance,  the  Filipinos  having 
thrown  up  earthworks  at  every  defensible  point,  and  being  well  armed  with 
Mauser  rifles.  But  they  nowhere  seemed  able  to  sustain  the  vigorous  onsets  of 
the  Americans,  who  did  not  hesitate  to  charge  their  works  and  swim  wide  rivers 
in  face  of  their  fire,  and  they  were  driven  back  from  a  long  succession  of  forti 
fied  places.  On  March  31st  Malolos,  the  capital  of  Aguinaldo,  was  occupied. 
Calumpit,  another  Philippine  stronghold,  was  taken  near  the  end  of  April. 
General  Lawton,  an  old  Indian  fighter,  who  had  recently  reached  the  islands, 
led  an  expedition  northward  through  the  foothills  and  captured  San  Isidro,  the 
second  insurgent  capital.  Various  other  places  were  taken,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  July,  when  the  coming  on  of  the  rainy  season  put  an  end  to  active  operations, 
a  large  and  populous  district  to  the  north  and  west  of  Manila  was  in  American 
hands. 

By  this  time  it  had  become  evident  that  a  larger  army  was  needed  to  com 
plete  the  task,  and  reinforcements  were  now  hurried  across  the  ocean.  With  them 
was  sent  a  considerable  body  of  cavalry,  the  lack  of  which  had  seriously  handi 
capped  the  troops  in  the  spring  campaign.  Fighting  was  resumed  in  mid- 
autumn,  and  Aguinaldo's  new  capital  of  Tarlac  quickly  fell.  The  insurgents 
seemed  to  have  lost  heart  from  their  reverses  in  the  spring,  and  defended  them 
selves  with  less  courage  and  persistence,  the  result  being  that  by  the  1st  of 
December  the  Americans  were  masters  of  the  whole  line  of  the  Manila- 
Dagupan  Railway  and  the  broad  plain  through  which  it  ran,  and  the  Filipinos 
were  in  full  flight  for  the  mountains,  hotly  pursued  by  Lawton  and  Young, 
with  their  cavalry  and  scouts. 

From  that  time  forward  there  was  no  Filipino  army,  properly  so-called, 
Aguinaldo's  forces  being  broken  up  into  fugitive  bands,  capable  only  of  guerilla 


588  ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 

warfare.  The  American  troops  traversed  the  island  from  end  to  end,  having 
frequent  collisions  with  small  parties  of  the  enemy,  in  one  of  which,  unfortu 
nately,  the  gallant  Lawton  was  shot  dead.  Many  of  the  insurgent  leaders  were 
captured  or  surrendered,  but  Aguinaldo  continued  at  large,  and  the  hope  of  a 
final  end  of  the  war  came  to  depend  largely  upon  the  event  of  his  capture. 

In  November  the  Philippine  Commission  made  its  report  to  the  government, 
and  a  system  which  was  thought  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  situation  was  formu 
lated  at  Washington.  This  declared  that  the  people  of  the  Philippines,  while 
many  of  them  were  intelligent  and  capable,  had  no  experience  in  self-govern 
ment,  and  that  it  was  necessary  for  the  United  States  to  retain  a  firm  political 
control,  while  giving  them  such  share  in  the  government  as  they  were  fitted  to 
exercise,  increasing  this  as  they  gained  political  training.  In  accordance  with 
this  policy,  local  governments  were  established  in  those  localities  which  had 
become  pacified,  and  with  very  promising  effect.  By  the  summer  of  1900  the 
resistance  to  American  domination  had  so  much  decreased  that  President 
McKinley  issued  a  proclamation  of  amnesty,  with  the  hope  that  the  natives  still 
in  arms  would  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  cease  their  desultory 
resistance. 

THE    SITUATION    IN    CHINA. 

While  this  was  going  on  in  the  Philippines  a  disturbed  condition  of  affairs 
suddenly  developed  in  a  new  quarter,  the  ancient  and  populous  empire  of  China. 
It  is  necessary  to  go  a  step  backwards  to  trace  the  course  of  events  leading  to  this 
unlooked-for  situation.  The  whole  intercourse  of  European  nations  with  China 
had  been  of  a  character  to  create  indignation  and  hatred  of  foreigners  in  the 
populace  of  that  country.  The  Japano-Chinese  war  increased  this  feeling,  while 
demonstrating  the  incapacity  of  the  Chinese  to  cope  in  war  with  modern  nations. 
In  the  years  that  followed,  the  best  statesmen  of  China  vividly  realized  the 
defects  of  their  system,  and  recognized  that  a  radical  reform  was  necessary  to 
save  the  nation  from  a  total  collapse.  The  nations  of  Europe  were  seizing  the 
best  ports  of  the  empire  and  threatening  to  divide  the  whole  country  between 
them,  a  peril  which  it  needed  vigorous  measures  to  avert. 

The  result  was  an  effort  to  modernize  the  administration.  Kailroads  had 
long  been  practically  forbidden,  but  now  concessions  for  the  building  of  hundreds 
of  miles  of  road  were  granted.  Modern  implements  of  war  were  purchased  in 
great  quantities,  and  the  European  drill  and  discipline  were  introduced  into  the 
imperial  army.  The  young  emperor  became  strongly  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
reformed  ordered  radical  changes  in  the  administration  of  affairs.  In  short, 
a  promising  beginning  was  made  in  the  modernization  of  the  ancient  empire. 


THE    UNITED   tiTATEti  BECOMES  A     WORLD   POWER.  589 

A  movement  of  this  kind  in  a  country  so  rigidly  conservative  as  China 
could  scarcely  fail  to  produce  a  revulsion.  The  party  of  ancient  prejudice  and 
conservative  sentiment — a  party  comprising  the  bulk  of  the  nation — took  the 
alarm.  The  empress-dowager,  who  had  recently  laid  down  the  reins  of  govern 
ment  as  regent,  took  them  up  again,  under  the  support  of  the  conservative 
leaders,  seized  and  held  in  palace  seclusion  the  emperor,  put  to  death  his 
advisers,  and  restored  the  old  methods  of  administration. 

THE    BOXER   OUTBREAK. 

This  revolution  in  the  palace  soon  made  itself  felt  in  the  hovel.  A  secret 
society  of  the  common  people,  known  as  "  The  Boxers,"  rose  in  arms,  made  a 
murderous  onslaught  upon  the  missionaries,  who  were  widely  domiciled  within 
the  realm,  and  soon  appeared  in  the  capital.  Here,  aided  by  many  of  the  soldiers, 
and  led  by  men  high  in  rank  in  the  anti-foreign  party,  they  made  a  virulent 
assault  upon  the  legation  buildings,  and  put  the  ministers  of  the  nations  in 
imminent  peril  of  their  lives.  These  exalted  officials  were  cut  off  from  all 
communication  with  their  governments,  stories  of  their  massacre  alone  filtering 
through,  and  the  powers,  roused  to  desperation  by  the  danger  of  their  envoys, 
sent  ships  and  troops  in  all  haste  to  the  nearest  point  to  Pekin.  In  this  move 
ment  the  United  States  actively  joined,  its  minister,  Edwin  H.  Conger,  and  the 
members  of  the  embassy  sharing  the  common  peril. 

What  followed  must  be  briefly  told.  A  small  force,  made  up  of  soldiers 
and  marines  of  various  nations,  under  Admiral  Seymour,  of  the  British  navy, 
set  out  on  June  llth  for  Pekin.  This  movement  failed.  The  railroad  was 
found  to  be  torn  up,  a  strong  force  of  Chinese  blocked  the  way,  and  Seymour 
and  his  men  were  forced  to  turn  back  and  barely  escaped  with  their  lives. 

At  the  same  time  a  naval  attack  was  made  on  the  forts  at  Taku  ;  Admiral 
Eemey,  of  the  United  States  navy,  refusing  to  take  part  in  this  ill-advised 
action.  Its  immediate  result  was  an  assault  in  force  by  Boxers  and  troops  on 
the  foreign  quarter  of  the  city  of  Tien  Tsin,  in  which  the  Chinese  fought  with 
an  unexpected  skill  and  persistence.  They  were  repulsed,  but  only  after  the 
hardest  fight  which  foreigners  had  ever  experienced  on  Chinese  soil. 

THE    RESCUE    OF    THE    MINISTERS. 

As  the  month  of  July  went  on  the  mystery  at  Pekin  deepened.  It  became 
known  that  the  German  minister  had  been  murdered,  and  doubtful  reports  of 
the  slaughter  of  all  the  foreigners  in  the  capital  were  cabled.  As  it  seemed 
impossible  to  obtain  authentic  news,  the  greatest  possible  haste  was  made  to 
collect  an  army  strong  enough  to  march  to  Pekin,  and  early  in  August  this 


590  ADMINISTRATION  OF  McKINLEY. 

force,  consisting  of  some  16,000  Japanese,  Russians,  Americans  and  British, 
set  out.  A  severe  struggle  was  looked  for,  and  their  ability  to  reach  Pekin 
seemed  very  doubtful.  At  Peitsang,  some  twelve  miles  on  the  route,  the  Chinese 
made  a  desperate  resistance,  which  augured  ill  for  the  enterprise  ;  but  their 
defeat  there  seemed  to  rob  them  of  spirit,  and  the  gates  of  Pekin  were  reached 
with  little  more  fighting.  On  the  14th  the  gates  were  assailed,  the  feeble  opposi 
tion  from  within  was  overcome,  and  the  troops  marched  in  triumph  to  the  British 
legation,  the  stout  walls  of  which  had  offered  a  haven  of  refuge  to  the 
imperilled  legationers. 

Glad,  indeed,  were  the  souls  of  the  beleaguered  men  and  women  within,  so 
long  in  peril  of  death  from  torture  or  starvation,  to  see  the  stars  and  stripes 
and  the  union  jack  waving  over  the  coming  troops.  Only  then  was  the 
mystery  surrounding  their  fate  made  clear  and  the  safety  of  all  the  ministers, 
except  the  representative  of  Germany,  assured.  So  far  as  the  United  States 
was  concerned,  the  work  was  at  an  end.  That  country  wanted  no  share  in  the 
partition  of  China.  All  it  demanded  was  an  "  open  door  "  to  commerce,  an 
equal  share  in  the  important  Chinese  trade.  No  sooner  was  its  minister  rescued 
than  it  was  announced  that  the  American  troops  would  be  withdrawn  as  soon  as 
proper  relations  with  the  Chinese  government  had  been  consummated,  and  that 
in  no  case  would  the  United  States  support  any  land-seizing  projects  of  the 
nations  of  Europe. 

THE    POLITICAL    CAMPAIGN    OF  11)00. 

In  the  summer  of  1900  the  national  conventions  of  the  political  parties 
were  held  to  nominate  candidates  and  formulate  platforms  for  the  presidential 
campaign  of  that  year.  The  candidates  for  President  proved  to  be  the  same  as 
in  1800,  William  McKinley  being  chosen  by  the  Republicans,  William  J. 
Bryan  by  the  Democrats  and  Populists.  For  Vice-President,  Adlai  E. 
Stevenson,  who  had  filled  that  office  under  Cleveland,  was  'selected  by  the 
Democrat  and  Populist  parties ;  Theodore  Roosevelt,  Governor  of  New  York 
and  the  hero  of  the  battle  of  San  Juan,  by  the  Republicans. 

The  platforms  of  the  parties  were  significant  in  that  the  old  party  war  cries 
sank  into  the  background  and  new  principles  rose  into  prominence.  The  tariff, 
so  long  the  leading  issue,  vanished  from  sight.  The  question  of  free  silver 
coinage,  so  prominent  in  1800,  became  a  minor  issue.  The  new  points  in  debate 
were  the  trusts  and  the  policy  of  so-called  Imperialism.  The  trusts,  however, 
could  not  be  made  a  leading  question.  Both  parties  condemned  them  in  their 
platforms,  though  the  Democrats  maintained  that  they  were  supported  by  the 
existing  administration,  and  that  the  Republican  party  was  the  sustainer  of 
monopoly.  This  left  as  the  leading  issue  the  question  of  Imperialism  versus 


THE    UNITED  STATES  BECOMES  A    WORLD  POWER. 


691 


Anti-Imperialism,  a  controversy  based  on  the  effort  of  the  administration  to 
subdue  and  control  the  people  of  the  Philippines.  The  persons  opposed  to  this 
policy  had  grown  in  numbers  until  Anti-Imperialism  was  taken  up  as  the  main 
principle  of  the  Democratic  platform.  The  country  became  divided  upon  this 
great  question,  and  the  campaign  orators  fulminated  pro  and  con,  with  all  their 
eloquence,  upon  the  grand  problem  of  the  conquest  or  the  independence  of  the 
Filipinos.  Such  was  the  debatable  question  with  which  the  United  States  ap 
proached  the  portals  of  the  twentieth  century,  the  final  and  most  critical  out 
come  of  the  war  with  Spain  and  of  Dowey's  wonderful  victory  in  the  bay  of 
Manila. 

THE   CENSUS    OF    1900. 

Much  interest  was  taken  throughout  the  United  States  in  the  results  of  the 
twelfth  census  which  was  taken  in  July,  1900,  under  the  direction  of  William 
R.  Merriam.  Elaborate  preparations  were  made  and  numerous  calculating  and 
registering  machines  were  employed  to  facilitate  the  work.  The  country  was 
divided  into  52,600  districts,  and  from  these  the  returns  indicate  a  total  popu 
lation  of  about  76,000,000  against  62,600,000  by  the  census  of  1890.  For 
many  years  it  had  been  predicted  that  the  census  of  1900  would  show  a  popu 
lation  of  100,000,000.  There  being  less  public  land  to  be  distributed  for  homes 
has  reduced  immigration,  and  been  one  of  the  reasons  that  the  percentage  of 
increase  in  population  has  diminished.  The  census  of  1900  shows  that  about 
thirty-three  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  living  in  cities  or  towns  of  8,000 
inhabitants  or  over.  In  1890  this  percentage  was  29.  The  centre  of  popula 
tion  for  the  United  States  in  1880  was  near  Chillicothe,  Ohio.  In  1890  near 
Decatur,  111.,  and  in  1900  near  Chicago. 

The  following  table  shows  the  aggregate  population  of  twenty  cities  by  the 
twelfth  census,  in  their  order,  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  eleventh  : 


Greater  New  York 

Chicago 

Philadelphia 

Brooklyn 

St.  Louis 

Boston 

Baltimore     . 

Cleveland    . 

Buffalo 

San  Francisco 

Cincinnati    . 

Pittsburg 

New  Orleans 

Detroit 

Milwaukee  . 

Washington 

Newark 

Jersey  City  . 

Louisville     . 

Minneapolis 


12th  Census. 

llth  Census. 

1900. 

1890. 

3,437,202 

2,506,591 

1,698.575 

1,099.850 

1,293,697 

1,046,964 

1,166,582 

806.343 

575,238 

451,770 

560.892 

448,477 

608,957 

434,439 

381,768 

261,353 

352,219 

255,664 

342,782 

298,997 

325,902 

296,908 

321,616 

238,617 

287,104 

242,039 

285,704 

205,876 

285,315 

20-4.468 

278,718 

230,392 

246,070 

181,830 

206,433 

163,003 

204,731 

161,129 

202,718 

164,738 

GEN.  ARTHUR  MAcARTHUR. 


GEN.  CHARLES  KING. 


GEN    HENRY  W.  LAWTON. 


GEN.  FRED.  FUNSTON. 


POPULAR    COMMANDERS    IN    THE    FILIPINO    WAR. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


ADMINISTRATION     OK     McKINLKY    (CONTINUED) 

1897-19O1. 

OUR     NKW     ROSSKSSIONS. 

The  Islands  of  Hawaii— Their  Inhabitants  and  Products— City  of  Honolulu— History  of  Cuba— The  Ten 
Years'  War— The  Insurrection  of  1895-98— Geography  and  Productions  of  Cuba— Its  Climate- 
History  of  Porto  Rico — Its  People  and  Productions — San  Juan  and  Ponce — Location,  Discovery, 
and  History  of  the  Philippines— Insurrections  of  the  Filipinos— City  of  Manila— Commerce— Philip 
pine  Productions— Climate  and  Volcanoes— Dewey  at  Manila— The  Ladrone  Islands— Conclusion. 

THE    HAWAIIAN    ISLANDS    "THE    PARADISE   OF   THE    PACIFIC." 


wanan 


NATIVE   GHRASS  HOUSE,  HAWAII. 


THE  annexation  of  the  Ha- 
Islands  to  the  United 
States,  by  a  joint  vote  of  Con 
gress,  July  7, 1898,  marks  a  new 
era  in  the  history  of  our  country. 
It  practically  sounded  the  death- 
knell  of  the  conservative  doctrine 
of  non-expansion  beyond  our  own 
natural  physical  boundaries.  The 
only  precedent  approaching  this 
act,  in  our  history,  is  the  annex 
ation  of  Texas.  The  Louisiana 
Territory,  Florida,  and  Alaska  were  acquired  by  purchase;  California,  New 
Mexico,  and  a  part  of  Colorado  were  obtained  by  cession  from  Mexico ;  Oregon, 
Washington,  Montana,  and  Idaho  by  treaty  with  Great  Britain.  Texas  alone 
was  annexed.  The  fact,  however,  that  it  was  a  republic  is  the  only  circumstance 
which  makes  its  case  analogous  to  that  of  Hawaii.  Texas  lay  between  two  large 
nations,  and  was  obliged  to  seek  union  with  one  of  them.  It  was  within  our 
own  continent  and  inhabited  largely  by  our  own  people.  Hawaii  marks  our 
first  advance  into  foreign  lands,  and  ranges  America  for  the  first  time  among 
the  nations  whose  policy  is  that  of  expansion,  by  territorial  extensions,  over 
the  globe. 

Hawaii  is  called  the  "  Paradise  of  the  Pacific,"  and  there  is  little  doubt  that 

38 


594  OUR  NEW  POSSESSIONS. 

its  climate,  fertility  and  healthfulness  justify  the  name.  It  is  one  of  the  few 
spots  upon  earth  where  one  can  almost,  to  use  a  slang  phrase,  "  touch  the 
button  "  and  obtain  any  kind  of  weather  he  desires.  Mark  Twain's  suggestion 
to  those  who  go  to  these  islands  to  find  a  congenial  clime  is  about  as  practical  as 
it  is  humorous — "  Select  your  climate,  mark  your  thermometer  at  the  temperature 
desired,  and  climb  until  the  mercury  stops  there."  Everyone  who  visits  Hawaii 
is  charmed  with  the  country,  and  never  forgets  its  novelty,  stupendous  and 
delightful  scenery,  clear  atmosphere,  gorgeous  sunlight,  and  profusion  of  fruits 
and  flowers. 

"  No  alien  land  in  all  the  world,"  writes  Mr.  Clemens,  "  could  so  longingly 
and  beseechingly  haunt  me,  sleeping  and  waking,  through  half  a  life-time,  as 
that  has  done.  Other  things  leave  me,  but  that  abides.  Other  things  change, 
but  that  remains  the  same.  For  me  its  balmy  airs  are  always  blowing ;  its 
summer  seas  flash  in  the  sun  ;  the  pulsing  of  its  surf  beats  in  my  ear ;  I  can  see 
its  garlanded  crags,  its  leaping  cascades,  its  plumy  palms  drowsing  by  the  shore, 
its  remote  summits  floating  like  islands  above  the  cloud  rack  ;  I  can  feel  the 
spirit  of  its  woodland  solitudes ;  I  can  hear  the  splash  of  its  brooks ;  in  my 
nostrils  still  lives  the  breath  of  flowers  that  perished  twenty  years  ago." 

DISCOVERY    AND    LOCATION. 

Captain  Cook  discovered  the  islands  in  January,  1778,  and  named  them 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  after  Lord  Sandwich ;  but  the  native  name,  Hawaii,  is 
more  generally  used.  There  is  good  evidence  that  Juan  Gaetano,  in  the  year 
1555 — 223  years  before  Cook's  visit — landed  upon  their  shores.  Old  Spanish 
charts  and  the  traditions  of  the  natives  bear  out  this  theory,  but  they  were  not 
made  known  to  the  world  until  Cook  visited  them.  It  is  popularly  believed 
that  the  original  inhabitants  of  Hawaii  came  from  New  Zealand,  though  that 
island  is  some  4,000  miles  southwest  of  them.  The  physical  appearance  of  the 
people  is  very  similar,  and  their  languages  are  so  much  alike  that  a  native  Ha 
waiian  and  a  native  New  Zealander,  meeting  for  the  first  time,  can  carry  on  a 
conversation.  Their  ideas  of  the  Deity  and  some  of  their  religious  customs  are 
nearly  the  same.  That  the  islands  have  been  peopled  for  a  long  time  is  proven 
by  the  fact  that  human  bones  are  found  under  lava  beds  and  coral  reefs  where 
geologists  declare  they  have  lain  for  at  least  thirteen  hundred  years. 

There  are  eight  inhabited  islands  in  the  archipelago,  Hawaii,  Maui,  Kahoo- 
lawi,  Lanai,  Molokai,  Oahu,  Kauai,  and  Niihau,  comprising  an  area  of  6,700 
square  miles,  a  little  less  than  that  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  and  about  five 
hundred  miles  greater  than  the  combined  areas  of  Rhode  Island  and  Connecti 
cut.  They  extend  from  northwest  to  southeast,  over  a  distance  of  about  380 
miles,  the  several  islands  being  separated  by  channels  varying  in  width  from 


SKNOR  MONTERO  RIOS 

President  of  the  Spanish  Peace  Commission  whose  painful 

duty  required   him  to  siyn  away  his  country's 

colonial  possessions. 


GENERAL  RAMON  BLANCO 

Who  succeeded  Weyler  as  Captain-General  of  Cuba  in  1897. 
He  was  formerly  Governor-General  of  the 

Philippine  Islands. 


ADMIRAL  CERVERA 
Commander  of  Spanish  Fleet  at  Santiag 


SAGASTA 
Premier  <>f  Spain  during  the  Spanish-American  War. 


PROMINENT   SPANIARDS,    LAST    HALF    OF   THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 


OUR  NEW  POSSESSIONS. 


595 


six  to  sixty  miles.  They  lie  entirely  within  the  tropics,  not  far  from  a  direct 
line  between  San  Francisco  and  Japan,  2,080  miles  from  San  Francisco,  which 
is  nearer  to  them  than  any  other  point  of  land,  except  one  of  the  Carolines. 
The  largest  and  most  southern  island  is  Hawaii,  which  has  given  its  name  to  the 
group. 

THE    HIGHEST    AND    LARGEST    VOLCANOES. 

The  entire  archipelago  is  of  volcanic  origin,  but  there  nrp  no  active  errors 


KAISING  THE  AMEBICAH  FiLAG-  IN  HONOLULU,  AD  GUST  12,  1898. 

The  cut  in  the  corner  shows  the  Royal  Palace  formerly  occupied  by  the  Hawaiian  Kings. 

to  be  found  at  the  present  time,  except  two,  on  the  island  of  Hawaii.  Maun  a 
Loa  is  the  highest  volcano  in  the  world,  being  nearly  14,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
It  has  an  immense  crater ;  but,  while  it  still  sends  forth  smoke  and  has  a  lake 
of  molten  lava  at  the  bottom,  there  have  been  no  eruptions  for  a  number  of 
years.  Kilauea,  the  largest  active  volcano  on  the  globe,  is  about  sixteen  miles 
from  Mauna  Loa,  on  one  of  its  foothills,  4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  in  a 
constant  state  of  activity.  Its  last  great  eruption  occurred  in  1894.  This  vol 
cano  was  described  by  the  missionary  Ellis  in  the  year  1823,  and  hundreds  of 
tourists  visit  it  every  year.  Its  crater  is  nine  miles  in  circumference  and  several 


596 


OUR  NEW  POSSESSIONS. 


hundred  feet  deep.  Under  the  conduct  of  competent  guides  the  tourists  descend 
into  the  crater  and  walk  over  the  cool  lava  in  places,  while  near  them  the  hot 
flame  and  molten  lava  are  spouting  to  the  height  of  hundreds  of  feet. 

The  largest  extinct  volcano  in  the  archipelago  is  on  the  island  of  Maui,  the 
bottom  of  the  crater  measuring  sixteen  square  miles.  All  of  these  stupendous 
volcanic  mountains  rise  so  gently  on  the  western  side  that  horsemen  easily  ride 
to  their  summits. 

INHABITANTS    OF    THE   ISLANDS. 

When  Cook  visited  Hawaii, 
he  found  the  islands  inhabited, 
according  to  his  estimate,  by  400,- 
000  natives.  Forty  years  later 
when  the  census  was  taken  there 
were  142,000.  These  diminished 
one-half  during  the  next  fifty  years, 
and  the  native  population  of  the 
islands  in  1897  was  only  31,019. 
The  total  population  by  the  last 
census,  when  the  islands  became  a 
part  of  the  United  States,  was 
109,020,  made  up,  in  addition  to 
the  natives  mentioned,  of  24,407 
Japanese,  21,616  Chinese,  12,191 
Portuguese,  and  3,086  Americans. 
The  remainder  were  half-castes 
from  foreign  intermarriage  with 
the  natives,  together  with  a  small 
representation  from  England, 
Germany,  and  other  European 
countries. 

That  the  original  Kawaiians 

must  soon  become  extinct  as  a  pure  race  is  evident,  though  they  have  never 
been  persecuted  or  maltreated.  They  are  a  handsome,  strong-looking  people, 
with  a  rich  dark  complexion,  jet  black  eyes,  wavy  hair,  full  voluptuous  lips,  and 
teeth  of  snowy  whiteness;  but  they  are  constitutionally  weak,  easily  contract 
and  quickly  succumb  to  disease,  and  the  only  hope  of  perpetuating  their  blood 
seems  to  lie  in  mixing  it  by  intermarriage  with  other  races. 

OLD   TIMES   IN    HAWAII. 

Prior  to  1795,  all  the  islands  had  separate  kings,  but   in  that  and  the 


HULA  DANCING  GIRLS.  HAWAII. 


OUR  NEW  POSSESSIONS.  507 

following  year  the  great  king  of  Hawaii,  Kamehameha,  with  cannon  that  he 
procured  from  Vancouver's  ships,  assaulted  and  subjugated  all  the  surrounding 
kings,  and  since  that  time  the  islands  have  been  under  one  government.  Pre 
vious  to  this,  the  natives  had  been  at  war,  according  to  their  traditions,  for  three 
hundred  years.  The  fierceness  of  their  hand-to-hand  conflicts,  as  described  by 
their  historians,  has  probably  not  been  surpassed  by  those  of  any  other  people 
in  the  world.  The  four  descendants  of  Kamehameha  reigned  until  1872,  when 
the  last  of  his  line  died  childless.  A  new  king  was  elected,  who  died  within  a 
year,  and  another  was  then  elected  by  the  people.  It  was  to  this  last  line  that 
Queen  Liliuokalani  belonged,  and  she  was  deposed  by  the  revolution  of  1893, 
led  by  the  American  and  European  residents  upon  the  islands.  These  patriots 
set  up  a  provisional  government  and  made  repeated  application  for  admission  to 
the  United  States,  the  tender  of  the  islands  being  finally  accepted  by  a  joint 
vote  of  Congress  on  July  7,  1898,  since  which  time  the  Hawaiian  Islands  have 
been  a  part  of  our  country. 

The  manners  and  customs  of  the  native  Hawaiians  are  most  interesting, 
but  space  forbids  a  description  of  them  here.  Their  religion  was  a  gross  form 
of  idolatry,  with  many  gods.  Human  sacrifice  was  freely  practiced.  They 
deified  dead  chiefs  and  worshiped  their  bones.  The  great  king,  Kamehameha 
L,  though  an  idolater,  was  a  most  progressive  monarch,  and  invited  Vancouver, 
who  went  there  in  1794,  taking  swine,  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses,  together  with 
oranges  and  other  valuable  plants,  to  bring  over  teachers  and  missionaries  to 
teach  his  people  "  the  white  man's  religion." 

THE   WORK    OF    AMERICAN   MISSIONARIES. 

But  it  was  not  until  1820,  after  the  death  of  the  great  king,  that  the  first 
missionaries  arrived,  and  they  came  from  America.  The  year  previous,  in 
1819,  Kamehameha  II.  had  destroyed  many  of  the  temples  and  idols  and  for 
bidden  idol  worship  in  the  islands ;  consequently,  when  the  missionaries  arrived 
they  beheld  the  unprecedented  spectacle  of  a  nation  without  a  religion.  The 
natives  were  rapidly  converted  to  Christianity.  It  was  these  American  mis 
sionaries  who  first  reduced  the  Hawaiian  language  to  writing,  established  schools 
and  taught  the  natives.  As  a  result  of  their  work,  the  Hawaiians  are  the  most 
generally  educated  people,  in  the  elementary  sense,  in  the  world.  There  is 
hardly  a  person  in  the  islands,  above  the  age  of  eight  years,  who  cannot  read 
and  write.  In  spite  of  education,  however,  many  of  the  ancient  superstitions 
still  exist,  and  some  of  the  old  stone  temples  are  yet  standing.  What  the  United 
States  will  do  with  these  heathen  temples  remains  to  be  seen.  The  natives  re 
vere  them  as  relics  of  their  savage  history,  and  as  such  they  may  be  preserved. 

Aside  from  the  horrors  of  superstitions,  the  Hawaiians  lead  a  happy  life, 


598 


OUR  NEW  POSSESSIONS. 


full  of  amusements  of  various  kinds  on  the  land  and  water — for  Hawaiian  men, 
women  and  children  live  much  of  their  time  in  the  water.  Infants  are 
often  taught  the  art  of  swimming  before  they  can  walk.  The  surf  riding  or 
swimming  of  the  natives  astonished  Captain  Cook  more  than  any  of  their  re 
markable  performances.  The  time  selected  was  when  a  storm  was  tossing  the 
waves  high  and  the  surf  was  furious.  Then  the  men  and  women  would  dive  through 
the  surf,  with  narrow  boards  about  nine  inches  wide  and  eight  feet  long,  and, 


CHURCH   IN   HONOLULU,  HAWAIIAN   ISLANDS. 

Built  of  lava  stone.    Seating  capacity  about  3'KXi. 

swimming  a  mile  or  more  out  to  sea,  mount  on  the  crest  of  a  huge  billow,  and 
sitting,  kneeling  or  standing,  with  wild  gesticulations,  ride  over  the  waves 
and  breakers  like  gods  or  demons  of  the  storm.  This  practice  has  now  ceased 
to  be  indulged  in.  But  the  swimming  of  the  Kanaka  boys,  who  flock  around 
incoming  steamers,  and  dive  after  and  catch  coins  which  tourists  throw  into  the 
water,  like  so  many  ducks  diving  after  corn,  shows  what  a  degree  of  perfec 
tion  the  natatorial  art  has  attained  among  the  native  Hawaiians.  Sledging 
down  the  mountain  sides,  boxing,  and  tournament  riding  are  other  popular 


OUR  NEW  POSSESSIONS.  599 

amusements ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  boxing,  the  women  compete  with  the 
men  in  the  amusements. 

PRODUCTS    AND   COMMERCE. 

Sugar  is  king  in  Hawaii  as  wheat  is  in  the  Northwest.  In  1890  there  were 
19,000  laborers — nearly  one-fifth  of  the  total  population — engaged  on  sugar 
plantations.  Ten  tons  to  the  acre  have  been  raised  on  the  richest  lauds.  The 
average  is  over  four  tons  per  acre,  but  it  requires  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
months  for  a  crop  to  mature.  Rice  growing  is  also  an  important  industry.  It 
is  raised  in  marsh  lands,  and  nearly  all  the  labor  is  done  by  Chinese,  though 
they  do  not  own  the  land.  Coffee  is  happily  well  suited  to  the  soil  that  is  un 
fitted  for  sugar  and  rice,  and  Cae  Hawaiian  coffee  is  particularly  fine,  combining 
the  strength  of  the  Java  with  a  delicate  flavor  of  its  own. 

Diversified  .farming  is  coming  more  into  vogue.  Fruit  raising  will  un 
doubtedly  become  one  of  the  most  important  branches  when  fast  steamers  are 
provided  for  its  transportation.  Sheep  and  cattle  raising  must  also  prove  profit 
able,  since  the  animals  require  little  feeding  and  need  no  housing. 

"  Almost  all  kinds  of  vegetables  and  fruits  can  be  raised,  many  of  those 
belonging  to  the  temperate  zones  thriving  on  the  elevated  mountain  slopes. 
Fruit  is  abundant;  the  guava  grows  wild  in  all  the  islands,  and  were  the  manu 
facture  of  jelly  made  from  it  carried  on,  on  a  large  scale,  the  product  could 
doubtless  be  exported  with  profit.  Both  bananas  and  pineapples  are  prolific, 
and  there  are  many  fruits  and  vegetables,  which  as  yet  have  been  raised  only 
for  local  trade,  which  would,  if  cultivated  for  export,  bring  in  rich  returns. 

"  Of  the  total  exports  from  the  Hawaiian  Islands  in  1895,  the  United  States 
received  99.04  per  cent.,  and  in  the  same  year  79.04  per  cent,  of  the  imports  to 
the  islands  were  from  the  United  States.  The  total  value  of  the  sugar  sent  to 
the  United  States  in  1896  was  $14,932,010  ;  of  rice,  $194,903  ;  of  coffee,  $45,444 ; 
and  of  bananas,  $121,273." 

THE   CHIEF    CITY. 

Honolulu,  the  capital  city,  is  to  Hawaii  what  Havana  is  to  Cuba,  or  better, 
what  Manila  is  to  the  Philippine  Islands.  Here  are  concentrated  the  business, 
political  and  social  forces  that  control  the  life  and  progress  of  the  entire  archi 
pelago.  This  city  of  30,000  inhabitants  is  situated  on  the  south  coast  of  Oahu, 
and  extends  up  the  Nuuanu  Valley.  It  is  well  provided  with  street-car  lines — 
which  also  run  to  a  bathing  resort  four  miles  outside  the  city — a  telephone  sys 
tem,  electric  lights,  numerous  stores,  churches  and  schools,  a  library  of  over 
10,000  volumes,  and  frequent  steam  communication  with  San  Francisco.  There 
are  papers  published  in  the  English,  Hawaiian,  Portuguese,  Japanese,  and 


600 


OUR  NEW  POSSESSIONS. 


Chinese  languages,  and  a  railroad  is  being  built,  of  which  thirty  miles  along  the 
coast  are  already  completed.  Honolulu  has  also  a  well-equipped  fire  department 
and  public  water-works.  The  residence  portions  of  the  city  are  well  laid  out,  the 
houses,  many  of  which  are  very  handsome,  being  surrounded  by  gardens  kept 
green  throughout  the  year.  The  climate  is  mild  and  even,  and  the  city  is  a 
delightful  and  a  beautiful  place  of  residence.  Hawaii  is  peculiarly  an  agricul 
tural  country,  and  Honolulu  gains  its  importance  solely  as  a  distributing  centre 


SUGAR  CANE  PLANTATION,  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 

re  population  is  engaged  in  sugar  culture.    The  average  product  is  about  three  tons  per  acre. 

or   depot  of   supplies.     Warehouses,   lumber   yards,   and   commercial   houses 
ound   but  there  is  a  singular  absence  of  mills  and  factories  and  productive 
rtablkhmente     There  are  no  metals  or  minerals,  or  as  yet,  textile  plants  or 
d  plaj  ts,  whose  manufacture  is  undertaken  in  this  unique  city. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  are,  without  question,  on  the  threshold  of  a  zreat 
industrial  era,  fraught  with  most  potent  results  to  the  prosperity  and  develop 
ment  of  that  land.  Its  climate  is  delightful  and  healthful,  and  its  soil  so  fertile 
that  it  will  easily  support  5,000,000  people. 


OUR     NE\V     POSSESSIONS     (CONTINUED). 


CUBA,  "THE    CHILD    OF   OUR   ADOPTION." 

ALTHOUGH  Cuba  is  not  a  part  or  a 
possession  of  the  United  States,  it  has 
since  the  war  with  Spain,  in  1898,  come 
under  the  protection  of  this  government, 
and  is,  therefore,  entitled  to  a  place  in 
this  volume.  In  the  hand  of  Providence, 
this  island  became  the  doorway  to  Amer 
ica.  It  was  here  that  Columbus  landed, 
October  28,  1492.  True,  he  touched 
earlier  at  one  of  the  smaller  islands  to 
the  north ;  but  it  was  merely  a  halting 
before  pushing  on  to  Cuba.  "  Juana  " 
Columbus  called  the  island,  in  honor  of 
Isabella's  infant  son.  Afterward  it  was 
successively  known  as  Fernandina, 
Santiago,  and  Ave  Maria  ;  but  the  simple 
natives,  who  were  there  to  the  number 
of  350,000,  called  it  Cooba,  and  this 
name  prevailed  over  the  Spanish  titles, 
as  the  island  has  finally  prevailed  over 
Spanish  domination,  and  it  has  come 
under  the  protection  of  America  with  its 
Indian  name,  slightly  changed  to  Cuba, 
remaining  as  the  sole  and  only  heritage 
we  have  of  the  simple  aborigines  who 
have  utterly  perished  from  the  face  of 
the  earth  under  Spanish  cruelty. 

In  1494  Columbus  visited  Cuba  a  second  time,  and  once  again  in  1502.  In 
1511  Diego  Columbus,  the  son  of  the  great  discoverer,  with  a  colony  of  between 
three  and  four  hundred  Spaniards,  came,  and  in  1514  he  founded  the  towns  of 
Santiago  and  Trinidad.  Five  years  later,  in  1519,  the  present  capital  Havana, 

or  Habana,  was  founded.     The  French  reduced  the  city  in  1538,  practically 

601 


TOMB  OF  CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS  IN 
THE  CATHEDRAL  AT  HAVANA. 

Fhe  ashes  of  the  great  discoverer  were  removed  from  this 
tomb  to  Spain  in  December,  1898. 


602  CUBA,  "THE  CHILD   OF  OUR  ADOPTION." 

demolishing  the  whole  town.  Under  the  governor,  De  Soto,  it  was  rebuilt  and 
fortified,  the  famous  Morro  Castle  and  the  Punta,  which  are  still  standing,  being 
built  at  that  early  date. 

THE   ORIGINAL   INHABITANTS. 

The  natives,  whom  Columbus  found  in  Cuba,  were  agreeable  in  feature,  and 
so  amiable  in  disposition  that  they  welcomed  the  white  man  with  open  arms,  and, 
besides  contributing  food,  readily  gave  up  their  treasures  to  please  the  Spaniards. 
Unlike  the  warlike  cannibal  tribes  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  known  as  the  Caribs, 
they  lived  in  comparative  peace  with  one  another,  and  had  a  religion  which  rec 
ognized  the  Supreme  Being.  Columbus  held  several  conferences  with  these 
simple  natives,  who  numbered,  according  to  his  estimate,  from  350,000  to  half 
a  million  souls,  and  his  associations  and  dealings  with  them  on  his  first  visit 
were  always  friendly  and  of  a  mutually  pleasing  nature.  But  when  he  returned 
to  Spain  he  left  soldiers,  who  brutally  maltreated  them,  until  the  natives  rose  in 
revolt  and  exterminated  every  white  man.  Even  Columbus  himself,  in  1494, 
had  to  fight  the  Indians  at  the  landing-place. 

A  salubrious  climate,  a  fertile  soil,  and  simple  wants  rendered  it  unneces 
sary  for  the  native  to  do  hard  work ;  and  although  it  is  well  proven  that  he  did 
mine  copper  and  traded  in  it  with  the  mound  builders  of  Florida,  yet  the  native 
was  not  accustomed  to  arduous  toil,  and  rebelled  against  it.  This,  perhaps,  was 
unfortunate,  for  the  perpetuity  of  his  race  at  that  time  depended  upon  this  very 
quality.  The  Spanish  "  friend  "  who  came  to  the  island  was  incapable  of  work. 
He  neither  would  nor  could,  under  his  ethics  of  self-respect,  abase  himself  to 
labor,  so  he  proceeded  to  enslave  the  native  to  labor  for  him.  The  Cuban  re 
belled,  and  fled  before  the  superior  Spanish  weapons  from  the  coasts  to  the 
mountain  fastnesses  of  the  interior. 

EXTERMINATION    OF   THE    NATIVES. 

Then  began  that  cruel  and  long-continued  war  of  extermination,  of  which 
history  has  recorded  the  most  shocking  details.  The  conquest  was  begun  under 
Diego  Columbus,  the  son  of  the  great  discoverer.  The  merciless  Velasquez  was 
his  general,  and  the  frightful  cruelties  which  he  inaugurated  upon  the  simple 
natives  have  been  continued  for  nearly  four  hundred  years  by  his  successors  in  the 
island,  though  the  annihilation  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  themselves  was  a  brief  and 
bloody  work.  Velasquez  rode  them  down  and  trampled  them — regardless  of  age 
or  sex — under  the  iron  hoofs  of  his  war-horses,  slashed  them  with  swords,  devas 
tated  their  villages,  and  bore  them  away  into  slavery.  The  Cuban  had  no 
weapons ;  the  mountain  fastnesses  could  not  hide  him  from  his  relentless  pur 
suer.  African  slaves,  who  were  brought  to  the  island  in  Spanish  ships,  were 


CUBA,  "THE  CHILD    OF  OUR  ADOPTION." 


603 


armed  and  forced  by  their  masters  to  chase  the  natives,  and  not  a  forest  or  moun 
tain  top  was  a  place  of  refuge  for  these  doomed  children  of  the  soil.  One  histo 
rian  declares :  "  There  is  little  doubt  that  before  1560  the  whole  of  this  native 
population  had  disappeared  from  the  island.  They  were  so  completely  extermi 
nated  that  it  is  doubtful  if  the  blood  of  their  race  was  even  remotely  preserved 
in  the  mixed  classes  who  followed  African  and  Chinese  introduction." 


A    PEKIOD    OF    REST. 

For  nearly  two  hundred  years  after  the  extermination  of  the  natives,  Cuba 


MAGNIFICENT  INDIAN   STATUE   IN   THE  PRADO,  HAVANA,  CUBA. 

rested  without  a  struggle  in  the  arms  of  Spain.  The  early  settlers  engaged  al 
most  wholly  in  pastoral  pursuits.  Tobacco  was  indigenous  to  the  soil,  and  in 
1580  the  Cuban  planters  began  its  culture.  Later,  sugar-cane  was  imported  from 
the  Canaries,  and  found  to  be  a  fruitful  and  profitable  crop.  The  beginning  of 
the  culture  of  sugar  demanded  more  laborers,  and  the  importation  of  additional 
slaves  was  the  result.  In  1717,  Spain  attempted  to  make  a  monopoly  of  the  to 
bacco  culture,  and  the  first  Cuban  revolt  occurred.  In  1723  a  second  uprising 
took  place,  because  of  an  oppressive  government ;  but  these  early  revolts  against 
tyranny  were  insignificant  as  compared  with  those  of  the  last  half-century. 


604  CUBA,  "THE  CHILD    OF  OUR   ADOPTION." 

In  1762,  the  city  of  Havana  was  captured  by  the  English,  with  an  expedi 
tion  commanded  by  Lord  Albemarle,  but  his  fighting  troops  were  principally 
Americans  under  the  immediate  command  of  Generals  Phineas  Lyman  and 
Israel  Putnam  of  Revolutionary  fame.  The  story  of  Putnam's  command  in  this 
war  is  thrilling  and  sad.  After  first  suffering  shipwreck  and  many  hardships  in 
reaching  the  island,  they  lay  before  Havana,  where  Spanish  bullets  and  fever  al 
most  annihilated  the  whole  command.  Scarcely  more  than  one  in  fifty  lived  to 
return  to  America.  By  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1763,  Cuba  was  unfortunately  re 
stored  to  Spain,  and  it  was  afterward  that  her  troubles  with  the  "  Mother  Coun 
try,"  as  Spain  affectionately  called  herself  to  all  her  provinces,  began.  The 
hand  of  oppression  for  one  and  a  quarter  centuries  relaxed  not  its  grasp,  and 
year  by  year  grew  heavier  and  more  galling. 

DISCONTENT    AND    INSURRECTIONS. 

Some  of  the  most  prolific  seeds  of  modern  revolutions  may  be  said  to  have 
been  sown  when  the  African  slave  trade  assumed  important  proportions,  in  1791. 
About  the  same  time  began  a  large  importation  of  Chinese  coolies,  for  which 
Cuba  paid  a  bounty  of  $400  apiece  to  the  importer.  These  coolies  bound 
themselves  to  the  Spaniards  for  eight  years,  for  which  they  were  paid  $4.00  per 
month  as  wages.  The  new  influx  of  labor  and  the  corning  of  Las  Casas  as 
Captain-General  to  Cuba,  in  1790,  mark  the  beginning  of 'Cuba's  great  period  of 
prosperity.  This  enterprising  ruler  introduced  numerous  public  improvements, 
established  botanical  gardens  and  schools  of  agriculture,  with  a  view  to  develop 
ing  and  increasing  Cuba's  resources  and  commercial  importance.  Owing  to  his 
wise  administration,  Cuba  prospered  and  remained  undisturbed  fora  long  while. 
An  insurrection  occurred  among  the  slaves  in  1812,  which  was  promptly  put 
down  with  characteristic  cruelty,  and  the  blacks  remained  "good  niggers"  for  a 
third  of  a  century.  By  the  year  1844,  the  slave  trade  with  Cuba  had  grown  to 
enormous  proportions.  In  that  year  alone,  statistics  tell  us,  10,000  slaves  were 
landed  from  Africa  upon  the  island.  Another  wild  and  fanatical  insurrection 
occurred  the  same  year  among  them,  which,  as  before,  ended  in  failure.  Seventy- 
eight  of  the  rebels  were  shot,  and  many  otherwise  punished.  By  1850,  the 
slaves  had  so  multiplied  and  the  importation  had  been  so  large  that  the  census 
showed  there  were  nearly  500,000  on  the  island. 

Meantime,  in  1823  and  1827,  insurrections  were  attempted  on  the  part  of  the 
Creoles  (descendants  of  Spanish  and  French  settlers)  and  other  free  Cubans.  They 
failed,  and  the  blood  of  the  martyrs  was  seed  in  the  ground.  'Revolutionist  and 
enslaved  insurrectionist  gradually  drifted  together.  They  had  a  common  cause 
— to  struggle  for  freedom  against  oppression.  The  bondsman  was  little  or  no 
worse  off  than  the  Creoles,  Chinese  coolies,  and  free  negroes — all  native-born 


CUBA,  "THE  CHILD   OF  OUR  ADOPTION." 


Cubans  were  shut  out  from  the  enjoyment  of  true  citizenship.  They  must  do 
the  work  and  pay  the  tribute,  but  Spaniards,  born  in  Spain,  were  alone  allowed 
to  hold  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  the  government;  and  they  looked  with  in 
expressible  contempt  upon  the  rest  of  the  population,  and,  with  the  backing  of 
the  army,  preserved 
their  domination  in 
spite  of  their  in 
ferior  numbers. 
The  governor-gen 
eral  was  appointed 
from  Spain  and 
held  office  from 
three  to  five  years, 
and  was  expected  to  f 
steal  or  extort  him 
self  rich  in  that 
time.  It  is  said  not 
one  governor-gen 
eral  ever  failed  to 
do  so. 

THE    TEN    YEARS' 

WAR. 

The  first  long 
and  determined 
struggle  of  the  op 
pressed  people  of 
Cuba  for  liberty  be 
gan  in  1868.  In 
that  year  a  revolu 
tion  broke  out  in 
Spain,  and  the 
patriots  seized  the 
opportunity,  while 
the  mother  country 

was  occupied  at  home,  for  an  heroic  effort  to  liberate  themselves.  They  rose  first 
at  Yara,  in  the  district  of  Bayamo,  and  on  October  10th  of  that  year  made  a  dec 
laration  of  independence.  Eight  days  later  the  city  of  Bayamo  was  taken  by  the 
patriots,  and  early  in  November  they  defeated  a  force  sent  against  them  from  Santi 
ago.  The  majority  of  the  South  American  republics  hastened  to  recognize  the 


DARING  ATTACK   BY  THE    PATRIOTS  OF  CUBA  UPON   A  FORT 
NEAR  VUELTAS. 


606  CUBA,  -THE   CHILD    OF   OUR   ADOPTION." 

Cubans  as  belligerents ;  but— though  they  held  their  own  in  guerrilla  warfare 
against  the  Spanish  forces  for  ten  years,  fighting  in  the  forests  and  bravely 
resisting  all  the  efforts  of  Spain  to  subdue  them — there  was  not  one  great  power 
in  the  world  willing  to  extend  to  the  patriots  the  recognition  of  belligerent  rights. 
The  cruelty  of  the  {Spaniards  toward  the  soldiers  they  captured,  and  to  all  in 
habitants  who  sympathized  with  the  patriots'  cause,  was  equaled  only  by  the 
courage,  fortitude,  and  exalted  patriotism  which  animated  their  victims.  The 
following  instances,  selected  from  scores  that  might  be  cited,  are  given  in  the 
Spaniards'  own  words,  translated,  verbatim,  into  English : 


SPANISH    TESTIMONY    OF    HORRORS    PRACTICED. 

Jacob  Rivocoba,  under  date  of  September  4,  1896,  writes : 

"We  captured  seventeen,  thirteen  of  whom  were  shot  outright;  on  dying 
they  shouted,  '  Hurrah  for  free  Cuba  !  hurrah  for  independence  ! '  A  mulatto 
said,  '  Hurrah  for  Cespedes  ! '  On  the  following  day  we  killed  a  Cuban  officer 
and  another  man.  Among  the  thirteen  that  we  shot  the  first  day  were  found 
three  sons  and  their  father ;  the  father  witnessed  the  execution  of  his  sons  with 
out  even  changing  color,  and  when  his  turn  came  he  said  he  died  for  the  inde 
pendence  of  his  country.  On  coming  back  we  brought  along  with  us  three  carts 
filled  with  women  and  children,  the  families  of  those  we  had  shot;  and  they 
asked  us  to  shoot  them,  because  they  would  rather  die  than  live  among 
Spaniards." 

Pedro  Fardon,  another  officer,  who  entered  entirely  into  the  spirit  of  the 
service  he  honored,  writes  on  September  22,  1869 : 

"  Not  a  single  Cuban  will  remain  in  this  island,  because  we  shoot  all  those 
we  find  in  the  fields,  on  the  farms,  and  in  every  hovel." 

And,  again,  on  the  same  day,  the  same  officer  sends  the  following  good 
news  to  his  old  father : 

"  We  do  not  leave  a  creature  alive  where  we  pass,  be  it  man  or  animal.  If 
we  find  cows,  we  kill  them  ;  if  horses,  ditto ;  if  hogs,  ditto ;  men,  women,  or 
children,  ditto ;  as  to  the  houses,  we  burn  them  :  so  every  one  receives  his  due — 
the  men  in  balls,  the  animals  in  bayonet-thrusts.  The  island  will  remain  a 
desert." 

These  atrocities  were  perpetrated  not  alone  by  the  common  soldier.  In 
fact,  the  above  reports  come  from  men  who  were  officers  in  the  Spanish  army, 
and  they  show  that  such  actions  were  approved  by  the  highest  authority.  A 
well-authenticated  account  assures  us  that  General  Count  Balmaceda  himself 
went  on  one  occasion  to  the  home  of  a  patriot  family,  Mora  by  name,  to  arrest'  or 
kill  the  patriots  he  had  heard  were  stopping  there;  but,  finding  the  men  all 


CUBA,  "THE  CHILD    OF   OUR  ADOPTION."  607 

absent,  lie  wreaked  his  vengeance  and  thirst  for  blood  by  butchering  the  two 
Mora  sisters  and  burning  the  house  over  their  bodies. 

PEACE    AND    FAIR    PROMISES. 

At  last,  Spain,  seeing  that  she  could  neither  induce  the  Cubans  to  surrender 
nor  draw  them  into  a  decisive  battle ;  and  finding,  furthermore,  that  her  army  of 
200,000  men  was  likely  to  be  annihilated  by  death,  disease,  and  patriot  bullets, 
made  overtures,  which,  by  promising  many  privileges  to  the  people  that  they 
had  not  before  enjoyed,  effected  a  peace.  As  a  result  of  this  war,  slavery  was 
abolished  in  the  island ;  but  Spain's  promises  for  fair  and  equitable  government 
were  repudiated,  and  the  civil  powers  became  more  extortionate  and  severe  than 
ever.  This  war  laid  a  heavy  debt  upon  Spain,  and  Cuba  was  taxed  inordinately. 
The  people  soon  saw  that  they  had  been  duped.  The  world  looked  upon  Cuba 
and  Spain  as  at  peace.  To  the  outsider  the  surface  was  placid,  but  underneath 
"  the  waters  were  troubled."  Such  heroic  spirits  as  Generals  Calixto  Garcia, 
Jose  Marti,  Antonio  Maceo,  and  Maximo  Gomez,  leaders  in  the  ten  years' 
struggle,  still  lived,  though  scattered  far  apart,  and  in  their  hearts  bore  a  load 
of  righteous  wrath  against  their  treacherous  foe.  While  such  men  lived  and 
such  conditions  existed  another  conflict  was  inevitable. 

THE  LAST  GREAT  STRUGGLE  FOR  FREEDOM. 

It  was  on  February  24,  1895,  that  the  last  revolution  of  the  Cuban  patriots 
began.  Spain  had  heard  the  mutterings  of  the  coming  storm,  and  hoped  to  stay  it 
by  visiting  with  severe  punishment  every  Cuban  suspected  of  patriotic  affiliations. 
Antonio  Maceo,  a  mulatto,  but  a  man  of  fortune  and  education,  a  veteran  of  the 
ten  years'  war,  and  a  Cuban  by  birth,  was  banished  to  San  Domingo.  There  were 
other  exiles  in  Key  West,  New  York,  and  elsewhere.  Jose  Marti  was  the  leading 
spirit  in  forming  the  Cuban  Junta  in  New  York  and  organizing  revolutionary 
clubs  among  Cubans  everywhere.  Antonio  Maceo  was  the  first  of  the  old 
leaders  in  the  field.  He  went  secretly  to  Cuba  and  began  organizing  the  insur 
rectionists,  and  when  war  was  declared  the  flag  of  the  new  republic,  bearing  a 
lone  white  star  in  a  red  field,  was  flung  to  the  breeze.  Captain-General  Calleja 
declared  martial  law  in  the  insurgents'  vicinity,  and  troops  were  hastily  summoned 
and  sent  from  Spain.  The  revolutionists  from  the  start  fought  by  guerrilla 
methods  of  warfare,  dashing  upon  the  unsuspecting  Spanish  towns  and  forces, 
and  escaping  to  the  mountains  before  the  organized  Spaniards  could  retaliate. 

Jose  Marti  and  Jose  Maceo — brother  of  the  general — were  prompt  to  join 
the  active  forces,  and  on  April  13,  1895,  General  Maximo  Gomez,  a  native  of 
San  Domingo,  came  over  and  was  made  commander  of  the  insurgent  forces. 
This  grizzled  old  hero,  with  nearly  seventy  years  behind  him,  was  at  once  an 


608  CUBA,  -THE  CHILD   OF  OUR  ADOPTION." 

inspiration  and  a  host  within  himself.  An  army  of  6,000  men  was  ready  for  his 
command,  and  the  revolution  took  on  new  life  and  began  in  all  its  fury.  On 
May  19th  the  insurgents  met  their  first  great  disaster,  when  Jose  Marti  was  led 
into  an  ambush  and  killed.  But  his  blood  was  like  a  seed  planted,  from  which 
thousands  of  patriots  sprang  up  for  the  ranks.  Within  a  few  days  there  were 
10,000  ill-armed  but  determined  men  in  the  field.  They  had  no  artillery,  nearly 
half  were  without  guns,  and  there  was  little  ammunition  for  those  who  were 
armed. 

THE   PLANS   OF   CAMPOS   THWARTED. 

In  April,  1895,  Captain-General  Calleja  was  replaced  by  Martinez  Campos, 
thr  rnmmundrr  in  the  preceding  war,  and  one  of  the  ablest  of  the  Spanish  gene- 

i  rals.  He  sought  to  conciliate  the  people  and  al 
leviate  the  prevailing  distress,  but  the  rebels  in 
arms  had  lost  all  faith  in  Spanish  honor,  while 
the  veteran  Gomez  proved  so  wily  that  Campos 
could  neither  capture  him  nor  force  him  into  an 
engagement.  Everywhere  Gomez  marched  he 
gathered  new  patriots.  Near  the  city  of  Bayamo, 
Maceo  attacked  Campos,  and  the  Spanish  com 
mander  barely  escaped  with  his  life.  He  was 
besieged  in  Bayamo,  and  had  to  stay  there  until 
10,000  soldiers  were  sent  to  escort  him  home. 
That  was  the  last  of  Campos'  fighting.  By 
August,  Spain  hpd  spent  $21,300,000  and  lost 
|  20,000  men  by  death,  and  39,000  additional  sol- 
BS  diers  had  been  brought  into  the  island,  25,000  of 

CAPTAIN    C.    D.    SIGSBEE  ,1  ,i  n  r»      i          01  •    i  11 

Om.«n.n,l«r«fiho«Malne"atthrfriKhtf,,l,.at.H-    tlieiT1    tllG     fl°Wer  °f   tllG    Spanish     army,  and    Sll6 

was   also  forced    to    issue   $120,000,000   bonds, 
which  she  sold  at  a  great  sacrifice,  to  carry  on  the  war. 

The  patriots  met  September  13, 1895,  at  Camaguey  and  formed  their  govern 
ment  by  adopting  a  constitution  and  electing  a  president  and  other  state  officers. 
Tliis  body  formally  conferred  upon  Gomez  the  commission  of  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army.     Before  the  close  of  the  month,  there  were  30,000  rebels  in 
Spanish  warships   patroled   the  coast,  but  the  insurgents  held  the 
whole  interior  of  Santiago  province,  and  government  forces  dared  not  venture 
away  from  the  sea.     The  same  was  true  of  Santa  Clara  and  Puerto  Principe, 
was  debatable  ground;   but  Gomez  made  bold  raids   into  the  very 
cinity  of  Havana.     Spain  continued  to  increase  her  army,  till  by  the  year 
1898  it  numbered  about  200,000  men. 


CUBA,  "THE  CHILD   OF  OUR  ADOPTION." 


609 


As  if  the  cup  of  Cuba's  sorrow  were  not  sufficiently  bitter,  or  her  long- 
suffering  patriots  had  not  drunk  deep  enough  of  its  gall,  General  Campos  was 
recalled,  and  General  Valeriano  Weyler  (nicknamed  "  The  Butcher  ")  arrived 
in  February,  1896.  He  promptly  inaugurated  the  most  bitter  and  inhuman 
policy  in  the  annals  of  modern  warfare.  It  began  with  a  campaign  of  in 
timidation,  in  which  his  motto  was  "  Subjugation  or  Death/'  He  established 
a  system  of  espionage  that  was  perfect,  and  the  testimony  of  the  spy  was  all  the 
evidence  he  required.  He  heeded  no  prayer  and  knew  no  mercy.  His  prisons 
overflowed  with  suspected  patriots,  and  his  sunrise  executions,  every  morning, 
made  room  for  others.  It  was  thus  that  General  Weyler  carried  on  the  war  from 
his  palace  against  the  unarmed  natives, 
his  200,000  soldiers  seldom  securing 
a  shot  at  the  insurgents,  who  were 
continually  bushwhacking  them  with 
deadly  effect,  while  yellow  fever  car 
ried  them  off  by  the  thousands.  How 
many  lives  Weyler  sacrificed  in  that 
dreadful  year  will  never  be  known. 
How  many  suspects  he  frightened  into 
giving  him  all  their  gold  for  mercy 
and  then  coldly  shot  for  treason,  no 
record  will  disclose ;  but  the  crowded, 
unmarked  graves  on  the  hillside  out 
side  Havana  are  mute  but  eloquent 
witnesses  of  his  infamy. 

Under  these  conditions,  Gomez 
declared  that  all  Cubans  must  take 
sides.  They  must  be  for  or  against. 
It  was  no  time  for  neutrals  and  there 

could  be  no  neutral  ground,  so  he  boldly  levied  forced  contributions  upon  plant 
ers  unfavorable  to  his  cause,  and  extended  protection  to  those  who  befriended 
the  patriots.  Exasperated  by  Weyler's  atrocities  upon  non-combatant  patriots, 
he  dared  to  destroy  or  confiscate  the  property  of  Spanish  sympathizers. 

THE  DEATH  OF  GENERAL  MACEO. 

On  the  night  of  December  4,  1896,  the  insurgents  suffered  an  irreparable 
loss  in  the  death  of  General  Maceo,  who  was  led  into  an  ambush  and  killed,  it 
is  believed,  through  the  treachery  of  his  staff  physician.  Eight  brothers  of 
Maceo  had  previously  given  their  lives  for  Cuban  freedom. 

At  the  close  of  1896,  the  island  was  desolate  to  an  extreme  perhaps  unpro 

39 


SUNRISE  EXECUTIONS 

Outside  the  prison  walls.  Havana.    Weyler's  way  of  getting 
rid  of  prisoners. 


610 


CUBA,  "THE  CHILD   OF  OUR  ADOPTION." 


cedented  in  modern  times.  The  country  was  laid  waste  and  the  cities  were 
starving.  Under  the  pretext  of  protecting  them,  Weyler  gathered  the  non- 
combatants  into  towns  and  stockades,  and  it  is  authoritatively  stated  that  200,000 
men,  women,  and  children  of  the  "  reconcentrados,"  as  they  were  called,  died  of 
disease  and  starvation.  The  insurgents  remained  masters  of  the  island  except 
along  the  coasts.  The  only  important  incident  of  actual  warfare  was  the  capture 
of  Victoria  de  las  Tunas,  in  Santiago  province,  by  General  Garcia  at  the  head 
of  3,000  men,  after  three  days'  fighting.  In  this  battle  the  Spanish  commander 
lost  his  life  and  forty  per  cent,  of  his  troops  were  killed  or  wounded ;  the  rest 
surrendered  to  Garcia,  and  the  rebels  secured  by  their  victory  1,000  rifles, 
1.000,000  rounds  of  ammunition,  and  two  Krupp  guns. 

In  the  spring  of  1893  the  United 
States  intervened.  The  story  of  our  war 
with  Spain  for  Cuba's  freedom  is  else 
where  related. 

Spain  has  paid  dearly  for  her  su 
premacy  in  Cuba  during  the  last  third  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Notwithstand 
ing  the  fact  that  the  revenue  from  Cuba 
for  several  years  prior  to  the  Ten  Years' 
War  of  1868-78  amounted  to  $26,000,- 
000  annually — about  $18  for  every  man, 
woman,  and  child  in  the  island — $20,- 
000,000  of  it  was  absorbed  in  Spain's 
official  circles  at  Havana,  and  "  the  other 
$6,000,000  that  the  Spanish  government 
received,"  says  one  historian,  "  was  hardly 
enough  to  pay  transportation  rates  on  the 
help  that  the  mother  country  had  to 
send  to  her  army  of  occupation."  Consequently,  despite  this  enormous  tax,  a 
heavy  debt  accumulated  on  account  of  the  island,  even  before  the  Ten  Years' 
War  began. 

FEARFUL    COST    OF   THE    WAR. 

At  the  close  of  the  Ten  Years'  War  (1878)  Spain  had  laid  upon  the  island 
a  public  debt  of  $200,000,000,  and  required  her  to  raise  $39,000,000  of  revenue 
annually,  an  average  at  that  time  of  nearly  $30  per  inhabitant.  But  Spain's 
own  debt  had,  also,  increased  to  nearly  $2,000,000,000,  and  during  this  Ten 
Years'  War  she  had  sent  200,000  soldiers  and  her  favorite  commanders  to  the 
island,  only  about  50,000  of  whom  ever  returned.  According  to  our  Consular 
Report  of  July,  1898,  when  the  last  revolution  began,  1895,  the  Cuban  debt 


CLARA    BARTON 
President  of  the  American  lied  Cross  Society. 


i\ 


CUBA,  "THE  CHILD    OF  OUR  ADOPTION." 


611 


had  reached  $295,707,264.  The  interest  on  this  alone  imposed  a  burden  of 
$9.79  per  annum  upon  each  inhabitant.  During  the  war,  Spain  had  200,000 
troops  in  the  island,  and  the  three  and  one-half  years'  conflict  cost  her  the  loss 
of  nearly  100,000  lives,  mostly  from  sickness,  and,  as  yet,  unknown  millions  of 
dollars.  The  real  figures  of  the  loss  of  life  and  treasure  seem  incredible  when 
we  consider  that  Cuba  is  not  larger  than  our  State  of  Pennsylvania,  and  that 
her  entire  population  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  was  about  one-fourth  that  of 
the  State  named,  or  a  little  less  than  that  of  the  city  of  Chicago  alone.  Yet 
Spain,  with  an  army  larger  than  the  combined  northern  and  southern  forces  at 
the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  was  unable  to  overcome  the  insurgents,  who  had  never 
more  than  one-fourth  as  many  men  enlisted.  But  she  harassed,  tortured,  and 
starved  to  death  within  three  years,  per 
haps,  over  500,000  non-combatant  citizens 
in  her  attempt  to  subjugate  the  patriots, 
and  was  in  a  fair  way  to  depopulate  the 
whole  island  when  the  United  States  at 
last  intervened  to  succor  them. 


THE    FUTURE   OF    THE    ISLAND. 

What  the  future  of  Cuba  may  be 
under  new  conditions  of  government  re 
mains  to  be  seen.  Certainly,  in  all  the 
world's  history  few  sadder  or  more  de 
vastated  lands  have  gathered  their  rem 
nants  of  population  upon  the  ashes  of 
their  ruins  and  turned  a  hopeful  face  to 
the  future. 

But  the  soil,  the  mineral  and  the 
timber  not  even  Spanish  tyranny  could 
destroy  ;  and  in  these  lie  the  hope,  we  might  say  the  sure  guarantee,  of  Cuba's 
future.  In  wealth  of  resources  and  fertility  of  soil,  Cuba  is  superior  to  all  other 
tropical  countries,  and  these  fully  justify  its  right  to  the  title  "  Pearl  of  the  An 
tilles,"  first  given  it  by  Columbus.  Under  a  wise  and  secure  government,  its 
possibilities  are  almost  limitless.  Owing  to  its  location  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  which  it  divides  into  the  Yucatan  and  Florida  channels,  on  the 
south  and  north,  the  island  has  been  termed  the  "  Key  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico," 
and  on  its  coat  of  arms  is  emblazoned  a  key,  as  if  to  imply  its  ability  to  open  or 
close  this  great  sea  to  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

Cuba  extends  from  east  to  west  760  miles,  is  21  miles  wide  in  its  narrowest 


A    SPANISH    MESTIZA 


612  CUBA,  "THE  CHILD   OF  OUR  ADOPTION." 

part  and  111  miles  in  the  widest,  with  an  average  width  of  60  miles.  It  has 
numerous  harbors,  which  afford  excellent  anchorage.  The  area  of  the  island 
proper  is  41,655  square  miles  (a  little  larger  than  the  State  of  Ohio);  and  includ 
ing  the  Isle  of  Pines  and  other  small  points  around  its  entire  length,  number- 
ing  in  all  some  1,200,  there  are  47,278  square  miles  altogether  in  Cuba  and  be 
longing  to  it.  The  island  is  intersected-  by  broken  ranges  of  mountains,  which 
gradually  increase  in  height  from  west  to  east,  where  they  reach  'an  elevation  of 
nearly  8,000  feet.  The  central  and  western  portions  of  the  island  are  the  most 
fertile,  while  the  principal  mineral  deposits  are  in  the  mountains  of  the  eastern 
end.  In  Matanzas  and  other  central  provinces,  the  well-drained,  gently  slop 
ing  plains,  diversified  by  low,  forest-clad  hills,  are  especially  adapted  to  sugar 
Culture,  and  the  country  under  normal  conditions  presents  the  appearance  of  vast 
fields  of  cane.  The  western  portion  of  the  island  is  also  mountainous,  but  the 
elevations  are  not  great,  and  in  the  valleys  and  along  the  fertile  slopes  of  this 
district  is  produced  the  greater  part  of  the  tobacco  for  which  the  island  is 
famous. 

FERTILITY   OF   SOIL   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS. 

The  soil  of  the  whole  island  seems  well-nigh  inexhaustible.  Except  in  to 
bacco  culture,  fertilizers  are  never  used.  In  the  sugar  districts  are  found  old  cane- 
fields  that  have  produced  annual  crops  for  a  hundred  years  without  perceptible 
impoverishment  of  the  soil.  Besides  sugar  and  tobacco,  the  island  yields  Indian 
corn,  rice,  manioc  (the  plant  from  which  tapioca  is  prepared),  oranges,  bananas, 
pineapples,  mangoes,  guava,  and  all  other  tropical  fruits,  with  many  of  those  be 
longing  to  the  temperate  zone.  Raw  sugar,  molasses,  and  tobacco  are  the  chief 
products,  and,  with  fruits,  nuts,  and  unmanufactured  woods,  form  the  bulk  of 
exports,  though  coffee  culture,  formerly  active,  is  now  being  revived,  and  its  fine 
quality  indicates  that  it  must  in  time  become  one  of  the  most  important  products 
of  the  island. 

As  a  sugar  country,  Cuba  takes  first  rank  in  the  world.  Mr.  Gallon,  the 
English  Consul,  in  his  report  to  his  government  in  1897  upon  this  Cuban  crop, 
declared  :  "  Of  the  other  cane-sugar  countries  of  the  world,  Java  is  the  only  one 
which  comes  within  50  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  sugar  produced  annually  in 
Cuba  in  normal  times,  and  Java  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands  are  the  only  ones 
which  are  so  generally  advanced  in  the  process  of  manufacture."  Our  own 
Consul,  Hyatt,  in  his  report  of  February,  1897,  expresses  the  belief  that  Cuba 
is  equal  to  supplying  the  entire  demands  of  the  whole  western  hemisphere  with 
sugar — a  market  for  4,000,000  tons  or  more,  and  requiring  a  crop  four  times  as 
large  as  the  island  has  ever  yet  produced.  Those  who  regard  this  statement  as 
extravagant  should  remember  that  Cuba,  although  founded  and  settled  more 


CUBA,  "THE  CHILD   OF  OUR  ADOPTION."  613 

than  fifty  years  before  the  United  States,  has  nearly  14,000,000  acres  of  un 
cleared  primeval  forest-land,  and  is  capable  of  easily  supporting  a  population 
more  than  ten  times  that  of  the  present.  In  fact,  the  Island  of  Java,  not  so 
rich  as  Cuba,  and  of  very  nearly  the  same  area,  with  less  tillable  land,  has  over 
22,000,000  inhabitants  as  against  Cuba's — perhaps  at  this  time — not  more  than 
1,200,000  souls. 

MINERAL   AND    TIMBER   RESOURCES. 

The  mineral  resources  of  Cuba  are  second  in  importance  to  its  agricultural 
products.  Gold  and  silver  are  not  believed  to  exist  in  paying  quantities,  but 
its  most  valuable  mineral,  copper,  seems  to  be  almost  inexhaustible.  The  iron 
and  manganese  mines,  in  the  vicinity  of  Santiago,  are  of  great  importance,  the 
ores  being  rated  among  the  finest  in  the  world.  Deposits  of  asphalt  and  min 
eral  oils  are  also  found. 

The  third  resource  of  Cuba  in  importance  is  its  forest  product.  Its  millions 
of  acres  of  unbroken  woodlands  are  rich  in  valuable  hard  woods,  suitable  for 
the  finest  cabinet-work  and  ship-building,  and  also  furnish  many  excellent  dye 
woods.  Mahogany,  cedar,  rosewood,  and  ebony  abound.  The  palm,  of  which 
there  are  thirty-odd  species  found  in  the  island,  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic 
and  valuable  of  Cuban  trees. 

CITIES    AND    COMMERCE. 

The  commerce  of  Cuba  has  been  great  in  the  past,  but  Spanish  laws  made 
it  expensive  and  oppressive  to  the  Cubans.  Its  location  and  resources,  with  wise 
government,  assure  to  the  island  an  enormous  trade  in  the  future.  There  are 
already  four  cities  of  marked  importance  to  the  commercial  world :  Havana 
with  a  population  of  250,000,  Santiago  with  71,000,  Matanzas  with  29,000, 
and  Cienfuegos  with  30,000,  are  all  seaport  cities  with  excellent  harbors,  and 
all  do  a  large  exporting  business.  Add  to  these  Cardenas  with  25,000,  Trini 
dad  with  18,000,  Manzanillo  with  10,000,  and  Guantanamo  and  Baracoa,  each 
with  7,000  inhabitants,  we  have  an  array  of  ten  cities  such  as  few  strictly 
farming  countries  of  like  size  possess.  Aside  from  cigar  and  cigarette  making, 
there  is  little  manufacturing  in  Cuba ;  but  fruit  canneries,  sugar  refine 
ries,  and  various  manufacturing  industries  for  the  consumption  of  native 
products  will  rapidly  follow  in  the  steps  of  good  government.  Hence,  in  the 
field  of  manufacturing  this  island  offers  excellent  inducements  to  capital. 

SEASONS   AND    CLIMATE. 

Like  all  tropical  countries,  Cuba  has  but  two  seasons,  the  wet  and  the  dry. 
The  former  extends  from  May  to  October,  June,  July,  and  August  being  the 
most  rainy  months.  The  dry  season  lasts  from  November  to  May.  This  fact 


614 


CUBA,  "THE  CHILD   OF  OUR  ADOPTION." 


must  go  far  toward  making  the  island  more  and  more  popular  as  a  winter  health 
resort.  The  interior  of  the  island  is  mountainous,  and  always  pleasantly  cool  at 
night,  while  on  the  highlands  the  heat  in  the  day  is  less  oppressive  than  in  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  during  the  hottest  summer  weather;  consequently,  when 
once  yellow  fever,  which  now  ravages  the  coasts  of  the  island  on  account  of  its 
defective  sanitation,  is  extirpated,  as  it  doubtless  will  be  under  the  new  order  of 
things,  Cuba  will  become  the  seat  of  many  winter  homes  for  wealthy  residents  of 
the  United  States.  Even  in  the  summer,  the  temperature  seldom  rises  above 


A  VOI.ANTE,  THE  TYPICAL,  CUBAN   CONVEYANCE. 


90°,  while  the  average  for  the  year  is  77°.     At  no  place,  except  in  the  extreme 
mountainous  altitude,  is  it  ever  cold  enough  for  frost. 

THE   EVACUATION    OF   HAVANA. 

The  complete  transfer  of  authority  in  the  island  of  Cuba  from  Spain  to 

United  States  took  place  on  Sunday,  January  1,  1899.     At  noon  on  that  day 

Captain-General  Castellanos  and  staff  met  the  representatives  of  the  United  States 

in  the  hall  of  his  palace,  and  with  due  formality  and  marked  Spanish  courtesy, 

in  the  name  of  the  King  and  Queen  Regent  of  Spain,  delivered  possession  of 


CUBA,  "THE  CHILD    OF  OUR  ADOPTION."  615 

Cuba  to  General  Wade,  head  of  the  American  Evacuation  Committee,  and  he  in 
turn  transferred  the  same  to  General  Brooke,  who  had  been  appointed  by  Presi 
dent  McKinley  as  Military  Governor  of  the  Division  of  Cuba.  No  unpleasant 
incident  marred  the  occasion.  General  Castellanos  spoke  with  evident  yet  be 
coming  emotion  on  so  important  an  occasion.  Three  Cuban  generals  were  pre 
sent,  who,  at  General  Castellanos'  request,  were  presented  to  him,  and  the  Span 
iard  said,  with  marked  grace  and  evident  sincerity,  "  I  am  sorry,  gentlemen,  that 
we  are  enemies,  being  of  the  same  blood;"  to  which  one  of  the  Cuban  patriots 


ENTHANCE  TO  THE  PUBLIC  GROUNDS,  HAVANA,  CUBA. 

courteously  responded,  with  commendable  charity,  "We  fought  only  for  Cuba, 
and  now  that  she  is  free  we  are  no  longer  enemies." 

The  formal  transfer  had  scarcely  taken  place  within  the  palace  hall  when 
the  flag  of  Spain  was  lowered  from  Morro  Castle,  Cabanas  Fortress,  and  all  the 
public  buildings,  and  the  stars  and  stripes  instantly  arose  in  its  place  on  the  flag 
poles  of  these  old  and  historic  buildings.  As  its  graceful  folds  floated  gently 
out  upon  the  breeze,  the  crowds  from  the  streets  cheered,  the  band  played  the 
most  appropriate  of  all  airs,  while  voices  in  many  places  in  the  throng,  catching 
up  the  tune,  sang  the  inspiring  words  of  the  "  Star-Spangled  Banner." 


OUR    NKW     POSSESSIONS    (CONTINUED), 


BEAUTIFUL    PORTO   RICO. 

IT  was  in  November  of  the 
year  1493,  on  his  second  voyage 
to  the  New  World,  that  Columbus 
landed  upon  a  strange  island  in 
quest  of  water  for  his  ships.     He 
found  it  in  abundance,  and  called 
the  place  Aquadilla — the  water 
ing  place.     As  he  had  done  at 
Cuba  the  year  before,  the  great 
discoverer  held  pleasant  confer 
ences  with  the  natives,  and  with 
due  ceremony  took  possession  of 
the  island  for  his  benefactors  and 
sovereigns — Ferdinand  and  Isa 
bella  of  Spain.     From  that  day 
until  it  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States  in  1898,  as  a  result  of  the 
Spanish-American    War,    Porto 
Rico  remained  one  of  the  most  attractive  and  valuable  of  Spain's  West  Indian 
possessions. 

The  simple  and  friendly  natives  gladly  welcomed  their  Spanish  invaders, 
who,  with  the  same  promptness  which  was  manifested  in  Cuba,  proceeded  to 
enslave  and  exterminate  them.  In  1510,  Ponce  de  Leon  founded  the  first  settle 
ment  on  the  site  of  the  present  village  of  Puerto  Viejo.  The  next  year  the 
noted  invader  founded  San  Juan,  the  present  capital  of  the  island.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  sights  of  this  old  city  to-day  is  the  Casa  Blanca,  built  at  that 
period  as  the  palatial  residence  of  Ponce  de  Leon.  It  was  there,  perhaps,  after 
he  had  finished  his  conquest  of  the  island,  that  this  famous  old  Spaniard  listened 
to  the  wonderful  story  of  the  natives,  who  served  him  as  slaves,  concerning  the 
mysterious  country  over  the  sea  which  had  hidden  in  its  forests  a  fountain 
wherein  an  old  man  might  plunge  and  be  restored  to  all  the  vigor  of  youth. 
It  was  there  and  thus,  perhaps,  while  sitting  at  leisure  in  his  palace,  that  de 
G16 


A  MARKET   GIRL,  PORTO  RICO. 


BEAUTIFUL  PORTO  EICO.  617 

Leon  planned  the  voyage  in  search  of  that  "  fountain  of  youth  "  which  resulted 
in  the  discovery  and  exploration  of  Florida. 

ANCIENT    INHABITANTS. 

As  to  the  number  of  natives  in  Porto  Rico  when  the  Spaniards  came  old 
chroniclers  differ.  Some  say  there  were  500,000,  others  300,000.  It  is  all 
surmise.  Probably  the  latter  figure  is  an  over-estimate,  for  Cuba,  more  than 
ten  times  as  large,  was  not  thought  to  contain  more  than  half  a  million  inhabit 
ants  at  most.  A  detailed  account  of  their  manners  and  customs  was  written  by 
one  of  the  early  Spaniards,  and  part  of  it  is  translated  by  the  British  Consul, 
Mr.  Bidwell,  in  his  Consular  Report  of  1880.  Some  of  the  statements  in  this 
old  book  are  most  peculiar  and  interesting.  Within  the  last  forty  years  archae 
ologists  have  discovered  many  stone  axes,  spear-heads  and  knives,  stone  and 
clay  images,  and  pieces  of  earthenware  made  by  the  aboriginal  Porto  Ricans, 
and  these  are  preserved  in  the  Smithsonian  Institute  at  Washington,  in  Berlin, 
and  elsewhere.  It  is  curious  that  none  of  these  remains  had  been  found  prior 
to  1856.  On  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande  there  still  stands,  also,  a  rude  stone 
monument,  with  strange  designs  carved  upon  its  surface. 

From  the  earliest  times,  the  island,  with  its  rich  produce  and  commerce, 
was  the  prey  of  robbers.  The  fierce  cannibal  Caribs  from  the  south  made 
expeditions  to  it  before  the  white  men  came  ;  and  for  many  decades  after  the 
Spanish  conquest  it  suffered  attacks  from  pirates  by  sea  and  brigands  upon  land, 
who  found  easy  hiding  within  its  deep  forests. 

ATTACKS   AND   INVASIONS   BY    FOREIGN    FORCES. 

In  1595,  San  Juan  was  sacked  by  the  English  under  Drake,  and  again, 
three  years  later,  by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  In  1615,  Baldwin  Heinrich,  a 
Dutchman,  lost  his  life  in  an  attack  upon  the  governor's  castle,  and  several  of 
his  ships  were  destroyed  by  a  hurricane.  The  English  failed  to  capture  it, 
fifty-three  years  later ;  and  Abercrombie  tried  it  again  in  1797,  but  had  to  give 
up  the  undertaking  after  a  three  days'  siege.  It  was  one  hundred  and  one 
years  after  Abercrombie's  siege  before  another  hostile  fleet  appeared  before  and 
bombarded  San  Juan.  That  was  done  by  Admiral  Sampson,  May  12,  1898, 
with  the  United  States  squadron  of  modern  iron-clad  battleships  and  cruisers. 
In  this  engagement  Morro  Castle,  which,  though  impregnable  a  hundred  years 
before,  was  unable  to  withstand  modern  guns,  and  was  in  a  large  part  reduced 

to  ruins. 

General  Nelson  A.  Miles  landed  his  United  States  troops  on  the  island  in 
July,  1898,  and  on  the  12th  of  August,  before  he  completed  his  conquest,  hos 
tilities  were  closed  by  the  protocol  of  peace,  and  amid  the  rejoicing  of  the  natives 


818 


BEAUTIFUL  PORTO  RICO. 


"  Beautiful  Porto  Rico  "  became  a  province  of  the  United  States.  Tht;  one  and 
only  attempt  the  Porto  Ricans  ever  made  to  throw  off  the  Spanish  yoke  was 
in  1820 ;  but  conditions  for  hiding  from  the  soldiers  were  not  so  good  as  the 
Cubans  enjoyed  in  their  large  island,  and  Spanish  supremacy  was  completely 
re-established  by  1823. 

THE  ISLAND   AND   lib    POPULATION. 

Porto  Rico  is  at  once  the  most  healthful  and  most  densely  populated  island 
of  the  West  Indies.  It  is  almost  rectangular  in  form — 100  miles  long  and  36 
broad.  Its  total  area  is  about  3,600  square  miles — a  little  larger  than  the  com 
bined  areas  of  Rhode  Island  and  Delaware.  Its  population,  unlike  that  of  Cuba, 


THE  CUSTOM  HOUSE,  PONCE,  PORTO  RICO,  AFTER  THE  RAISING  OF   THE  AMERICAN 

FLAG  BY   GENERAL  MILES. 

has  greatly  increased  within  the  last  fifty  years.  In  1830,  it  numbered  319,000 ; 
in  1887,  813,937 — about  220  people  to  the  square  mile,  a  density  which  few 
States  of  the  Union  can  equal.  About  half  of  its  population  are  negroes  or 
mulattoes,  who  were  introduced  by  the  Spaniards  as  slaves  in  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries. 

Among  the  people  of  European  origin  the  most  numerous  are  the  Spaniards, 
with  many  Germans,  Swedes,  Danes,  Russians,  Frenchmen,  Chuetos  (descend- 


BEAUTIFUL  PORTO  RICO.  019 

ants  from  the  Moorish  Jews),  and  natives  of  the  Canary  Islands.  There  are 
also  a  number  of  Chinese,  while  the  Gibaros,  or  small  land-holders  and  day- 
laborers  of  the  country  districts,  are  a  curious  old  Spanish  cross  with  the  abo 
riginal  Indian  blood.  In  this  class  the  aborigines  are  more  fortunate  than  the 
original  Cubans  in  having  even  a  trace  of  their  blood  preserved. 

The  island  is  said  to  be  capable  of  easily  supporting  three  times  its  present 
population,  the  soil  is  so  universally  fertile  and  its  resources  are  so  well  diver 
sified.  Though  droughts  occur  in  certain  parts  of  the  island,  it  is  all  extremely 
well  watered,  by  more  than  one  thousand  streams,  enumerated  on  the  maps,  and 
the  dry  sections  have  a  system  of  irrigation  which  may  be  operated  very  effect 
ually  and  with  little  expense.  Of  the  1,300  streams,  forty-seven  are  consider 
able  rivers. 

TIMBER    IN   ABUNDANCE   AND    VARIETY. 

Forests  still  cover  all  the  elevated  parts  of  the  hill  country  of  the  interior, 
the  inhabitants  living  mostly  along  the  coast.  The  main  need  to  set  the  interior 
teeming  with  a  thrifty  and  healthy  population  is  a  system  of  good  roads.  The 
interior,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  extensive  savannas,  is  one  vast  expanse  of 
rounded  hills,  covered  with  such  rich  soil  that  they  may  be  cultivated  to  their 
summits.  At  present  these  forests  are  accessible  only  by  mule  tracks.  "  The 
timber  of  the  island,"  says  our  official  report,  "  comprises  more  than  five  hun 
dred  varieties  of  trees,  and  in  the  more  elevated  regions  the  vegetation  of  the 
temperate  zones  is  not  unknown.  On  the  hills  is  found  a  luxuriant  and  diver 
sified  vegetation,  tree-ferns  and  mountain  palms  being  abundant.  At  a  lower 
level  grow  many  varieties  of  trees  noted  for  their  useful  woods,  such  as  the  ma 
hogany,  cedar,  walnut,  and  laurel.  The  mammee,  guaiacum,  and  copal,  besides 
other  trees  and  shrubs  valuable  for  their  gum,  flourish  in  all  parts  of  the  island. 
The  coffee  tree  and  sugar  cane,  both  of  which  grow  well  at  an  altitude  of  a  thou 
sand  feet  or  more,  were  introduced  into  the  island — the  former  from  Martinique 
in  1722,  the  latter  from  the  Canaries,  through  Santo  Domingo.  Tobacco  grows 
easily  in  the  lowlands,  while  maize,  pineapples,  bananas,  etc.,  are  all  prolific. 
The  banana  and  plantain  bear  fruit  within  ten  months  after  planting,  and,  like 
the  cocoa  palm,  live  through  an  ordinary  lifetime." 

MINERALS   AND    MINING. 

"The  mineral  resources  of  the  island,"  says  our  consul  in  his  report,  "have 
been  very  little  developed,  the  only  mineral  industry  of  any  importance  being 
the  salt  works  situated  at  Guanica,  Salinas,  and  Cabo  Kojo.  Sulphides  of  copper 
and  magnetic  oxides  of  iron  are  found  in  large  quantities,  and  formerly  gold  to 
a  considerable  extent  was  found  in  many  of  the  streams.  At  present  the  natives 
Still  wash  out  nuggets  by  the  crude  process  in  use  in  the  time  of  Ponce  de  Leon. 


BEAUTIFUL  PORTO  RICO. 

Marble,  carbonates,  lignite,  and  amber  are  also  present  in  varying  quantities 

and  hot  springs  and  mineral  waters  occur,  the  best  known  ones  being  at  Coamo, 

near  Santa  Isabel." 

COMMERCE. 
The  commerce  of  Porto  Rico  amounted,  in  1896,  to  $36,624,120,  exceeding 

the  records  of  all  previous  years ;  the  increase,  no  doubt,  being  largely  due  to 

the  unsettled  condition  of 
Cuba,      The  value  of  the 
exports  for  the  same  year 
was,  for  the  first  time  for 
more  than  a  decade,  slight 
ly  in  excess  of  that  of  the 
imports  ;  the  former  being 
valued  at  $18,341,430,  the 
latter  at  $18,282,690.    The 
chief  exports  from  the  isl 
and  are  agricultural   pro 
ducts.     The   principal  ar 
ticles     are     sugar,  -  coffee, 
molasses,    and    tobacco; 
while   rice,   wheat,   flour, 
and  manufactured  articles 
are  among   the  chief  im 
ports.     The  value  of  the 
sugar  and  molasses  export 
ed    to   the    United   States 
during  the  ten  years  from 
1888  to  1897  made  up  95 
per  cent,  of  the  total  value 
of    the   exports   to   that 
country.    Fruits,  nuts,  and 
spices  are  also  exported  to 


NATIVE   BELLES,  PORTO  RICO. 


SZfSS  3?  "ie  -  "-""  » 

'",',:''"; <lr  !«••  "«'  ''>"»  i  unmanufactured  wood,  and  salt 

.nick,  of  import  from  the  United  States  is  wheat  Jour.    Corn 

'  "aity  i>ro<lucto' 


CITIES     AND    TOWNS. 

n  J«an,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  an  island  off  the  northern  coast  of  the 


BEAUTIFUL  PORTO  RICO.  621 

mainland,  with  which  it  is  now  connected  by  the  San  Antonio  bridge.  The  city 
is  a  perfect  specimen  of  a  walled  and  fortified  town,  with  Morro  Castle  crowning 
the  promontory  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  island.  The  population,  including 
the  inhabitants  of  Marina  and  Puerta  de  Tierra,  as  well  as  those  within  the  city 
walls,  was  estimated  in  1896  at  30,000,  and  consists  largely  of  negroes  and  of 
mixed  races.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  a  good  water  supply,  and  the  general  unsan 
itary  conditions  which  prevail,  the  city  is  unhealthy.  The  houses  are  all  of  two 
stories,  the  poorer  inhabitants  occupying  the  ground  floor,  while  those  better  off 


THE  MARKET  PLACE,  PONCE,  PORTO  RICO. 

live  above  them.  There  is  no  running  water  in  the  city,  the  inhabitants  being 
dependent  for  their  supply  upon  the  rainfall  which  is  caught  on  the  flat  roofs 
of  the  houses  and  stored  in  cisterns,  and  in  dry  seasons  the  supply  is  entirely 
exhausted.  The  city  is  built  upon  clay  mixed  with  lime  packed  hard  and  im 
pervious  to  water.  Its  manufactures  are  of  small  importance. 

The  city  of  Ponce,  with  a  population  of  37,500,  and  in  commercial  import 
ance  the  second  city  of  Porto  Eico,  is  situated  two  miles  from  the  coast  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  island.  With  an  ample  water  supply  conveyed  to  the  city 
by  an  aqueduct  it  is,  perhaps,  the  healthiest  town  on  the  island.  Playa,  its  port, 
having  a  population  of  5,000,  is  connected  with  it  by  a  fine  road. 


622  BEAUTIFUL  PORTO  EICO. 

The  town  of  Arecibo,  with  a  population  of  from  6,000  to  7,000,  is  situ 
ated  on  the  northern  coast  of  Porto  Rico,  and  is  the  port  for  a  district  of  some 
30,000  inhabitants. 

CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  the  island,  though  hot  and  humid,  is  healthful,  except  in 
marshy  districts  and  in  cities  where  sanitary  rules  are  neglected.  Yellow  fever 
seldom  occurs,  and  when  it  does  it  is  confined  to  the  unsanitary  towns  and  their 
surroundings,  never  appearing  far  from  the  coasts.  The  thermometer  does  not 
fall  below  50°  or  rise  above  90°.  The  heat  is  not  so  great  as  at  Santiago,  though 
the  latter  is  one  and  a  half  degrees  further  north.  As  in  Cuba,  there  are  but 
two  seasons,  the  rainy  and  the  dry,  the  former  lasting  from  July  to  December, 
the  latter  from  January  to  the  close  of  June.  The  delightful,  dry  and  salubrious 
atmosphere  of  midwinter  and  spring,  with  its  general  healthfulness,  promises  to 
bring  this  island  into  prominence  both  as  a  resort  for  invalids  and  for  homes  to 
those  who  would  escape  the  rigors  of  northern  winters. 

Porto  Rico  is  an  ideal  lazy  man's  country,  and  the  overworked  American 
will,  undoubtedly,  come  to  make  it  more  and  more  his  Mecca  for  rest  and  recu 
peration.  Even  the  interior  feels  the  soft,  salt  air  from  the  ocean.  The  people 
are  kind-hearted,  "  easy-going,"  hospitable,  and  fond  of  amusement.  Every 
environment  conduces  to  the  dismission  of  all  worriment,  to  rest,  sleep,  and  a 
happy-go-lucky  state  of  mind. 


OUR     NEW     POSSESSIONS     (CONTINUED). 


THE    PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS. 

**  Most  bounteous  here  in  her  sea-girt  lands, 
Nature  stretches  forth  her  hands, 

*  *  *  *  *  * 

And  walks  on  gold  and  silver,  and  knows  her  power  increased, 
Nor  fears  the  tyrant  longer — k  Our  Lady  of  the  East. 


—StoddarcL 


FILIPINOS  OF   THE   SAVAGE  TRIBES. 


THE  most  important^ 
and  by  far  the  most  inter 
esting,  as  well  as  the  least 
known  of  America's  new 
possessions,  gained  by  her 
war  with  Spain,  are  the 
Philippine  Islands.  Com 
paratively  few  Americans 
have  ever  set  foot  upon  that 
far-away  and  semi-civilized 
land,  the  possession  of  which 
enables  America  to  say  with 
England,  "The  sun  never 
sets  upon  our  flag." 

The  Philippines  lie  al 
most  exactly  on  the  other 
side  of  the  globe  from  us. 
Approximately  speaking, 
our  noonday  is  their  mid 
night;  our  sunset  is  their 
sunrise.  There  are  some 
1,200  of  these  islands,  400  of 
which  are  inhabited  or  capa 
ble  of  supporting  a  popu 
lation;  they  cover  about 
125,000  square  miles  ;  they  lie  in  the  tropical  seas,  generally  speaking,  from  five 
to  eighteen  degrees  north  latitude,  and  are  bounded  by  the  China  Sea  on  the  west 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  east  ;  they  are  about  7,000  miles  southwest  from 
San  Francisco,  a  little  over  600  southeast  from  Hong  Kong,  China,  and  about 

623 


624 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


1,000  almost  due  north  from  Australia;  they  contain  between  5,000,000  and 
>.IH  n  M  i.  ii .  inhabitants,  about  one-third  of  whom  had  prior  t<>  I  tewey's  victory, 
May  1,  1898,  acknowledged  Spanish  sovereignty  to  the  extent  of  paying  regular 
tribute  to  the  Spanish  crown ;  the  remainder  are  bound  together  in  tribes  under 
independent  native  princes  or  Mohammedan  rulers.  Perhaps  2,500,000  all  told 
have  become  nominal  Catholics  in  religion.  The  rest  are  Mohammedans  and 
idolaters.  There  are  no  Protestant  churches  in  the  islands. 

THE   STORY    OF    DISCOVERY, 

It  was  twenty-nine  years 
after  Columbus  discovered 
America  that  Magellan  saw 
the  Philippines,  the  largest 
archipelago  in  the  world,  in 
1521.  The  voyage  of  Magel 
lan  was  much  longer  and 
scarcely  less  heroic  than  that 
of  the  discoverer  of  America. 
Having  been  provided  with 
a  fleet  by  the  Spanish  king 
with  which  to  search  for  spice 
islands,  but  secretly  deter 
mined  to  sail  round  the  world, 
he  set  out  with  five  vessels  on 
August  10,  1519,  crossed  the 
Atlantic  to  America,  and 
skirted  the  eastern  coast  south 
ward  in  the  hope  of  finding 
some  western  passage  into  the 
Pacific,  which,  a  few  years 
previous,  had  been  discovered 
by  Balboa.  It  was  a  year  and 
two  months  to  a  day  from  the 
Spain  until  he  reached  the  southern  point  of  the  mainland  of 

outh  America  and  passed  through  the  straight  which  has  since  borne  his  name. 

the  way,  one  of  his  vessels  deserted ;  another  was  wrecked  in  a  storm.    When 

sed  through  the  Straight  of  Magellan  he  had  remaining  but  three  of  his 

;mal  five  ships,  and  they  were  the  first  European  vessels  that  ever  breasted 

3  waves  of  the  mighty  western  ocean.     Once  upon  the  unknown  but  placid 

lea-which  he  named  the  Pacific-the  bold  navigator  steered  straight  to  the 


NATIVE  HUNTERS,  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS, 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS.  627 

northwest.  Five  months  later,  about  March  1st,  he  discovered  the  Ladrone 
Islands — which  name  Magellan  gave  to  the  group  on  account  of  the  thieving 
propensities  of  the  natives — the  word  Ladrone  meaning  robber. 

After  a  short  stay  at  the  islands,  he  steered  southwest,  landing  on  the  north 
coast  of  Mindanao,  the  second  largest  island  of  the  Philippines.  The  natives 
were  friendly  and  offered  to  pilot  Magellan  to  the  island  of  Cebu,  which  lay  to 
the  north,  and  which  they  reported  to  be  very  rich.  After  taking  possession  of 
Mindanao  in  the  name  of  his  king,  the  discoverer  proceeded  to  Cebu,  where  he 
made  such  demonstrations  and  gave  such  descriptions  of  the  glory  and  power 
of  Spain  that  he  easily  formed  a  treaty  with  the  king  of  the  island,  who  swore 
allegiance  to  his  new-found  master  and  had  himself  and  chief  advisers  baptized 
in  the  Catholic  faith.  Magellan  then  joined  the  king  in  his  war  against  some  of 
the  neighboring  powers,  and  on  April  25,  1521,  was  killed  in  a  skirmish.  The 
spot  where  he  fell  is  now  marked  by  a  monument. 

FIRST    CIRCUMNAVIGATION    OF    THE   GLOBE. 

Trouble  soon  arose  between  Magellan's  sailors  and  their  new-found  allies. 
The  Spaniards  were  invited  to  a  banquet,  and  twenty -seven  of  them  were  treach 
erously  slain.  The  remainder,  fearing  for  their  lives,  escaped  in  their  ships  and 
sailed  for  home.  It  was  soon  discovered  that  they  had  too  few  men  to  manage 
the  three  vessels,  and  one  of  them  was  destroyed.  The  other  two  proceeded  on 
their  voyage  and  discovered  the  spice  island  of  Tidor,  where  they  loaded  with 
spices  ;  but  a  few  days  later  one  of  the  vessels  sprang  a  leak  and  went  down  with 
her  freight  and  crew.  The  other,  after  many  hardships,  reached  Spain,  thus 
completing  the  first  circumnavigation  of  the  globe. 

SECOND    EXPEDITION    TO    THE    PHILIPPINES. 

In  1555,  Philip  II.  came  to  the  Spanish  throne  and  determined  to  send 
another  expedition  to  the  East  Indies.  His  religious  zeal  inspired  him  to  con 
quer  and  christianize  the  islands.  To  shorten  the  long  and  dangerous  voyage, 
he  decided  to  prepare  and  start  with  five  ships  from  the  coast  of  Mexico. 
Miguel  Lopez  de  Legaspi  led  the  expedition,  consisting  of  four  hundred  soldierc 
and  sailors  and  six  Augustine  monks.  In  due  time  the  expedition  landed  at 
Cebu.  The  formidable  appearance  of  the  ships  awed  the  natives,  and  on  April 

27,  1565 forty  years  after  Magellan's  remnant  had  fled  from  the  island— 

Legaspi  landed  and  took  possession.  In  honor  of  the  Spanish  king  the  archi 
pelago  was  given  the  name  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

In  1570  Legaspi  sent  his  grandson,  Salcedo,  to  subdue  the  island  of  Luzon, 
the  northernmost  and  the  largest  of  the  Philippine  group.  He  landed  near  the 
present  site  of  Manila.  The  trustful  natives  readily  agreed  to  accept  the  Spanish 


628 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


king  as  their  master,  and  to  pay  tribute.  Such  slight  tribal  resistances  as  were 
offered  were  quickly  subdued.  The  next  year  Legaspi  went  to  Manila  to  visit 
his  grandson  ;  and,  seeing  the  importance  of  the  situation  and  its  fine  harbor, 
declared  that  city  the  capital  of  the  whole  archipelago  and  the  king  of  Spain 
the  sovereign  of  all  the  islands.  Accordingly,  he  moved  his  headquarters  to  that 
point,  built  houses  and  fortifications,  and  within  a  year  had  the  city  well  organ 
ized,  when  he  died,  leaving  Salcedo  as  his  successor  in  command.  It  is  remark- 

^^•i —     n  .    able  how  much  these  two 

men  accomplished  with  so 
small  a  force ;  but  they 
did  it  not  so  much  by  arms 
as  by  cajoling  and  deceiv 
ing  the  simple  natives. 
Furthermore,  they  allowed 
the  conquered  people  to  be 
governed  by  their  own 
chiefs  in  their  own  way, 
so  long  as  they  paid  a 
liberal  tribute  to  the  Span 
ish  crown. 

STRUGGLES    FOR    SUPREM 
ACY. 

The  history  of  the 
Philippines  has  been  mo 
notonous  from  their  dis 
covery  until  the  present,  a 
monotony  broken  at  times 
by  periods  of  adventures 
in  which  Manila  has  gen 
erally  been  the  central 
scene.  About  1580,  Lima- 
hong,  a  Chinese  pirate, 

ity  with  an  armed  fleet  of  sixty-two  vessels,  bearing  4,000  men  and 

)  women.     They  met  with  stubborn  resistance,  but  succeeded  in  scaling  the 

land  entering  the  city.     The  Spanish  forces  were  driven  into  a  fort,  which 

Chinese  stormed.     A  bloody  hand-to-hand  conflict  followed,  and  the  Chinese 

were  finally  repulsed. 

f  ,1  ^V"  -the  sev"nteenth  Centui7  the  Dutch  attempted  to  obtain  possession 
E  hihppmes.     They  captured  scores  of  Spanish  merchantmen  and  treasure 


PHILIPPINE   WARRIORS. 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS.  629 

ships.  Many  naval  engagements  followed,  the  details  of  which  read  like  the 
thrilling  records  of  buccaneers  and  pirates,  rather  than  the  wars  between  two 
civil  powers.  Finally,  after  half  a  century  of  warfare,  the  Dutch  were  deci 
sively  beaten,  and  abandoned  their  efforts  to  capture  the  Spanish  islands,  much 
to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Filipinos,  for  the  islands  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and  other 
Dutch  possessions  to  the  south  of  the  Philippines  have  been  remarkably  pros 
perous  under  the  mild  rule  of  the  Netherlands. 

MANILA    TAKEN    BY    THE    ENGLISH. 

In  1662,  the  Chinese  planned  a  revolution  against  the  Spanish  authorities. 
The  governor  heard  of  it,  and  a  general  massacre  of  the  Mongolians  followed. 
It  was  even  planned  to  destroy  every  Chinaman  on  the  islands,  and  they  were 
in  a  fair  way  to  do  it,  when,  at  length,  the  Spaniards  bethought  themselves  that 
by  so  doing  they  would  practically  depopulate  the  islands  of  tradesmen  and 
mechanics.  Accordingly,  they  offered  pardon  to  those  who  would  surrender 
and  swear  allegiance.  A  century  later,  England  sent  a  fleet  under  Admiral 
Cornish,  with  General  Draper  commanding  the  troops,  against  Manila.  After 
a  desperate  battle  the  city  fell,  and  the  terms  of  surrender  incorporated  provis 
ions  for  free  trade,  freedom  of  speech,  and,  best  of  all,  freedom  in  religion  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  islands,  and  required  Spain  to  pay  England  about  $4,000,000 
indemnity.  By  the  Peace  of  Paris,  in  1763,  however,  the  war  between  England 
and  Spain  was  terminated,  and  one  of  the  conditions  was  that  Spain  should 
retain  the  sovereignty  of  the  Philippines.  The  English  troops  were  withdrawn, 
and  the  unfortunate  islands  were  again  placed  (as  Cuba  was  by  the  same  treaty) 
under  the  domination  of  their  tyrannical  mistress,  and  remained  under  Spanish 
rule  from  that  time  until  the  Americans  freed  them  in  1898. 

UPRISINGS   OF    THE   NATIVES. 

In  nearly  all  the  uprisings  of  the  natives,  the  tyranny  of  the  church,  as  con 
ducted  by  the  friars  and  priests,  was  the  cause.  Such  was  the  case  in  1622,  in  1649, 
and  in  1660.  The  occasion  of  the  revolt  of  1744  is  a  fair  example  of  the  pro 
vocations  leading  to  all.  A  Jesuit  priest  ordered  all  his  parishioners  arrested  as 
criminals  when  they  failed  to  attend  mass.  One  of  the  unfortunates  died,  and 
the  priest  denied  him  rights  of  burial,  ordering  that  his  body  be  thrown  upon 
the  ground  and  left  to  rot  in  the  sun  before  his  dwelling.  The  brother  of 
the  man  in  his  exasperation  organized  a  mob,  captured  the  priest,  killed  him, 
and  exposed  his  body  for  four  days.  Thus  was  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  rebel 
army.  The  insurgents  in  their  mountain  fastnesses  gained  their  independence 
and  maintained  it  for  thirty-five  years,  until  they  secured  from  Spain  a  promise 
of  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuit  priests  from  the  colony. 


630 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


Other  revolutions  followed  in  1823,  1827,  and  1844,  but  all  were  sup 
pressed.  In  1872,  the  most  formidable  outbreak  up  to  that  time  occurred  at 
Cavite.  Hatred  of  the  Spanish  friars  was  the  cause  of  this  uprising  also. 
Spain  had  promised  in  the  Council  of  Trent  to  prohibit  friars  from  holding 
parishes.  The  promises  were  never  carried  out,  and  the  friars  grew  continually 
richer  and  more  powerful  and  oppressive.  Had  the  plan  of  the  insurgents  not 
been  balked  by  a  mistaken  signal,  no  doubt  they  would  have  destroyed  the 


A  NATIVE  RESIDENCE  IN  THE   SUBURBS   OF   MANILA. 

Every  cottage,  however  humble,  is  surrounded  by  tropical  trees  and  flowers.   The  interiors  are  remarkably  clean  and  cheerful. 
Bamboo  enters  largely  into  the  construction  of  all  native  houses  and  they  are  generally  covered  with  thatch. 

Spanish  garrison  at  Manila,  but  a  misunderstanding  caused  their  defeat.     The 
friars  insisted  that  the  captured  leaders  should  be  executed,  and  it  was  done. 

THE   LAST   STRUGGLE    FOR    LIBERTY. 

In  1896,  the  insurrection  broke  out  again.  Its  causes  were  the  old  oppres 
sions:  unbearable  taxes,  and  imprisonment  or  banishment,  with  the  complete 
confiscation  of  property  of  those  who  could  not  pay ;  no  justice  except  for  those 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS  631 

Vno  could  buy  it ;  extortion  by  the  friars ;  marriage  ceremony  so  costly  that  a 
poor  man  could  not  pay  the  fee ;  homes  and  families  broken  up  and  ruined ; 
burial  refused  to  the  dead,  unless  a  large  sum  was  paid  in  advance ;  no  provision 
and  no  chance  for  education.  Such  were  some  of  the  causes  that  again  goaded 
the  natives  to  revolution  and  nerved  them  with  courage  to  achieve  victory  after 
victory  over  their  enemies  until  they  were  promised  most  of  the  reforms  which 
they  demanded.  Then  they  laid  down  their  arms,  and,  as  usual,  the  Governor- 
General  failed  to  carry  out  a  single  pledge. 

Such  was  the  condition,  and  another  revolt,  more  formidable  than  any  of 
the  past,  was  forming,  when  Commodore  Dewey  with  his  American  fleet  entered 
Manila  Bay,  May  1,  1898,  and,  by  a  victory  unparalleled  in  naval  warfare,  sunk 
the  Spanish  ships,  silenced  the  forts,  and  dethroned  the  power  of  Spain  forever 
in  a  land  which  her  tyranny  had  blighted  for  more  than  three  hundred  years. 

THE    PEOPLE   OF    THE    PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS:    THEIR   MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS. 

It  is  impossible  within  the  scope  of  this  article  to  give  details  concerning 
all  the  inhabitants  of  this  far-away  archipelago.  Professor  Worcester,  of  the 
University  of  Michigan,  tells  us  that  the  population  comprises  more  than  eighty 
distinct  tribes,  with  individual  peculiarities.  They  are  scattered  over  hundreds 
of  islands,  and  one  who  really  wants  to  know  these  peoples  must  leave  cities  and 
towns  far  behind,  and,  at  the  risk  of  his  life,  through  pathless  forests,  amid 
volcanic  mountains,  at  the  mercy  of  savages,  penetrate  to  the  innermost  wilds. 
Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  for  hundreds  of  years  bold  men,  led  by  the  love  of 
science  or  by  the  spirit  of  adventure,  have  continued  to  penetrate  these  dark 
regions,  there  are  many  sections  where  the  foot  of  civilized  man  has  never  trod ; 
or,  if  so,  he  came  not  back  to  tell  of  the  lands  and  peoples  which  his  eyes  beheld. 

DIFFICULTIES   OF    EXPLORING    THE   COUNTRY. 

There  have  been  great  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a  thorough  exploration 
of  these  islands.  Spain  persistently  opposed  the  representatives  of  any  other 
nation  entering  the  country.  She  suspected  every  man  with  a  gun  of  designing 
to  raise  an  insurrection  or  make  mischief  among  the  natives.  The  account  of 
red  tape  necessary  to  secure  guns  and  ammunition  for  a  little  party  of  four  or 
five  explorers  admitted  through  the  customs  at  Manila  is  one  of  the  most  signifi 
cant,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  humorous,  passages  in  Professor  Worcester's 
story  of  his  several  years'  sojourn  while  exploring  the  archipelago. 

In  the  second  place,  the  savage  tribes  in  the  interior  had  no  respect  for 
Spain's  authority,  and  will  have  none  for  ours  for  years  to  come.  Two- thirds 
of  them  paid  no  tribute,  and  many  of  them  never  heard  of  Spain,  or,  if  so,  only 
remembered  that  a  long  time  ago  white  men  came  and  cruelly  persecuted  the 


632 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


natives  along  the  shore.  These  wild  tribes  think  themselves  still  the  owners  of 
the  land.  Some  of  them  go  naked  and  practice  cannibalism  and  other  horrible 
savage  customs.  Any  explorer's  life  is  in  danger  among  them ;  consequently 
most  tourists  to  the  Philippines  see  Manila  and  make  short  excursions  around 
that  city.  The  more  ambitious  run  clown  to  the  cities  of  Iloilo  and  Cebu, 
making  short  excursions  into  the  country  from  those  points,  and  then  return, 
thinking  they  have  seen  the  Philippines.  Nothing  could  be  further  from  the 
truth.  Such  travelers  no  more  see  the  Philippine  Islands  than  Columbus 
explored  America. 

Even    near   the   coast  there  are  savages  who  are  almost  as  ignorant  as 


A  TYPICAL  MORO  VILLAGE,  SOUTHERN  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

their  brethren  in  the  interior.  Mr.  Stevens  tells  us  that  only  "thirty  miles 
from  Manila  is  a  race  of  dwarfs  that  go  -without  clothes,  wear  knee-bracelets 
of  horsehair,  and  respect  nothing  but  the  jungle  in  which  they  live."  The 
principal  native  peoples  are  of  Malayan  origin.  Of  these,  to  the  north  of  Manila 
are  the  Igorrotes ;  in  the  islands  south  of  Luzon  are  the  civilized  Visayas,  and 
below  them  in  Mindanao  and  the  Sulu  Archipelago  are  the  fierce  Moros,  who 
originally  came  from  the  island  of  Borneo,  settling  in  the  Philippines  a  short 
time  before  the  Spanish  discovery.  They  are  Mohammedans  in  religion,  and 
.as  fanatical  and  as  fearless  fighters  as  the  Turks  themselves.  For  three  hundred 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS.  633 

years  the  Spaniards  have  been  fighting  these  savages,  and  while  they  have 
overcome  them  in  nearly  all  the  coast  towns,  they  have  expended,  it  is  said, 
upward  of  $100,000,000  and  sacrificed  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  lives 
in  doing  so. 

THE    WARLIKE   MOROS. 

The  fierce  Moro  warriors  keep  the  Spanish  settlers  along  their  coasts  in  a 
constant  state  of  alarm,  and  the  visitor  to  the  towns  feels  as  if  he  were  at  an 
Indian  outpost  in  early  American  history,  because  of  the  constant  state  of  appre 
hension  that  prevails.  Fortunately,  however,  the  Moros  along  the  coast  have 
learned  to  distinguish  between  the  Spaniard  and  the  Englishman  or  American, 
and  through  them  the  generosity  of  the  Englese,  as  they  call  all  Anglo-Saxons, 
has  spread  to  their  brethren  in  the  interior.  Therefore,  American  and  English 
explorers  have  been  enabled  to  go  into  sections  where  the  Spanish  friars  and 
monks,  who  have  been  practically  the  only  Spanish  explorers,  would  meet  with 
certain  death.  The  Mohammedan  fanaticism  of  the  Moros,  and  that  of  the 
Catholic  friars  and  Jesuits,  absolutely  refuse  compromise. 

The  Negritos  (little  Negroes)  and  the  Mangyans  are  the  principal  repre 
sentatives  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  before  the  Malayan  tribes  came.  There 
are  supposed  to  be,  collectively,  about  1,000,000  of  them,  and  they  are  almost 
as  destitute  of  clothing  and  as  uncivilized  as  the  savages  whom  Columbus  found 
in  America,  and  far  more  degenerate  and  loathsome  in  habits. 

THE   CITY   OF    MANILA. 

The  Island  of  Luzon,  on  which  the  city  of  Manila  stands,  is  about  as  large 
as  the  State  of  New  York,  its  area  being  variously  estimated  at  from  43,000  to 
47,000  square  smiles.  It  is  the  largest  island  in  the  Philippine  group,  com 
prising  perhaps  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  entire  archipelago.  Its  inhabit 
ants  are  the  most  civilized,  and  its  territory  the  most  thoroughly  explored.  The 
city  of  Manila  is  the  metropolis  of  the  Philippines.  The  population  of  the  city 
proper  and  its  environs  is  considered  to  be  some  300,000  souls,  of  whom  200,000 
are  natives,  40,000  full-blooded  Chinese,  50,000  Chinese  half-castes,  5,000  Span 
ish,  mostly  soldiers,  4,000  Spanish  half-castes,  and  300  white  foreigners  other 
than  Spaniards.  Mr.  Joseph  Earle  Stevens,  already  referred  to,  who  repre 
sented  the  only  American  firm  in  the  city  of  Manila,  under  Spanish  rule 
(which  finally  had  to  turn  its  business  over  to  the  English  and  leave  the  island 
a  few  years  since),  informs  us  that  he  and  three  others  were  the  only  representa 
tives  of  the  United  States  in  Manila  as  late  as  1893. 

The  city  is  built  on  a  beautiful  bay  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  miles  across, 
and  on  both  shores  of  the  Pasig  Eiver.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  going 
up  from  the  bay,  is  the  old  walled  town,  and  around  the  walls  are  the  weedy 


634 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


moats  or  ditches.  The  heavy  guns  and  frowning  cannon  from  the  walls  suggest 
a  troubled  past.  This  old  city  is  built  in  triangular  form,  about  a  mile  on  each 
side,  and  is  regarded  as  very  unhealthful,  for  the  walls  both  keep  out  the  breeze 
and  keep  in  the  foul  air  and  odors.  The  principal  buildings  in  the  old  part  of 
the  city  are  the  cathedral,  many  parish  churches,  a  few  schoolhouses,  and  the 
official  buildings.  The  population  in  the  walled  city  is  given  at  20,000.  Up 
to  a  few  years  ago,  no  foreigner  was  permitted  to  sleep  within  its  walls  on  account 
of  the  Spaniards'  fear  of  a  conspiracy.  A  bridge  across  the  Pasi<r  connects  old 


BRIDGE   OVER  THE  PASIQ  RIVER. 

This  bridge  connects  the  old  walled  city  on  one  ride  of  the  river  with  the  new  unwalled  city  on  the  other.    Sea-going  vessels 

ascend  the  river  up  to  the  bridge. 

Manila  with  the  new  or  unwalled  city,  where  nearly  all  of  the  business  is  done 
and  the  native  and  foreign  residents  live. 

« 

EARTHQUAKES  AND  TYPHOONS. 

It  does  not  take  one  long  to  exhaust  the  sights  of  Manila,  if  the  people, 
who  are  always  interesting,  are  excepted.  Aside  from  the  cathedral  and  a  few 
of  the  churches,  the  buildings  of  the  city  are  anything  but  imposing.  In  fact, 
there  is  little  encouragement  to  construct  fine  edifices  because  of  the  danger 
from  earthquakes  and  typhoons.  It  is  said  that  not  a  year  passes  without  a 
number  of  slight  earthquake  shocks,  and  very  serious  ones  have  occurred.  In 


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THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


637 


1645  nearly  all  of  the  public  buildings  were  wrecked  and  600  persons  killed. 
A  very  destructive  earthquake  was  that  of  1863,  when  400  people  were  killed, 
2,000  wounded,  and  46  public  buildings  and  1,100  private  houses  were  badly 
injured  or  completely  destroyed.  In  1874  earthquakes  were  again  very  numer 
ous  throughout  the  islands,  shocks  being  felt  at  intervals  in  certain  sections  for 
several  weeks.  But  the  most  violent  convulsion  of  modern  times  occurred  in 
1880  when  even  greater  destruction  than  in  1863  visited  Manila  and  other 


A  POPULAR  STREET  CONVEYANCE. 

As  elsewhere,  carriages  and  street  cars  are  used  in  Manila,  but  there  are  hundreds  of  the  above  "  native  cabs,"  for  carrying 
single  persons  short  distances,  and  they  are  liberally  patronized. 

towns  of  Luzon.  Consequently  there  are  very  few  buildings  to  be  found  more 
than  two  stories  high  ;  and  the  heavy  tile  roofs  formerly  in  use  have,  for  the 
most  part,  been  replaced  by  lighter  coverings  of  galvanized  iron. 

These  light  roofs,  however,  are  in  constant  danger  of  being  stripped  off  by 
the  typhoons,  terrible  storms  which  come  with  a  twisting  motion  as  if  rising 
from  the  earth  or  the  sea,  fairly  pulling  everything  detachable  after  them. 
Masts  of  ships  and  roofs  of  houses  are  frequently  carried  by  these  hurricanes 


638  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

miles  distant.  The  better  to  resist  the  typhoons,  most  of  the  light  native  houses 
are  built  on  bamboo  poles,  which  allow  the  wind  to  pass  freely  under  them,  and 
sway  and  bend  in  the  storm  like  a  tree;  whereas,  if  they  were  set  solidly  on  the 
earth,  they  would  be  lifted  up  bodily  and  carried  away.  Glass  windows  being 
too  frail  to  resist  the  shaking  of  the  earthquakes  and  the  typhoons,  small,  trans 
lucent  oyster  shells  are  used  instead.  The  light  thus  admitted  resembles  that 
passing  through  ground-glass,  or,  rather,  stained  glass,  for  the  coloring  in  the 
shells  imparts  a  mellow  tinted  radiance  like  the  windows  of  a  cathedral. 


MANILA    AS    A    BUSINESS   CENTER. 

The  streets  of  Manila  are  wretchedly  paved  or  not  paved  at  all,  and  as  late 
as  1893  were  lighted  by  kerosene  lamps  or  by  wicks  suspended  in  dishes  of 
cocoanut  oil.  Lately  an  electric  plant  has  been  introduced,  and  parts  of  the 
city  are  lighted  in  this  manner.  There  are  two  lines  of  street  cars  in  Manila. 
The  motive  power  for  a  car  is  a  single  small  pony,  and  foreigners  marvel  to  see 
one  of  those  little  animals  drawing  thirty-odd  people. 

The  retail  trade  and  petty  banking  of  Manila  is  almost  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  half-castes  and  Chinese,  and  many  of  them  have  grown  immensely 
wealthy.  There  are  only  about  three  hundred  Europeans  in  business  in  the 
whole  Philippine  group,  and  they  conduct  the  bulk  of  the  importing  and  ex 
porting  trade.  Manila  contains  a  number  of  large  cigar  and  cigarette  facto 
ries,  one  of  which  employs  10,000  hands.  There  is  also  a  sugar  refinery,  a 
steam  rice  mill,  and  a  rope  factory  worked  partly  by  men  and  partly  by  oxen, 
a  Spanish  brewery  and  a  German  cement  factory,  a  Swiss  umbrella  factory  and 
a  Swiss  hat  factory.  The  single  cotton  mill,  in  which  $200,000  of  English 
capital  is  invested,  runs  6,000  spindles. 

The  statistics  of  1897  show  that  the  whole  trade  of  Manila  comprised  only 
forty-five  Spanish,  nineteen  German,  and  seventeen  English  firms,  with  six  Swiss 
brokers  and  two  French  storekeepers  having  large  establishment0.  One  of  the 
most  profitable  businesses  is  said  to  be  that  of  selling  cheap  jewelry  to  the  na 
tives.  Breastpins  which  dealers  buy  in  Europe  for  twelve  cents  each  are 
readily  sold  for  from  $1.50  to  $2.00  each  to  the  simple  Filipinos.  Almost  every 
thing  that  is  manufactured  abroad  has  a  fine  prospective  market  in  the  Philip 
pines,  when  the  condition  of  the  people  permits  them  to  buy. 

A  certain  charm  attaches  to  many  specimens  of  native  handiwork.  The 
women  weave  exquisitely  beautiful  fabrics  from  the  fiber  of  plants.  The  floors 
of  Manila  houses  are  admired  by  all  foreigners.  They  are  made  of  hard  wood 
and  polished  with  banana  leaves  and  greasy  cloths  until  they  shine  brightly  and 
give  an  aspect  of  cool  airiness  to  the  room. 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


639 


Any  kind  of  amusement  is  popular  with  the  Filipinos — with  so  much 
leisure  on  their  hands — provided  it  does  not  require  too  great  exertion  on  their 
part.  They  are  fond  of  the  theatre,  and,  up  to  a  few  years  ago,  bullfighting 
was  a  favorite  pastime;  but  the  most  prominent  of  modern  amusements  for  the 
natives  and  half-castes  is  cockfighting.  It  is  said  that  every  native  has  his 
fighting  cock,  which  is  reared  and  trained  with  the  greatest  care  until  he 
shows  sufficient  skill  to  entitle  him  to  an  entrance  into  the  public  cockpit  where 


A  WEDDING  PROCESSION. 

As  in  Asiatic  countries,  weddings  in  the  Philippines  are  occasions  of  great  ceremony.    No  marriage  would  be  considered  "  in 

style  "  without  a  gorgeous  procession. 

he  will  fight  for  a  prize.  The  chickens  occupy  the  family  residence,  roosting 
overhead;  and,  in  case  of  fire,  it  is  said  that  the  game  " rooster"  is  saved  before 
the  babies.  Professor  Worcester  tells  an  amusing  story  of  the  annoyance  of  the 
crowing  cocks  above  his  head  in  the  morning  and  the  devices  and  tricks  he  and 
his  companions  employed  to  quiet  them.  The  Manila  lottery  is  another  insti 
tution  which  intensely  excites  the  sluggish  native,  and  takes  from  him  the 
money  which  he  does  not  lose  on  the  cockfights.  Under  the  United  States 
Government  this  lottery  will,  no  doubt,  be  abolished  in  time.  It  formerly 


640  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

belonged  to  the  Spanish  Government,  and  Spain  derived  an  annual  profit  of 
half  a  million  dollafs  from  it. 

GENERAL    COMMERCE   OF    THE    PHILIPPINES. 

It  is  hardly  necessary,  so  far  as  the  commercial  world  is  concerned,  to  men 
tion  any  other  locality  outside  of  the  city  of  Manila.  To  commerce,  this  city 
(whose  total  imports  in  1897  were  only  $10,000,000  and  its  exports  $20,000,000) 
is  the  Philippine  Islands.  Its  present  meagre  foreign  trade  represents  only  an 
average  purchase  of  about  one  dollar  per  inhabitant,  and  an  average  sale  of  two 
dollars  per  inhabitant  for  the  largest  archipelago  in  the  world,  and  one  of  the 
richest  in  soil  and  natural  resources.  The  bulk  of  these  exports  were  hemp, 
sugar,  and  tobacco ;  and,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  United  States  received  41 
per  cent,  of  her  hemp  and  55  per  cent,  of  her  sugar  for  the  year  1897,  notwith 
standing  the  fact  that  we  had  not  one  commercial  firm  doing  business  in  that 
whole  vast  domain. 

The  city  of  Iloilo  is  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  fertile  island  of  Panay, 
and,  next  to  Manila,  the  chief  port  of  the  Philippines.  It  has  an  excellent 
harbor,  and  the  surrounding  country  is  very  productive,  having  extensive  plan 
tations  of  sugar,  rice,  and  tobacco.  The  population  of  Iloilo  is  only  12,000,  but 
there  are  a  few  larger  towns  in  the  district,  of  which  it  is  the  seaport.  Though 
the  city  at  springtides  is  covered  with  water,  it  is  said  to  be  a  very  healthful 
place,  and  much  cooler  than  Manila. 

The  other  open  port,  Cebu,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  island  of  the  same 
name,  is  a  well-built  town,  and  has  a  population  of  about  13,000.  From  this 
point  the  bulk  of  the  hemp  for  export  comes. 

GENERAL    CHARACTER    OF    THE   ISLANDS. 

It  is  impossible  to  speak  of  the  other  islands  in  detail.  Seven  of  the  group 
average  larger  than  the  State  of  New  Jersey ;  Luzon  is  as  extensive  as  Ohio, 
Mindanao  equals  Indiana  ;  and,  as  we  have  stated  before,  about  four  hundred 
of  them  are  inhabitable,  and,  like  Java,  Borneo,  and  the  Spice  Islands,  all  are 
rich  in  natural  resources.  They  are  of  a  volcanic  origin,  and  may  be  described 
in  general  as  rugged  and  mountainous.  The  coasts  of  most  of  the  islands  are 
deeply  indented  by  the  sea,  and  the  larger  ones  are  well  watered  by  streams,  the 
mouths  of  which  afford  good  harbors.  Many  of  the  mountainous  parts  abound 
in  minerals.  Mr.  Karuph,  President  of  the  Philippine  Mineral  Syndicate,  in 
May,  1898,  addressed  a  letter  to  Hon.  John  Hay,  at  that  time  our  ambassador  to 
England,  in  which  he  declares  that  the  Philippines  will  soon  come  prominently 
forward  as  a  new  center  of  the  world's  gold  production.  "There  is  not  a 
brook,"  says  Mr.  Karuph,  "  that  finds  its  way  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  whose 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


641 


sands  and  gravel  do  not  pan  the  color  of  gold.  Many  valuable  deposits  are 
close  to  deep  water.  I  know  of  no  other  part  of  the  world,  the  Alaskan  Tread- 
well  mines  alone  excepted,  where  pay  ore  is  found  within  a  few  hundred  yards 
of  the  anchorage  of  sea-going  vessels."  In  addition  to  gold,  iron,  copper,  lead, 
sulphur,  and  other  minerals  are  found,  and  are  believed  to  exist  in  paying  quan 
tities.  The  numerous  mineral  springs  attest  their  presence  in  almost  every  part 
of  the  principal  islands. 


DRYING  SUGAR. 

Large  pans  containing  the  sugar  are  set  in  the  sun  to  evaporate  the  moisture.    No  refining  or  clarifying  machinery  has  been 

introduced  into  the  Philippine  Islands. 

FORESTS    AND    TIMBER. 

The  forest  products  of  the  islands  are  perhaps  of  greater  value  than  their 
mineral  resources.  Timber  not  only  exists  in  almost  exhaustless  quantity,  but 
— considering  the  whole  group,  which  extends  nearly  a  thousand  miles  from 
north  to  south— in  unprecedented  diversity,  embracing  sixty  varieties  of  the 
most  valuable  woods,  several  of  which  are  so  hard  that  they  cannot  be  cut  with 
ordinary  saws,  some  so  heavy  that  they  sink  in  water,  and  two  or  three  so  dura 
ble  as  to  afford  ground  for  the  claim  that  they  outlast  iron  and  steel  when 

41 


642 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


placed  in  the  ground  or  under  water.  Several  of  these  woods  are  unknown  else 
where,  and,  altogether,  they  are  admirably  suited  for  various  decorative  purposes 
and  for  the  manufacture  of  fine  implements  and  furniture. 

Here  also  are  pepper,  cinnamon,  wax,  and  gums  of  various  sorts,  cloves,  tea, 
and  vanilla,  while  all  tropical  fruits,  such  as  cocoanuts,  bananas,  lemons,  limes, 


THE   GRANGE  WAGONS  OF  ALB  AY. 

The  eighty-odd  different  tribes  who  inhabit  the  Philippines  have  varying  dialects,  manners,  and  customs.    The  peculiar  house* 
roofed  wagons,  shown  in  the  above  illustration,  are  found  in  only  one  locality. 

oranges  of  several  varieties,  pineapples,  citrons,  brend-frtiits,  custard  apples, 
pawpaws,  and  mangroves  flourish,  and  most  of  them  grow  wild,  though,  of 
course,  they  are  not  equal  to  the  cultivated  fruit.  There  are  fifty-odd  varieties 
of  the  banana  in  the  archipelago,  from  the  midget,  which  makes  but  a  single 
mouthful,  to  the  huge  fruit  eighteen  inches  long.  There  seems  to  be  no  limit  to 
which  tropical  fruite  *nd  farm  products  can  be  cultivated. 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS.  643 

The  animal  and  bird  life  of  the  Philippines  offer  a  field  of  interesting  re 
search  to  naturalists.  There  are  no  important  carnivorous  animals.  A  small 
wild-cat  and  two  species  of  civet-cats  constitute  about  all  that  belong  to  that 
class.  The  house-cats  of  the  Philippines  have  curious  fish-hook  crooks  in  the 
ends  of  their  tails.  There  are  several  species  of  deer  in  the  archipelago.  Hogs 
run  wild  in  large  numbers.  The  large  water  buffalo  (carabao)  has  been  do 
mesticated  and  is  the  chief  beast  of  burden  with  the  natives,  The  timarau  is 
another  small  species  of  buffalo,  very  wild  and  entirely  untamable ;  and,  though 
numerous  in  certain  places,  is  hard  to  find,  and  when  brought  to  bay  dies 
fighting. 

Birds  abound  in  all  of  the  islands ;  nearly  six  hundred  species  have  been 
found,  over  fifty  of  which  exist  nowhere  else  in  the  world.  One  of  these  species 
builds  a  nest  which  is  highly  prized  by  Chinese  epicures  as  an  article  of  diet. 
Prof.  Worcester  tells  us  "  the  best  quality  of  them  sometimes  bring  more  than 
their  weight  in  gold."  Crocodiles  are  numerous  in  fresh-water  lakes  and 
streams,  attaining  enormous  size,  and  in  certain  places  causing  much  loss  of 
life  among  stock  a/id  men  as  well.  Snakes  also  abound,  and  some  of  them  are 
very  venomous.  Cobras  are  found  in  the  southern  islands.  Pythons  are 
numerous,  some  of  the  smaller  sizes  being  sold  in  the  towns  and  kept  in  houses 
to  catch  rats,  at  which  they  are  said  to  be  more  expert  than  house-cats. 

All  the  domestic  animals,  aside  from  the  carabao,  have  been  introduced 
from  abroad.  Cattle  are  extensively  raised,  and  in  some  of  the  islands  run  wild. 
The  horses  are  a  small  Spanish  breed,  but  are  very  strong  and  have  great  en 
durance.  Large  European  horses  do  not  stand  the  climate  well. 

CLIMATE,    VOLCANOES,    ETC. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Manila  is  80°  F.  The  thermometer  seldom 
rises  above  100°  or  falls  below  60°  anywhere  in  the  archipelago.  There  is  no 
month  in  the  year  during  which  it  does  not  rise  as  high  as  91°.  January  and 
December  are  the  coldest  months,  the  average  temperature  being  70°  to  73°. 
May  is  the  warmest,  the  average  being  84°.  April  is  the  next  warmest,  with  an 
average  of  83° ;  but  the  weather  is  generally  very  moist  and  humid,  which  makes 
the  heat  more  trying.  The  three  winter  months  have  cool  nights.  Malaria  is 
prevalent,  but  contagious  diseases  are  comparatively  few.  Yellow  fever  and 
cholera  are  seldom  heard  of. 

The  Philippines  are  the  home  of  many  volcanoes,  a  number  of  them  still 
active.  Mayon,  in  the  island  of  Luzon,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  volcanic 
mountains  on  the  globe.  It  is  a  perfect  cone,  rising  to  the  height  of  8,900  feet, 
and  is  in  constant  activity ;  its  latest  destructive  eruption  took  place  in  1888. 
Apo,  in  the  island  of  Mindanao,  10,312  feet  high,  is  the  largest  of  the  Philippine 


644  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

volcanoes.  Next  is  Canloon  in  Negros,  which  rises  8,192  feet  above  the  sea. 
Taal  is  in  a  lake,  with  a  height  of  900  feet,  and  is  noteworthy  as  being  the  lowest 
volcano  in  the  world.  To  those  not  accustomed  to  volcanoes,  these  great  fire- 
spouting  mountains,  which  are  but  prominent  representatives  of  many  lesser  ones 
in  the  islands,  seem  to  be  an  ever-present  danger  to  the  inhabitants ;  but  the 
natives  and  those  who  live  there  manifest  little  or  no  fear  of  them.  In  fact, 
they  rather  pride  themselves  in  their  possession  of  such  terrifying  neighbors. 

Such  is  an  outline  view  of  the  Philippine  Archipelago  of  the  present  day. 
A  new  era  has  opened  up  in  the  history  of  that  wonderful  land  with  its  libera 
tion  from  the  Spanish  yoke.  The  dense  ignorance  and  semi-savage  barbarities 
which  exist  there  must  not  be  expected  to  yield  too  rapidly  to  the  touch  of 
human  kindness  and  brotherly  love  with  which  the  Christian  world  will  now 
visit  those  semi-civilized  and  untamed  children  of  nature.  Nevertheless,  western 
civilization  and  western  progress  will  undoubtedly  work  mighty  changes  in  the 
lives  of  those  people,  in  the  development  of  that  country,  during  the  first 
quarter  of  the  twentieth  century,  which  ushers  in  the  dawn  of  its  freedom. 

THE   BATTLE   OF    MANILA. 

In  all  the  annals  of  naval  warfare  there  is  no  engagement,  terminating  in 
so  signal  a  victory  with  so  little  damage  to  the  victors,  as  that  which  made 
the  name  of  George  Dewey  immortal  on  the  memorable  Sunday  morning  of 
May  1,  1898,  in  Manila  Bay.  The  world  knows  the  story  of  that  battle,  for  it 
has  been  told  hundreds  of  times  in  the  thousands  of  newspapers  and  magazines 
and  scores  of  books  throughout  the  civilized  world.  But  few,  perhaps,  who 
peruse  these  pages  have  read  the  simple  details  of  the  fight  as  narrated  by  that 
most  modest  of  men,  Admiral  Dewey  himself.  We  cannot  better  close  this 
chapter  on  the  Philippines  than  by  inserting  Admiral  Dewey's  official  report 
of  the  battle  which  wrested  the  Filipinos  from  Spanish  tyranny  and  placed 
nearly  ten  millions  of  oppressed  people  under  the  protecting  care  of  the  United 
States. 

ADMIRAL  DEWEY'S  STORY  OF  MANILA. 

"  UNITED  STATES  FLAGSHIP  OLYMPIA,  CAVITE,  May  4,  1898. 
"  The  squadron  left  Mirs  Bay  on  April  27th,  arrived  off  Bolinao  on  the 
morning  of  April  30th,  and,  finding  no  vessels  there,  proceeded  down  the  coast 
and  arrived  off  the  entrance  to  Manila  Bay  on  the  same  afternoon.  The 
Boston  and  the  Concord  were  sent  to  reconnoitre  Port  Subic.  A  thorough 
search  was  made  of  the  port  by  the  Boston  and  the  Concord,  but  the  Spanish 
fleet  was  not  found.  Entered  the  south  channel  at  11:30  P.  M.,  steaming  in 
column  at  eight  knots.  After  half  the  squadron  had  passed,  a  battery  on  the 
south  side  of  the  channel  opened  fire,  none  of  the  shots  taking  effect.  The 


'1 


YOCJNG  MAN  OF  THE  UPPER  CLASS. 

White  duck  or  crash  trousers  and  a  silk  or  pina  shirt 
make  a  fashionable  suit. 


AGUINALDO   AT  THE  AGE   OF  22. 
Dressed  in  fine  pina  cloth  shirt 


DOING  THE   FAMILY  WASH. 

The  glory  of  all  Philippine  women  is  their  lonir  and 
beautiful  hair. 


NATIVE  WOMAN   FRUIT   SELLER 
Aii'l  (.-ustoniers,  Manila. 

645 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS.  647 

Boston  and  McCulloch  returned  the  fire.  The  squadron  proceeded  across  the 
bay  at  slow  speed  and  arrived  off  Manila  at  daybreak,  and  was  fired  upon  at 
5:15  A.  M,  by  three  batteries  at  Manila  and  two  near  Cavite,  and  by  the  Spanish 
fleet  anchored  in  an  approximately  east  and  west  line  across  the  mouth  of  Bakor 
Bay,  with  their  left  in  shoal  water  in  Canacao  Bay. 

"  The  squadron  then  proceeded  to  the  attack,  the  flagship  Olympia,  under 
my  personal  direction,  leading,  followed  at  a  distance  by  the  Baltimore,  Raleigh, 
Petrel,  Concord,  and  Boston  in  the  order  named,  which  formation  was  main 
tained  throughout  the  action.  The  squadron  opened  fire  at  5:41  A.  M.  While 
advancing  to  the  attack  two  mines  were  exploded  ahead  of  the  flagship,  too  far 
to  be  effective.  The  squadron  maintained  a  continuous  and  precise  fire  at  ranges 
varying  from  5,000  to  2,000  yards,  countermarching  in  a  line  approximately 
parallel  to  that  of  the  Spanish  fleet.  The  enemy's  fire  was  vigorous,  but  gene 
rally  ineffective.  Early  in  the  engagement  two  launches  put  out  toward  the 
Olympia  with  the  apparent  intention  of  using  torpedoes.  One  was  sunk  and 
the  other  disabled  by  our  fire  and  beached  before  they  were  able  to  fire  their 
torpedoes. 

"At  seven  A.  M.  the  Spanish  flagship  Reina  Cristina  made  a  desperate 
attempt  to  leave  the  line  and  come  out  to  engage  at  short  range,  but  was  received 
with  such  a  galling  fire,  the  entire  battery  of  the  Olympia  being  concentrated 
upon  her,  that  she  was  barely  able  to  return  to  the  shelter  of  the  point.  The 
fires  started  in  her  by  our  shells  at  the  time  were  not  extinguished  until  she  sank. 
The  three  batteries  at  Manila  had  kept  up  a  continuous  fire  from  the  beginning 
of  the  engagement,  which  fire  was  not  returned  by  my  squadron.  The  first  of 
these  batteries  was  situated  on  the  south  mole-head  at  the  entrance  of  the  Pasig 
River,  the  second  on  the  south  position  of  the  walled  city  of  Manila,  and  the 
third  at  Molate,  about  one-half  mile  further  south.  At  this  point  I  sent  a  mes 
sage  to  the  Governor-General  to  the  effect  that  if  the  batteries  did  not  cease 
firing  the  city  would  be  shelled.  This  had  the  effect  of  silencing  them. 

"At  7:35  A.  M.  I  ceased  firing  and  withdrew  the  squadron  for  breakfast. 
At  11:16  I  returned  to  the  attack.  By  this  time  the  Spanish  flagship  and  almost 
all  the  Spanish  fleet  were  in  flames.  At  12:30  the  squadron  ceased  firing,  the 
batteries  being  silenced  and  the  ships  sunk,  burned,  and  deserted. 

"At  12:40  the  squadron  returned  and  anchored  off  Manila,  the  Petrel  being 
left  behind  to  complete  the  destruction  of  the  smaller  gunboats,  which  were 
behind  the  point  of  Cavite.  This  duty  was  performed  by  Commander  E.  P. 
Wood  in  the  most  expeditious  and  complete  manner  possible.  The  Spanish  lost 
the  following  vessels:  Sunk,  Reina  Cristina,  Castilla,  Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa; 
burned,  Don  Juan  de  Austria,  Isla  de  Luzon,  Isla  de  Cuba,  General  Lezo,  Mar- 


648  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

quis  del  Duero,  El  Correo,  Velasco,  and  Isla  de  Mindanao  (transport) ;  captured, 
Rapido  and  Hercules  (tugs),  and  several  small  launches. 

"I  am  unable  to  obtain  complete  accounts  of  the  enemy's  killed  and 
wounded,  but  believe  their  losses  to  be  very  heavy.  The  Reina  Cristina  alone 
had  150  killed,  including  the  captain,  and  ninety  wounded.  I  am  happy  to 
report  that  the  damage  done  to  the  squadron  under  my  command  was  inconsid 
erable.  There  were  none  killed  and  only  seven  men  in  the  squadron  were 
slightly  wounded.  Several  of  the  vessels  were  struck  and  even  penetrated,  but 
the  damage  was  of  the  slightest,  and  the  squadron  is  in  as  good  condition  now 
as  before  the  battle. 

"  I  beg  to  state  to  the  department  that  I  doubt  if  any  commander-in-chief 
was  ever  served  by  more  loyal,  efficient,  and  gallant  captains  than  those  of  the 
squadron  now  under  my  command.  Captain  Frank  Wildes,  commanding  the 
Boston,  volunteered  to  remain  in  command  of  his  vessel,  although  his  relief 
arrived  before  leaving  Hong  Kong.  Assistant  Surgeon  Kindelberger,  of  the 
Olympia,  and  Gunner  J.  C.  Evans,  of  the  Boston,  also  volunteered  to  remain, 
after  orders  detaching  them  had  arrived.  The  conduct  of  my  personal  staff 
was  excellent.  Commander  B.  P.  Lamberton,  chief  of  staff,  was  a  volunteer 
for  that  position,  and  gave  me  most  efficient  aid.  Lieutenant  Brumby,  Flag 
Lieutenant,  and  Ensign  E.  P.  Scott,  aide,  performed  their  duties  as  signal  officers 
in  a  highly  creditable  manner ;  Caldwell,  Flag  Secretary,  volunteered  for  and 
was  assigned  to  a  sub-division  of  the  five-inch  battery.  Mr.  J.  L.  Stickney, 
formerly  an  officer  in  the  United  States  Navy,  and  now  correspondent  for  the 
New  York  Herald,  volunteered  for  duty  as  my  aide,  and  rendered  valuable 
service.  I  desire  especially  to  mention  the  coolness  of  Lieutenant  C.  G.  Calkins, 
the  navigator  of  the  Olyrnpia,  who  came  under  my  personal  observation,  being 
on  the  bridge  with  me  throughout  the  entire  action,  and  giving  the  ranges  to 
the  guns  with  an  accuracy  that  was  proven  by  the  excellence  of  the  firing. 

"  On  May  2d,  the  day  following  the  engagement,  the  squadron  again  went 
to  Cavite,  where  it  remains.  On  the  3d  the  military  forces  evacuated  the  Cavite 
arsenal,  which  was  taken  possession  of  by  a  landing  party.  On  the  same  day 
the  Raleigh  and  the  Baltimore  secured  the  surrender  of  the  batteries  on  Cor- 
regidor  Island,  paroling  the  garrison  and  destroying  the  guns.  On  the  morning 
of  May  4th,  the  transport  Manila,  which  had  been  aground  in  Bakor  Bay,  was 
towed  off  and  made  a  prize." 


OUR      NEW     POSSESSIONS     (CONTINUEU). 

THE    LADRONE,    OR    MARIANA    ISLANDS. 

It  was  a  welcome  sight  to  Magellan  and  his  crew  when,  one  day  in  March, 
nearly  400  years  ago,  they  beheld  the  verdant  and  beautifully  sloping  hills  of 
the  Ladrone  Islands.  Eighteen  weary  months  before  they  had  sailed  from  the 
coast  of  Spain,  and  all  that  time,  first  to  the  southwest  and  then  to  the  north 
west,  they  had  followed  the  setting  sun.  Theirs  were  the  first  vessels  manned  by 
white  men  that  had  ever  plowed  the  trackless  Pacific;  and  this  was  the  first  land 
ever  seen  by  white  men  within  that  unknown  ocean. 

It  was  a  pitiable  crew  on  those  three  small,  weather-beaten  ships,  who  drew, 
that  March  morning,  toward  the  coast  of  the  present  island  of  Guam,  which  is 
now  a  possession  of  the  United  States.  Hunger  and  thirst  had  driven  them  to 
the  verge  of  madness.  They  had  eaten  even  the  leather  thongs  from  their  sail 
fastenings,  and  only  a  small  mug  of  water  per  day  was  the  portion  of  drink  for 
a  man.  "Land!  Land!!  "  It  was  a  glad  cry  from  the  watch  aloft.  There  were 
palm  trees,  cocoanuts,  green  grass,  tropical  fruits,  an  abundance  of  fresh  water, 
and — though  naked — a  curious  and  friendly  people.  No  wonder  Magellan 
paused  to  rest  himself  and  his  sailors. 

Those  little  islands  have  never  been  of  much  value,  and  never  can  be.  Sev 
enteen  of  them  stretching  in  a  row  about  six  hundred  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and, their  total  area,  including  their  islets  and  reefs,  is  variously  estimated  at 
from  400  to  560  square  miles.  Hence,  there  is  but  about  one-fourth  more  terri 
tory  on  the  whole  seventeen  islands  combined  than  is  included  within  the  cor 
porate  limits  of  the  city  of  Greater  New  York. 

A  broad  channel  divides  the  Ladrones  into  two  groups.  The  northern 
group  consists  of  ten  islets,  without  inhabitants ;  the  southern  group  has  seven 
islands,  four  of  which  are  inhabited.  The  largest  island,  Guahan,  known  to  us 
as  Guam,  ceded  to  us  by  Spain,  was  taken  by  our  warship  Charleston  on  July 
4,  1898.  This  island  contains  the  only  town  in  the  colony.  Its  full  Spanish 
name  is  San  Ignacio  de  Agana.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  archipelago,  and  con 
tains  more  than  half  of  the  whole  population. 

THE    NATIVE    INHABITANTS. 

When  first  visited  by  Europeans,  the  archipelago  contained  from  40,000  to 
60,000  souls,  represented  by  two  distinct  classes,  the  nobles  and  the  people,  be 
tween  whom  marriage,  and  even  contact,  were  forbidden.  But  the  Spanish  con- 

649 


650 


THE  LADRONE  ISLANDS. 


quest  soon  ended  this  distinction  by  reducing  all  alike  to  servitude.  For  a  long 
time  after  Spanish  occupation,  the  natives  complained  and  finally  rebelled  against 
the  oppressive  measures  of  their  rulers ;  but  by  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 
they  ceased  their  resistance,  and  it  was  found  by  a  census  that  fully  half  of  them 
had  perished  or  escaped  in  their  canoes  to  the  Caroline  Islands,  and  that  two- 
thirds  of  their  one  hundred  and  eighty  villages  had  fallen  to  ruins.  Then  came 
an  epidemic  which  swept  away  nearly  all  the  natives  of  Guam ;  and  the  island 
of  Tiniau  (one  of  the  group)  was  depopulated  and  its  inhabitants  brought  to 
Guam. 

Nearly  all  the  new  arrivals  soon  died.     In  the  year  1760,  a  census  showed 


.NATIVE  HOUSE  AND  PALMS,  LADRONE  ISLAND: 


a  total  of  only  1,654  inhabitants  left  in  all  the  islands,  and  the  Spaniards  repop- 
ulated  them  by  bringing  Tagals  from  the  Philippines.  These,  mixed  with  the 
remaining  natives  and  Spaniards,  have  steadily  increased.  The  population  of 
elands  in  1899  was  estimated  at  about  9,000.  The  people  are  generally 
lacking  in  energy,  loose  in  morals,  and  miserably  poor.  Their  education  has 
been  seriously  neglected.  Their  religion  is  Catholic,  no  Protestant  missions 
having  been  encouraged— we  might  say,  not  allowed— there  or  in  the  Philip- 
pines  or  the  Carolines. 

TOPOGRAPHY,    CLIMATE,    ETC. 

The  islands  of  the  northern  group  are  mountainous,  the  altitudes  reaching 


THE  LADRONE  ISLANDS.  651 

from  2,600  to  2,700  feet.  There  are  evidences  of  volcanoes  all  over  the  archi 
pelago,  and  some  mountains  contain  small  craters  and  cones  not  yet  extinct.  The 
climate  of  the  Ladrones,  though  humid,  is  salubrious,  and  the  heat,  being  tem 
pered  by  the  trade  winds,  is  milder  than  in  the  Philippines.  The  yearly  aver 
age  temperature  of  Guam  is  81°.  Streams  are  everywhere  copious — though  the 
clearing  of  the  land  has  diminished  their  size  of  late  years.  The  original  flora 
consists  generally  of  Asiatic  plants,  but  much  has  been  introduced  from  the 
Philippines  and  other  sources. 

Cocoanuts,  palms,  the  bread  tree,  and  tropical  trees  and  plants  generally, 
thrive.  The  large  fruit  bat  which  abounds  in  the  Philippines  is  indigenous  to 
the  Ladrones,  and,  despite  its  objectionable  odor,  is  a  principal  article  of  food. 
Swine  and  oxen  are  allowed  to  r  in  wild,  and  are  hunted  when  needed.  There 
are  only  a  few  species  of  birds;  even  insects  are  rare;  and  the  reptiles  are  rep 
resented  by  several  kinds  of  lizards  and  a  single  species  of  serpent.  No  domes 
tic  animals  were  known  in  the  islands  until  introduced  by  the  Spaniards. 

When  the  United  States  steamship  Charleston  opened  fire  on  the  little  city 
of  Agaiia,  July  4,  1898,  the  people  had  not  heard  of  the  war,  and  the  governor 
said  he  thought  "  the  noble  Americans  were  saluting  "  him,  and  was  "  deeply 
humiliated  because  he  had  no  powder  to  return  their  salute."  It  was  an  easy, 
bloodless  victory.  The  governor  and  his  soldiers  were  carried  to  Manila  as 
prisoners,  and  an  American  garrison  of  a  few  men  left  to  take  charge  of  this 
new  American  territory  in  the  Pacific. 


652 

CONCLUSION. 

Thus  at  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  Greater  United  States 
assumes  its  appointed  place  among  the  foremost  nations  of  the  world,  and  stands 
on  the  threshold  of  achievements  whose  grandeur  no  man  dare  attempt  to 
prophesy.  We  pause,  awed,  grateful,  and  profoundly  impressed,  when  we  recall 
the  mighty  events,  the  amazing  progress,  and  the  wonderful  advancements  in 
discovery,  science,  art,  literature,  and  all  that  tends  to  the  good  of  mankind  that 
are  certain  to  give  the  twentieth  century  a  pre-eminence  above  all  the  years 
that  have  gone  before. 

The  new  era  of  our  country  has  opened.  The  United  States  enters  on  the 
first  stage  of  the  transformation  from  an  isolated  commonwealth  into  an  out- 
reaching  power  with  dependencies  in  both  hemispheres.  We  can  no  longer 
hold  an  attitude  of  aloofness  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  With  vulnerable 
points  in  our  outlying  possessions,  we  must  make  ready  to  defend  them  not  only 
by  force  of  arms  but  by  diplomatic  skill.  Entangling  alliances  as  heretofore 
will  be  avoided,  and  the  conditions,  complications,  and  policies  of  foreign  powers 
must  in  the  future  possess  a  practical  importance  for  us. 

The  original  thirteen  States  have  expanded  into  forty-five,  embracing  the 
vast  area  between  the  two  oceans  and  extending  from  the  British  possessions  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  To  them  has  now  been  added  our  colonial  territory,  so  vast 
in  extent  that,  like  the  British  Empire,  the  sun  never  sets  on  our  dominions. 
Where  a  hundred  years  ago  were  only  a  few  scattered  villages  and  towns, 
imperial  cities  now  raise  their  heads.  Thousands  of  square  miles  of  forest  and 
solitude  have  given  place  to  cultivated  farms,  to  factories,  and  workshops  that 
hum  with  the  wheels  of  industry.  The  Patent  Office  issues  40,000  patents  each 
year.  We  have  three  cities  with  more  than  a  million  population  apiece,  and 
twenty-five  with  a  population  ranging  from  a  hundred  thousand  to  half  a  mil 
lion.  Greater  New  York  is  the  second  city  in  the  world,  and,  if  its  present 
rate  of  growth  continues,  it  will  surpass  London  before  the  middle  of  the  coming 
century.  Our  population  has  grown  from  3,000,000  at  the  close  of  the  Revolu. 
tion  to  75,000,000.  When  Andrew  Jackson  became  President  there  was  not  a 
mile  of  railroad  in  the  United  States.  To-day  our  mileage  exceeds  that  of  all 
the  countries  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  combined,  and  the  employes,  con 
nected  directly  or  indirectly  with  railroads  in  the  United  States,  number  almost 
a  million  persons.  The  half-dozen  crude  newspapers  of  the  Revolution  have 
expanded  into  more  than  20,000,  whose  daily  news  is  gathered  from  every 
quarter  of  the  globe.  The  total  yearly  issue  is  more  than  three  billions. 

No  country  can  approach  the  advancements  we  have  made  in  invention,  in 
discovery,  in  science,  in  art,  in  education  and  in  all  the  civilizing  agencies  of  man- 


CONCLUSION.  *716 

kind.  Volumes  would  be  required  to  name  our  achievements  in  these  lines.  Our 
material  property  has  been  or  is  equally  wonderful.  When  the  Civil  War  closed, 
our  public  debt  was  nearly  $3,000,000,000.  On  December  1,  1898,  it  was 
$1,036,000,000.  Most  of  the  leading  nations  have  great  debts,  but  the  United 
States  is  the  only  one  which  is  steadily  decreasing  its  debt  and  at  the  same  time 
enormously  increasing  its  resources.  The  debt  of  Great  Britain  is  now  about 
$87  per  capita,  that  of  France  $115,  of  Holland  $100,  of  Italy  $75,  and  of  the 
United  States  less  than  $15,  with  the  security  increasing  all  the  time. 

Let  the  thoughtful  reader  note  these  striking  facts.  European  nations 
generally,  and  some  South  American  nations  also,  have  been  compelled  to  resort 
to  various  methods  of  taxation  to  supply  the  sums  needed  for  ordinary  govern 
mental  expenses,  to  meet  the  interest  on  the  existing  debt,  to  provide  resources  for 
new  expenditures,  buildings,  armament,  subsidies,  and  various  public  works.  Eng 
land  has  an  income  tax  and  many  stamp  taxes,  a  house  tax,  and  collects  some  20  per 
cent,  of  its  revenue  from  direct  taxation.  France  has  a  tobacco  monopoly,  regis 
tration  taxes,  stamp  taxes,  tax  on  windows,  and  innumerable  local  taxes,  one  being 
the  octroi,  or  tax  on  goods  entering  cities.  In  addition  to  an  income  tax,  and 
many  stamp  taxes,  Austria  derives  a  good  deal  of  its  public  revenue  from  lotteries. 
Italy  goes  still  further  with  her  tobacco  monopoly,  house  tax,  income  tax,  salt 
tax,  octroi  duties,  stamp  taxes,  and  heavy  legacy  and  registration  taxes.  In  the 
United  States,  however,  the  public  revenues  have  been  provided  for  and  all  public 
expenses  met,  and  the  national  debt  reduced  beside,  without  recourse  to  any  direct 
taxation.  We  have  no  government  monopolies,  and  the  Treasury  maintains  a 
healthful  condition  from  the  receipts  of  customs  and  internal  revenue  payments. 

Thus  with  the  spirit  of  fraternity  between  all  sections  of  the  Union  stronger 
than  ever  before,  with  the  spirit  of  patriotism  more  deeply  imbedded  and  all-per 
vading,  with  our  moral,  educational,  and  material  prosperity  and  progress  greater 
than  any  time  in  our  past  history,  and  never  equaled  by  any  nation,  since  the 
annals  of  mankind  began— we  face  the  future,  bravely  resolved  to  meet  all 
reduirements,  responsibilities,  and  duties  as  become  men  whose  motto  is 

IN   GOD   IS   OUR   TRUST. 


The 


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previous  folios 


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